University of Southern California Healthcare Administrator Role Discussion

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Answer and explain 4 discussion questions related to strength and nutrition. The answer should be around 2-3 pages long

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1) A strength/power athlete who is trying to gain a small amount of weight, primarily as muscle mass, should consume approximately: • ____________ calories per day more than current calorie intake • ____________ grams of carbohydrate per kg of body weight • ____________ grams of protein power per kg body weight • ____________ percent of total calorie intake as fat Provide a justification for your answers to each of the entries above. 2) List at least 5 ways coaches, trainers, and dieticians can help team members stay wellhydrated during outdoor practices in hot and humid conditions. 3) Case: Susan is a 15-year-old middle distance track and cross-country runner on her high school team. She was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes 3 months ago during the off season. Now the cross-country season has started, and she plans to train and compete just as hard as last year, prior to her diabetes diagnosis. Questions: 1. List the guidelines Susan should follow prior to initiating exercise. Include in your answer glucose and ketone levels as well as recommendations for exercise based upon those levels. 2. You are the dietician or athletic trainer for Susan's cross-country team. You are aware of her recent diabetes diagnosis, and she has shared with you her medications and current dietary regimen. Describe your role in helping Susan optimize her performance by training and competing safely. How do you prepare for the possibility of a diabetic emergency on the course? 4) Case: Jake is a collegiate soccer player. His team has just completed a very successful season. They are moving into their offseason, during which their workouts are unstructured to allow for rest and recovery. Jake is interested in continuing to stay in shape and to eat healthfully. He has made an appointment with you to determine how he should modify his diet based on his change in workouts. Questions: 1. Assuming Jake is 20 years old and weights 165 pounds, calculate his daily calorie, protein, carbohydrate, and fat requirements for the offseason. CHAPTER 13 Strength/Power Athletes Key Questions Addressed 1. What is different about strength/power athletes? 2. What energy systems are utilized during strength/power exercise? 3. Are the calorie needs of strength/power athletes different from those of other types of athletes? 4. Are carbohydrate needs different for strength/power athletes? 5. Are protein needs different for strength/power athletes? 6. Are fat needs different for strength/power athletes? 7. Are vitamin and mineral needs different for strength/power athletes? 8. Are fluid needs different for strength/power athletes? 9. What meal-planning/event logistics need to be considered during strength/power events? You Are the Nutrition Coach Robert is a 45-year-old competitive masters power lifter who competes in the 181-pound weight class. He has been having trouble keeping his body weight low enough to compete in the 181-pound class and is concerned that his body fat level is actually increasing despite his heavy weight-training regimen. He has a rather sedentary office job and tries to walk about a mile every weekday evening with his wife. He states that he eats well (approximately 3,500 calories per day). To help build muscle and enhance recovery, he consumes about 250 grams of protein per day from natural food sources and supplementation. He has decreased his carbohydrate intake because he has been experimenting with a low-carbohydrate diet to control his weight. Question Why is Robert having trouble controlling his body weight? What are the most glaring concerns about his diet? What is different about strength/power athletes? The terms strength and power are often used interchangeably when describing athletes. Although strength and power are important aspects of physical fitness, and strength is a component of power, they are not synonymous. Strength is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to generate force. Strength is purely a measure of how much weight can be moved or lifted by an athlete. It is highly dependent on the amount of muscle tissue an athlete possesses. In other words, the bigger the muscle, the greater the strength. Power, in contrast, is dependent not only on how much force can be developed by the muscles (i.e., strength) but also on how fast the force can be generated. Because velocity of movement is an integral part of power, power is often referred to as speed-strength. The ability to run, jump, throw, and quickly change direction are all very dependent upon the ability of muscle to rapidly generate force (i.e., power). For the purposes of this chapter, strength/power athletes are those involved in the explosive track and field events (i.e., javelin, shot put, discus, high jump, long jump, hammer, sprints), weight lifting, gymnastics, and wrestling, just to name a few. In short, strength/power athletes are athletes who participate in sports in which success is dependent primarily on the demonstration of brute strength, or relatively short bursts (i.e., ≤1.5 minutes) of near-maximal, muscle-force production. The pure strength/power athletes are different from many other athletes in that success in their sport relies on activities of short duration; for example, any of the throws in track and field take only a few seconds to perform. As a result, the energy needs and goals of training differ vastly from those of the endurance athlete. This chapter discusses the macro- and micronutrient needs of strength/power athletes along with issues regarding hydration and meal planning. What energy systems are utilized during strength/power exercise? The body’s three energy systems (the phosphagen, anaerobic, and aerobic systems) are constantly working together to meet the body’s immediate energy demands. The short, high-intensity muscle contractions required to perform strength and power sports rely heavily on the phosphagen system with increasing contribution from the anaerobic system as the length of the activity increases (see FIGURE 13.1 ). In the case of a strength athlete performing a onerepetition maximum bench press, the actual time the athlete spends performing the lift may be only 4 seconds. The time interval is even shorter for a javelin thrower or a person performing the shot put (i.e., the left-most region of area 1 in Figure 13.1). Muscle stores of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) enable the muscles of these athletes to meet the immediate demands for energy and thus complete a successful lift or throw. On the other end of the strength/power spectrum is an athlete such as an 800-meter sprinter. These athletes derive the majority of their energy from the combined efforts of the phosphagen and anaerobic energy systems (i.e., right-most region of area 2 in Figure 13.1). Figure 13.1 Strength/power athletes rely primarily on the phosphagen and anaerobic energy systems to provide ATP. Shaded area 1 in the graph represents all-out activities that progress in length from 1 second (left margin) to 30 seconds (right margin). Area 2 involves all-out efforts that progress from 30 seconds to about 1.5 minutes. Strength/power athletes tend to perform activities that fall in areas 1 and 2. Although the aerobic energy system is not a major provider of energy for these athletes, it is important for recovery afterward. Reproduced from McGraw-Hill Education from Bowers RW, Fox EL. Sports Physiology, 3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: William C Brown Publishers; 1992, p. 34. Depending upon the nature of the sport, it may be necessary to repeat the strength/power movement numerous times. Even though the phosphagen and the anaerobic systems supply the immediate energy need, the aerobic system should not be neglected or shrugged off as unimportant. In the case of a shot putter, aerobic metabolism is relatively unimportant because there is usually plenty of rest time between puts to recover; however, other strength/power sports require the athlete to repeatedly perform strength/power movements over a period of time with relatively short intervals of rest. In these cases, the aerobic system is important for supplying the energy for recovery, which, in turn, indirectly affects performance by delaying the onset of fatigue. An example of a sport requiring repeated, powerful bursts of muscle activity can be seen during gymnastics competitions. In competition and during training, skills requiring muscle strength and power are separated by short rest periods that occur during the event (e.g., between tumbling runs during floor exercise) or between apparatus as the athletes rotate from one to another. Muscle recovery and the associated recharging of the creatine and ATP stores are dependent upon the aerobic system. Therefore, if strength/power athletes neglect the development of their aerobic system, their ability to recover will be impaired, and fatigue will ensue more quickly. In summary, strength/power athletes rely primarily on the phosphagen energy system to provide ATP during strength/power events, with increasing contributions of ATP coming from the anaerobic energy system as the duration of the activity increases. Although the aerobic energy system contributes little ATP during the actual strength/power activity, it is important for recovery after the activity. During the recovery period, the aerobic energy system replenishes ATP and CP levels, thus recharging the phosphagen system and delaying the onset of fatigue. Are the calorie needs of strength/power athletes different from those of other types of athletes? As with most athletes, the main dietary concern with individuals involved in strength/power sports is the consumption of adequate amounts of total daily calories. Energy needs are based on several factors, including age, gender, body mass, and sport-specific demands, which can vary tremendously among athletes. No single macronutrient is more important than the others; thus the dietary composition for strength/power athletes is not much different from the recommended healthy diet of nonathletes. This section will review calculating total calorie needs for strength/power athletes, and subsequent sections will focus on the roles of each of the macronutrients, micronutrients, and fluids. How are daily calorie needs calculated for strength/power athletes? For strength/power athletes, similar to other athletes, there are three main considerations when determining energy needs and developing an individualized meal plan: Does the athlete want to maintain, lose, or gain weight? In the category of strength/power athletes, weight goals span an enormous continuum. On one end of the spectrum are weight lifters who, in general, are trying to gain muscle tissue and build mass. On the other end are gymnasts who, in general, are attempting to minimize body mass while simultaneously aiming for increased strength and power. Therefore, nutrition plans need to meet the athlete’s basic nutrient requirements while also reflecting the athlete’s desires and goals. The energy needs for strength/power athletes can be calculated using the equations and activity factors presented in TABLE 13.1 . The following examples provide real-life scenarios of strength/power athletes who want to lose, maintain, or gain weight. Each scenario reviews how to calculate energy needs and provides recommendations based on the athlete’s goals and objectives. Table 13.1 Resting Energy Expenditure (REE) Calculations and Activity Factors Gender and age Equation(BW in kilograms) Activity factor Males, 10 to 18 years REE = (17.5 × BW) + 651 1.6–2.4 Males, 18 to 30 years REE = (15.3 × BW) + 679 1.6–2.4 Males, 30 to 60 years REE = (11.6 × BW) + 879 1.6–2.4 Females, 10 to 18 years REE = (12.2 × BW) + 749 1.6–2.4 Females, 18 to 30 years REE = (14.7 × BW) + 496 1.6–2.4 Females, 30 to 60 years REE = (8.7 × BW) + 829 1.6–2.4 Data from World Health Organization. Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Technical Report 724. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization;1985:206. How can calorie needs be calculated for athletes aiming to lose/minimize body weight while increasing strength/power? Female gymnasts are a category of strength/power athletes who are generally aiming to lose weight or maintain an already low weight. To obtain their goal, many gymnasts are eating suboptimal levels of not only total calories but also a variety of nutrients. Several studies have examined the differential between recommended and actual calorie intake. The results are staggering—gymnasts are consuming only 47 to 84% of their daily calorie requirements!1–4 When working with female gymnasts or any other strength/power athlete whose goal is to lose weight, calculate energy needs and then compare the calculations to actual current intake before developing a meal plan and making recommendations. Lyndsi’s Case Study Kari, the mother of an 11-year-old gymnast named Lyndsi calls to make an appointment with a sports nutritionist. Kari has grown increasingly concerned about her daughter’s eating habits and weight loss over the past several months. Lyndsi has been part of a local club team for several years that practices 2 to 3 hours a day, 5 to 6 days a week. While on summer break, the club team hosted a 2-week gymnastic camp. Lyndsi was very excited about the opportunity to train and learn from the older girls on the team, commenting to her mother several times about how she envied their performance and abilities. At the end of camp, Kari noticed gradual changes in her daughter’s eating habits—Lyndsi began to turn down her favorite foods, and she had developed a strong aversion to any food containing fat. Lyndsi’s eating habits subsequently became very routine, consisting of a plain bagel for breakfast, an iceberg lettuce and green pepper salad with nonfat dressing for lunch, and a chicken breast, baked potato, and broccoli every night for dinner (see TRAINING TABLE 13.1 ). Lyndsi would usually have a small bowl of nonfat frozen yogurt or dry cereal for a snack in the evening. Kari has noticed a “drawn” look to Lyndsi’s face and that her clothes seemed to just hang loosely on her body. The point at which she knew it was time to seek professional assistance was when Lyndsi went to the doctor for a routine checkup, and her 5’ 3” frame weighed only 95 pounds. She is certain Lyndsi is not eating enough but is unsure of how much she should be consuming and how she can get Lyndsi back on track to “normal” eating. Training Table 13:1 Lyndsi’s Initial and Revised Meal Plans Making recommendations. In this situation, Lyndsi has made some drastic changes to her diet and, as a result, noticeable weight loss has occurred. 1. The first step is to estimate her total calorie needs: REE = (12.2 × BW in kg) + 749 = (12.2 × 43.2) + 749 = 1,276 Total calorie needs = REE × Activity factor = 1,276 × (1.6 – 2.4) = 2,041–3,062 calories/day Lyndsi needs at least 2,041 calories per day on rest or easy days, and up to 3,062 calories a day for heavy training days (3+ hours per day). 2. The second step is to estimate her calorie intake. Refer to Training Table 13.1 for Lyndsi’s initial meal plan. After making changes to her diet, she was only consuming ~900 calories a day. It is obvious that she is not meeting her energy requirements—in fact, she is only consuming 45% of her bottom-level energy needs ([916 calories/2,041 calories] × 100 = 45%). One of the roles of a sports nutrition professional is to understand the client’s perspective by determining why a client eats in a certain way. In this scenario, it is critical to determine why Lyndsi made changes to her diet in order to have a better feel for her potential risk of developing an eating disorder. For this example, assume that Lyndsi is merely ignorant of how the changes she has implemented can potentially negatively affect her health and performance. 3. Because her calorie intake is low, she should increase her daily calories, but gradually. The sports nutrition professional should ensure that Lyndsi’s questions, concerns, and fears are addressed prior to suggesting the revised meal plan. The revised meal plan (refer to Training Table 13.1) provides adequate nutrients for growth, development, health, and performance. Even though the revised plan is at the lower end of the recommended range, it may take a couple of weeks to gradually progress her intake to the new level. The more gradual the process, the easier it will be for Lyndsi to adapt physically and mentally to the increased number of calories. Once she reaches the minimum requirement for calories, the revised meal plan can be reevaluated and adjusted accordingly. How can calorie needs be calculated for athletes aiming to maintain body weight while increasing strength/power? Nutrition becomes a focus for some athletes who are trying to bring their performance “to the next level” by optimizing their intake of macro- and micronutrients. Often, these athletes are satisfied with their current weight but feel something is missing in their daily dietary regimen. For these athletes, energy needs should be calculated to confirm that an appropriate calorie level is being consumed, and then the focus should shift to establishing balance, variety, and moderation within the diet. Jake’s Case Study Jake is a 25-year-old, 50-meter butterfly swimmer. He swam competitively in high school and college and now trains and competes periodically with the master’s swim team at the YMCA. During high school and college, he ate “whatever he wanted” and never gained an ounce because he was so active. He has been at the same weight (165 pounds) since graduation, and he wants to maintain that weight. He works full time, lives alone, swims 5 to 6 days a week, and volunteers as an assistant coach for a high school team. Since he has become so busy, he has been relying more on fast food (see TRAINING TABLE 13.2 ), which he recognizes has affected his swimming performance and energy levels (unlike the “glory days” of his high school and collegiate career). He wants to stay fit, eat healthy, increase his energy levels, and compete at several upcoming swim meets. Training Table 13.2 Jake’s Initial and Revised Meal Plans Making recommendations. In this scenario, Jake has realized he needs to make some changes to his diet to keep his energy levels up, to meet his nutritional needs, to avoid weight gain, and to swim at his best. 1. The first step is to calculate his energy needs: REE = (15.3 × BW in kg) + 679 = (15.3 × 75) + 679 = 1,827 Total energy needs = REE × Activity factor = 1,827 × (1.6–2.0) = 2,922–3,654 calories/day Because Jake is not as active as he was in high school and college, a moderate activity factor can be used (1.6– 2.0 versus 1.6–2.4). 2. The next step is to evaluate the adequacy of his current intake by analyzing a food record. An excerpt from Jake’s food record is listed in Training Table 13.2. As noted by the nutrition analysis, Jake is consuming an appropriate number of total calories; however, he is eating 37% of his calories from fat. Therefore, dietary recommendations for Jake should focus on substituting some of the high-fat foods with lower-fat, more nutrient-dense options. 3. Jake maintains a busy schedule, so meal planning needs to be simple and easy to follow. By making a few adjustments to his food choices, keeping meal preparation to a minimum, and taking time to plan ahead, Jake’s revised meal plan will help him maintain his weight while also rebalancing his daily macronutrient intake. See Training Table 13.2 for Jake’s revised meal plan. How can calorie needs be calculated for athletes aiming to gain muscle mass to increase strength/power? Strength/power athletes who are aiming to gain weight need to consume extra calories each day to support basic energy needs, the energy demands of daily training, and the nutrient support for tissue growth and development. The success of a plan for weight gain depends upon both the quality and quantity of the diet as well as an appropriate strength training and conditioning program. It is essential that these two components go hand in hand; if increases in training are not accompanied by extra calories, muscle mass can potentially be used as an energy source, resulting in weight loss, and if extra calories are consumed without the physical challenge of training, extra calories will most likely contribute to larger fat stores. Tissue growth of approximately 1 pound requires approximately 5 to 8 calories per gram.5,6 Because 1 pound of muscle weighs 454 grams, a reasonable estimate of total calories needed to produce 1 pound of muscle is a range of 2,300 to 3,600 calories. In general, no more than 1 to 2 pounds of weight gain is recommended per week. Therefore, an athlete would need to consume approximately 300 to 500 additional calories per day for a 1-pound lean weight gain per week, or 600 to 1,000 additional calories for a 2-pound lean weight gain per week, assuming all calories are used for muscle construction. However, this assumption cannot always be made. Although increasing daily calories is an effective way to gain weight, researchers have found that only 30 to 40% of the weight gain is in the form of lean mass when study participants are consuming an extra 500 to 2,000 calories per day.7 It seems reasonable to assume that the more dramatic the increase in daily calorie consumption, the greater the percentage of gained weight will be in the form of fat. The body can construct only a finite amount of muscle tissue daily; above that level, extra calories are stored as adipose tissue. Therefore, strength/power athletes should aim for a modest increase in daily calorie consumption (300–500 calories/day) and be patient with gradual weight gain. The extra calories needed for a 1-pound weight gain can be easily obtained by consuming a snack such as: Two tablespoons of peanut butter on one slice of thick bread with 1 cup of milk = 370 calories A 6-ounce yogurt with ¼ cup of dry oatmeal and ¼ cup of mixed nuts = 310 calories A can of tuna with 4–6 crackers and a banana = 395 calories For individuals needing 600 to 1,000 calories, portion sizes should be increased at each meal and at least one or two snacks should be included throughout the day, such as: Any of the preceding snacks A smoothie made with 12 ounces of milk, 1 cup of frozen fruit, and a scoop of protein powder = 470 calories Four to 6 ounces of turkey in a whole wheat pita with lettuce and tomato = 410 calories A canned nutrition drink or a large energy bar (no more than one supplement item per day—focus heavily on whole foods) = 255 to 360 calories Leo’s Case Study Leo is a 45-year-old recreational cyclist and weight lifter. He commutes to work on his bike daily and goes to the gym 4 to 5 days per week for weight-lifting sessions. His goal is to gain 5 to 10 pounds of muscle mass (current weight, 170 pounds), but he is having a hard time gaining any weight. He follows a wellbalanced strength-training program and changes his routine every 6 to 8 weeks. He is currently eating three meals a day and sometimes a snack. He wants to gain weight in a healthy way and not rely on candy bars and chocolate shakes to add calories to his diet. However, when he increases his intake through fruits and vegetables, he experiences some gastrointestinal bloating and discomfort. He is frustrated about his inability to gain weight and is looking for advice from a professional. Gaining the Performance Edge Strength/power athletes must be provided with a sufficient number of calories per day to meet energy needs or performance will suffer. Total energy requirements should be calculated on an individual basis and modified according to the athlete’s goals and objectives. Take into consideration an athlete’s current intake before making final recommendations to avoid drastic and unrealistic changes. Making recommendations. Leo’s complaints are common among strength/power athletes—he has attempted to gain weight with little to no success. Fortunately, he is dedicated to a healthy diet by focusing not only on weight gain but also on long-term health. However, in his attempts to add more food to his normal regimen, he has chosen the two food groups with the lowest calorie density— fruits and vegetables. Although whole fruits and vegetables are certainly an important part of his overall diet, they may be contributing to his sense of fullness and discomfort, ultimately discouraging him from eating enough food to increase his total calorie intake. 1. The first step is to determine how much he is currently consuming. TRAINING TABLE 13.3 shows a typical day for Leo. An analysis of his current intake reveals a total calorie consumption of 3,527 calories. Therefore, it is obvious that he needs to eat more than 3,527 calories a day to make any progress in gaining weight. Training Table 13.3 Leo’s Initial and Revised Meal Plans 2. The next step is to calculate total energy needs based on his age and activity level. Using the formulas stated in Table 13.1, his total daily energy needs are: REE = (11.6 × BW in kg) + 879 = (11.6 × 77.3) + 879 = 1,775 Total calorie needs = REE × Activity factor = 1,775 × (1.6 – 2.4) = 2,840– 4,260 calories/day Because he is currently consuming ~3,500 calories and he is not gaining weight, the lower end of the spectrum can be eliminated. For him to gain weight gradually, he will need to consume approximately 3,800 to 4,200 calories per day. This range would provide additional calories above his current intake, while staying within the calculated estimate. 3. Leo should be congratulated on adding fruits and vegetables to his diet. However, consuming more nutritious and caloriedense foods should be the focus of his weight gain efforts. Foods that provide excellent nutrition and extra calories include items such as fruit juices, dried fruits, avocados, olives, thick breads, nuts, seeds, yogurt, instant breakfast mixes, and fruit/milk smoothies. See TABLE 13.2 for more ideas on how athletes can gain weight in a healthy way by eating nutrient- and calorie-dense foods. Leo should maintain balance in his diet by eating items from every food group of the MyPlate food guidance system. Discourage Leo from focusing on one type of macronutrient or food group as the sole source of added calories. Balance, variety, and moderation are still his keys to success. Refer to Training Table 13.3 for Leo’s revised meal plan, which provides 4,157 calories per day. Table 13.2 Gaining Weight the Healthy Way Through Nutrientand Calorie-Dense Foods Foods Nutrient- and calorie-dense options Grains Oatmeal, Cream of Wheat Brown rice, quinoa Thick, dense breads Bagels Wheat germ Muffins Cornbread Quick breads (e.g., banana bread) Fruits 100% fruit juice Dried fruit Pineapple Bananas Vegetables Potatoes Corn Peas Squash Beets Avocados Olives Dairy (milk alternatives) Nonfat powdered milk Cottage cheese Instant breakfast mixes Fruited yogurts Canned shakes (e.g., Ensure) Protein foods (meat alternatives) Beans (e.g., pinto, black, kidney), lentils Split peas Nuts and nut butters Seeds Meats Foods Nutrient- and calorie-dense options Desserts Puddings Hot cocoa made with milk Oatmeal raisin cookies Fig bars Milk shakes made with low-fat dairy products Food for Thought 13.1 Considerations for Gaining Weight In this exercise, you will identify the components necessary for eliciting weight gain. How are calorie needs calculated during strength/power training and competition? Energy needs for strength/power athletes can vary greatly between a training session and a competitive event. Training sessions can last several hours, whereas performance at a competition may last only seconds or minutes. Therefore, these two scenarios should be addressed differently. Similar to endurance athletes, consuming appropriate amounts of energy, mainly in the form of carbohydrates, during training sessions, will help to delay fatigue. Carbohydrate intake of 30 to 60 grams per hour is appropriate, providing approximately 120 to 240 calories per hour. Strength/power athletes add the element of repeated high-intensity bursts of effort throughout a typical training session. This factor mandates the need for energy sources that are easily digestible to avoid gastrointestinal discomfort. Sports beverages are an ideal source of calories and are generally well tolerated even during high-intensity exercise. The consumption of solid food should be reserved for during breaks or at the end of a training session. Gaining the Performance Edge A majority of required calories for strength/power activities should be consumed before or after exercise sessions to avoid gastrointestinal upset and the subsequent interference with training. Consuming sports beverages throughout a practice or eating a light snack during a break will provide the energy needed to fuel high-intensity performance. For some strength/power athletes, competition day consists of only one event that lasts less than a few minutes. In these situations, it is neither practical nor necessary to consume calories during the event. The body will not deplete its energy reserves in such a short burst of effort, and therefore, immediate replenishment is not critical to performance. The exception to this rule is when an athlete is competing in multiple events at the same meet within 1 day. In this situation, the length of the meet can last several hours, with a small, but progressive, depletion of energy stores with each event. Therefore, to sustain a high level of performance throughout the day, an athlete should plan on consuming easy-to-digest snacks, beverages, and possibly small meals in between events to keep energy levels elevated. The quantity of food consumed will depend upon several factors, including time between events, length of each event, time elapsed since the last full meal, and personal preferences. Gaining the Performance Edge To meet calorie needs, strength/power athletes should focus on consuming calorie-containing beverages and easily digestible snacks during training sessions and half- or full-day competitive meets. However, during single-bout events, it is neither practical nor necessary to consume any food or beverage. Are carbohydrate needs different for strength/power athletes? Consuming enough carbohydrates on a daily basis is critical for optimal strength/power performance. Because many strength/power sports rely on anaerobic metabolism, carbohydrates are the main fuel for these short, high-intensity bursts of energy. Anaerobic metabolism taps into glycogen stores for energy during an activity; therefore, if glycogen stores are depleted, performance will suffer. Similar to endurance exercise, strength/power exercise can deplete muscle glycogen, although not to the same degree. Several studies have examined the glycogendepleting effects of strength training. Tesch and colleagues13 found a 25% decline in muscle glycogen stores after subjects performed five sets of four different leg exercises for 6 to 12 repetitions each. Other protocols involving five to six sets of six to 12 repetitions at 35 to 70% of maximal strength produced a similar reduction in glycogen stores.13,10 Therefore, it has been suggested that the ingestion of higher carbohydrate diets will improve performance through higher initial glycogen levels. Several studies have supported this recommendation after examining the effects of a high-versuslow carbohydrate diet prior to performing a single bout, as well as intermittent, high-intensity activities.11–14 Strength/power athletes should strive for a moderate to high intake of carbohydrates daily to have fully loaded glycogen stores before training sessions and competitive events. A possible exception to the rule of glycogen stores making an impact on strength/power performance is during a single sprint effort. During one sprint of about 400 meters or fewer, the quantity of muscle glycogen stored in the muscle is not necessarily the limiting factor in performance.15 Carbohydrates are still the main source of fuel; however, because of the short duration of the effort, glycogen stores will not be depleted by one burst of sprinting. Therefore, carbohydrate loading for one sprint is not as critical as it would be before a training session or other repeated highintensity exercise bouts. Sprinters may train intensely several times per week, including repeated sprints per workout, so moderate carbohydrate consumption on a daily basis is a sound dietary practice. In addition to fueling activity, carbohydrate intake can play an indirect role in building muscle mass. Carbohydrate ingestion stimulates the secretion of insulin. Insulin is considered an anabolic hormone, driving nutrients into the cells for the growth and development of tissues as well as preventing normal postexercise muscle protein breakdown.16,17 Consuming adequate amounts of carbohydrates, as well as ensuring that total energy and protein needs are met, will support muscle growth in response to the demands of an appropriate strength training and conditioning program. How are daily carbohydrate needs calculated for strength/power athletes? Many strength/power athletes will train intensely three to five times per week; without sufficient dietary carbohydrate intake, this could lead to glycogen depletion and decreased performance. An intake of 6 to 10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight per day has been shown to replenish glycogen stores after daily training sessions.18 However, based on an athlete’s training regimen, carbohydrate recommendations might range from 3 to 10 grams per kilogram of body weight.19 Carbohydrate intake should contribute approximately 55 to 65% of total calorie intake. This percentage can also be used to estimate carbohydrate needs based on total calorie requirements. Estimated carbohydrate needs should be compared with total estimated energy requirements to verify that carbohydrate recommendations fall near the range of 55 to 65% of total calories. Building on the scenarios described in the last section regarding Lyndsi, Jake, and Leo, the following examples demonstrate the importance of fine-tuning carbohydrate recommendations for every athlete: Lyndsi, the gymnast, requires 259 to 432 grams of carbohydrates daily based on the 6 to 10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight recommendation (95 lbs ÷ 2.2 = 43.2 kg; 43.2 kg × 6–10 g/kg = 259–432 g). Lyndsi’s initial meal plan analysis revealed that she was consuming 66% of her total calories from carbohydrates. Although this percentage sounds appropriate, the absolute value of her carbohydrate intake was only 153 grams, which is only 59% of the low end of her recommended carbohydrate intake range. In addition, Lyndsi’s absolute carbohydrate intake is only slightly higher than the RDA for carbohydrates (130 grams) for adults and children based on the average minimum amount of glucose utilized by the brain daily.20 In Lyndsi’s revised meal plan, the percentage of calories from carbohydrates decreased to 56%; however, the absolute value of her intake increased to 290 grams. This number is within the 259 to 432 recommended range and represents an 89% increase from her previous carbohydrate consumption. Jake, the swimmer, requires 450 to 750 grams of carbohydrates daily based upon the 6 to 10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight recommendation (165 lbs ÷ 2.2 = 75 kg; 75 kg × 6–10 g/kg = 450–750 g). In this case, 450 grams of carbohydrates contribute 1,800 calories (450 g carbohydrates × 4 calories/g carbohydrates = 1,800 calories). This quantity of carbohydrates represents 62% of 2,922 calories (the low end of his recommended calorie range) and 49% of 3,654 calories (the high end of his recommended calorie range). Clearly, 450 grams of carbohydrates would be appropriate for a calorie intake at the low, but not the high, end of his recommended range; therefore, it is more appropriate to estimate his carbohydrate needs through a percentage of total calories. For example, 55 to 65% of Jake’s high-end calorie range (i.e., 3,654 calories) equals: ([0.55–0.65] × 3,654 calories)/ 4 calories per gram of carbohydrates = 502–594 grams of carbohydrates daily Gaining the Performance Edge Carbohydrates are the master fuel for strength/power sports. Consuming adequate amounts of carbohydrates on a daily basis ensures glycogen stores will be sufficient to support high-intensity training and competition. Carbohydrates also act as a support crew for the construction of muscle mass in response to resistance training. For Jake, estimating an appropriate amount of carbohydrates varies greatly depending upon his total calorie intake. Therefore, a final carbohydrate recommendation for Jake is 450 to 594 grams of carbohydrates per day. Jake’s revised meal plan provides 468 grams of carbohydrates, thus meeting his daily needs. Leo, the weight lifter, requires 464 to 773 grams of carbohydrates daily based on the 6 to 10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight recommendation (170 lbs ÷ 2.2 = 77.3 kg; 77.3 kg × 6–10 g/kg = 464–773 g). Because Leo is attempting to gain weight and thus has higher calorie needs, the estimated carbohydrate intake based upon body weight should be checked using the percent total calories method. By comparing the body weight recommendation range of 464 to 773 grams of carbohydrate to that of the percentage of total calories range (i.e., 522–682 grams), it is apparent that an adjustment is needed for his minimum intake recommendation. In this case, the minimum value of the body weight recommendation range (i.e., 6 grams per kilogram of body weight, or 464 grams) is too low because it accounts for less than 55% of total calories. As a result, adjusting the minimum recommendation to 522 grams is warranted. If you convert the 522 grams of carbohydrate into a gram per kilogram body weight recommendation, it would be 6.8 grams per kilogram of body weight (i.e., 522 g/77.3 kg = 6.8 g/kg). Leo’s initial meal plan was providing only 399 grams of carbohydrates per day. The revised meal plan increased his intake to 53% for a total of 612 grams of carbohydrates per day. Keep in mind that these scenarios provide only three examples of individual athlete needs. Most of these cases suggest 55 to 65% of total calories from carbohydrates; however, this recommendation can be raised or lowered based on the volume of training that a strength/power athlete engages in daily. None of these cases recommended carbohydrate intakes at the high end of the range—10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight. This does not mean that 10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight is not appropriate in some situations. Evaluate each athlete individually, compare estimations to current intake, and then make recommendations based on the athlete’s goals and training schedule. FIGURE 13.2 compares the individual carbohydrate and energy needs of the three athletes discussed here. Each of these athletes has different energy and carbohydrate needs based upon his or her body weight, gender, and strength-training program. Figure 13.2 Lyndsi, Jake, and Leo have different energy and carbohydrate needs based upon their size, sport, and training level. (A) © Guryanov Andrey/Shutterstock; (B) © Photos.com; (C) © Photodisc/Getty Images Are carbohydrates needed before and during training and competition? The performance effects of carbohydrate ingestion immediately prior to and during strength/power sports are unclear. The limited research available presents evidence to support a variety of benefits and potential drawbacks. Thus, trade-offs exist, requiring recommendations and nutrition plans to be individualized based on the goals and objectives of the athlete and a consideration of the specific activity to be performed. Although engaging in strength/power sports generally does not cause a reduction in blood glucose levels during a workout, a considerable glycogenolytic effect has been observed during either intermittent, high-intensity exercise or strength-training-type activities.8,10,21,22 If depletion of glycogen occurs, performance suffers as a result of fatigue, and over the long term, the athlete can experience muscle loss. Therefore, it appears prudent to consume carbohydrates before, and also during, strength/power exercise. A general recommendation for preactivity eating is to consume a carbohydrate-rich meal approximately 1 to 4 hours prior to the initiation of exercise. The provision of carbohydrates helps to top off the body’s glycogen stores prior to training or competition. Many athletes find that the consumption of carbohydrates before a hard training session allows them to complete a tough workout without feeling fatigued prematurely. Therefore, athletes push themselves harder and gain more benefit from the workout. Furthermore, recent research has suggested that the provision of carbohydrates, as well as amino acids, prevents muscle breakdown during intense exercise, potentially leading to a maintenance or enhancement of muscle mass.17 Additional benefit has been observed when athletes supplement the preactivity meal with a supply of carbohydrates during the workout or competition, typically in the form of a beverage or liquid supplement. Especially for long training sessions, consuming carbohydrates periodically during exercise sustains energy levels and work output for longer periods of time.23,24 In a well-designed study, Haff et al.23 aimed to determine the performance effects of carbohydrate supplementation on the ability to perform resistance exercise during a second training session on the same day. Subjects performed a glycogen-depleting session of resistance training in the morning (15 sets of various lower body exercises) and then returned to the gym 4 hours later to squat to exhaustion. The carbohydrate-supplemented group outperformed the placebo group by successfully completing a greater number of sets and repetitions. Although higher energy levels and greater strength/power outputs during a training session, because of carbohydrate intake, sounds like a “no-brainer,” not all research findings have yielded similar results.25,26 In fact, some athletes, coaches, and researchers are suggesting the exact opposite nutrition practice—avoiding carbohydrates before and during training. This school of thought exists mainly in the world of weight lifting and body building. It is based on the premise that a steady stream of carbohydrates into the bloodstream will prevent the body from tapping into other energy sources, specifically fat stores. Therefore, the recommendation is to avoid eating carbohydrate-rich foods 1 to 4 hours prior to exercise. In fact, most recommend not consuming any food before a workout. The second half of the recommendation includes the avoidance of carbohydrate beverages, supplements, and food during a workout. Although this practice will cause the body to turn to fats (adipose tissue and intramuscular fats) for energy, it is well known that when glycogen and blood glucose levels begin to run low, the athlete will begin to tire, perception of effort increases, and performance levels can plunge. However, not all athletes experience extreme fatigue, particularly if their diet is adequate at other times of the day when following this practice; therefore, the final recommendation will be based upon individual preference and tolerance. If an athlete chooses to avoid consuming food before and during a strength/power workout, a strong emphasis should be placed on consuming the required number of daily calories throughout the rest of the day. Obviously, this carbohydrate avoidance scenario is best implemented with early morning workout sessions to prevent the disruption of regular meal times throughout the day. Gaining the Performance Edge Trade-offs exist in the “to eat” or “not to eat” schools of thought regarding consuming carbohydrates before and during strength/power sports. Currently, most research suggests that supplying the body with carbohydrates before and during exercise will lead to greater gains in strength/power performance. Athletes should try both methods and determine which recommendation is ideal in helping the athlete reach his or her goals and performance potential. The final recommendation should be based on an athlete’s preference for carbohydrate consumption, the effects on performance, and the safety of the athlete. Some athletes feel they perform better on an empty stomach, whereas others become hungry, distracting them from performing well. In terms of safety, if blood glucose levels run too low, athletes can pass out and injure themselves, especially during an activity such as weight lifting. Athletes should test both methods during practice sessions and determine which recommendation leads to improved performance, increased strength/power, overall safety of the athlete, and a feeling of well-being that they are meeting their goals. At the same time, researchers will continue to examine the effects of macronutrients on strength/power performance and eventually determine specific nutritional guidelines. Are carbohydrates needed for recovery from strength/power activities? Similar to endurance sports, strength/power activities can deplete glycogen stores, requiring carbohydrate consumption after exercise. Complete replenishment of glycogen stores can take as little as 4 to 6 hours and up to 24 to 48 hours depending on exogenous carbohydrate availability. It is in the athlete’s best interest to consume carbohydrates immediately following exercise as well as throughout the day at regular meals and snacks. Athletes should focus on the timing and quantity of carbohydrates consumed after exercise. A source of carbohydrates should be eaten as soon as possible—ideally within 15 to 30 minutes—after the cessation of exercise. This will ensure that the carbohydrates are digested and delivered to muscles in the window of time in which the muscles are most receptive to absorbing and storing carbohydrates as glycogen for the next training session. Ideally, athletes should ingest 1.0 to 1.2 grams per kilogram of body weight every hour for 4 hours postexercise.19 Consuming enough carbohydrates is more important than the exact type of carbohydrates. Fruits, vegetables, juices, whole grains, lowfat milk, and dairy products are some of the best choices to supply carbohydrates. Although the provision of carbohydrates after highintensity exercise is critical for glycogen replenishment, it has also been suggested that it plays a role in muscle adaptation after intense training. However, carbohydrates cannot act alone in this role; muscle protein synthesis will be much greater when a combination of carbohydrates and protein is consumed immediately after exercise.27 The quantity and timing of this macronutrient combination for muscle growth and development will be addressed in the upcoming sections on protein needs for strength/power athletes. Carbohydrates may be important not only for the replenishment of glycogen stores and muscle construction but also for the attenuation of immunosuppression observed after exercise. Many studies have reported that high-intensity exercise suppresses immune function temporarily after exercise.28–31 It has been suggested that ingestion of carbohydrates before, during, and/or after exercise may minimize the immune function changes in athletes, leading to less risk of illness.31–35 Many of the studies related to immunosuppression have been conducted with endurance athletes. However, Chan et al.32 researched the effects on immune function of carbohydrate consumption before and after resistive exercises. Subjects consumed a lowcarbohydrate meal 2 hours prior to the strength-training session. Ten minutes prior to exercise and 10 minutes after exercise, subjects drank either a carbohydrate supplement beverage (one trial) or placebo (second trial). The researchers reported that carbohydrate ingestion minimized the decrease in interleukin-2 and interleukin-5 (an indication of greater immune function compared with controls) after exercise. More research is needed in this area to verify these results. However, carbohydrate consumption after strength/power exercise is important for glycogen resynthesis and muscle construction regardless of its effect on the immune system. If research does reveal that carbohydrate consumption surrounding high-intensity, short-duration exercise has a positive effect on immune function, it will be a bonus benefit to an already solid nutrition practice. Gaining the Performance Edge Carbohydrates are the master fuel for strength/power athletes. Each athlete should experiment with different quantities of foods and beverages to determine his or her individual “ideal” plan for before, during, and after exercise. Are protein needs different for strength/power athletes? The high intensities that strength/power athletes train at on a daily basis challenge the body and skeletal muscle. This “challenge” creates microscopic tears in muscle tissue, which are the stimuli for subsequent tissue repair and rebuilding. Amino acids, either synthesized by the body or obtained from the digestion and breakdown of dietary protein, are the building blocks for muscle repair and rebuilding. Because of this function, protein has long been a major dietary focus for strength/power athletes. The mantra has typically been “the more protein, the better.” Although strength/power athletes do have higher protein needs than their sedentary counterparts, an overdose of protein intake on a daily basis is not ergogenically beneficial. How are daily protein needs calculated for strength/power athletes? Strength/power athletes have an increased requirement for dietary protein. Muscle tissue goes through a process of self-repair on a daily basis, and therefore, sufficient amounts of high-quality protein sources need to be consumed at every meal. Dietary proteins are digested and broken down into amino acids, which the body then uses for building blocks for all bodily tissues. Insufficient protein intakes will lead to suboptimal improvements in muscle development, low energy levels, and poor performance. However, excessive protein intakes can also lead to adverse effects on performance, body composition, and overall health. Strength/power athletes need to find the right balance between these two extremes. In addition to the total protein intake, the variety of protein sources ingested is also of importance. How do you determine the “optimal” daily dose of protein for strength/power athletes? The true “optimal” quantity of daily protein intake for strength/power athletes has been debated over the years. A few articles have reported that active individuals become more efficient at using protein on a daily basis, and therefore, protein needs actually decline rather than increase in athletes.27,36 However, a majority of the current research points to protein needs in the other direction, at the higher end of the scale. Some researchers suggest that a range of 1.2 to 1.7 grams of protein daily per kilogram of body weight is appropriate,37 whereas others recommend a higher upper limit of 2.0 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight.19,38 Magazines, coaches, practitioners, and athletes often push the upper limit even higher, to levels greater than 2.5 to 3.0 grams per kilogram of body weight. The bottom line is that strength/power athletes do have increased protein needs; however, there is a limit to the amount of protein that can be used effectively and ingested without adverse effects. Since the early 1980s, studies have revealed that dietary protein plays an integral role in muscle growth and development. Although not all the parameters affecting muscle protein synthesis have been identified, a few factors such as increased insulin levels and availability of amino acids are obvious. A decline in intracellular amino acid concentration will inhibit protein synthesis. Strength/power exercise has been shown to elicit a decrease in amino acid concentrations.39,40 Therefore, it seems to follow that the ingestion of protein or amino acids would prevent this decline and, in turn, stimulate protein synthesis. In fact, studies have shown that the consumption of dietary proteins, which increases endogenous amino acid availability, can stimulate an increase in muscle protein synthesis by 30 to 100%.27,41 Muscle growth and development are largely caused by an enhanced protein synthesis versus a decreased muscle breakdown.42 Therefore, daily, and particularly, preand postworkout provision of amino acids is of the utmost importance in maximizing muscle building. Because of the essential role of protein and amino acids in the growth and development of muscle tissue, a common misconception is that by increasing protein intake, an athlete can increase muscle mass. As stated in the previous paragraphs, there is no doubt that protein is critical for muscle growth. However, once an athlete has reached the peak of protein assimilation, additional protein will not be used to create even more muscle tissue. Physical training is the strongest stimulus for signaling the muscles to grow and develop. Proper nutrition acts as a support network to the training stimulus; however, it does not necessarily initiate a further stimulus when consumed in quantities that significantly surpass physical requirements. To increase muscle mass, the equation is simple: Train hard and eat well, but do neither in excess. Similar to carbohydrates and fat, athletic performance and overall health can suffer if too much protein is ingested and macronutrient balance goes astray. Excessive daily protein intake is generally considered to be greater than 2.0 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight (except in cases of injury rehabilitation, intensified training, or during times of reduced energy intake). At intakes above this level, protein is either used for fuel or converted and stored as fat. Second, increased protein digestion and breakdown result in greater urea production, thus causing more fluid to be excreted from the body to flush out the toxic urea, potentially leading to dehydration. Third, if calories remain stable and protein intake increases, carbohydrate intake and glycogen replenishment generally suffer, ultimately affecting workouts. Finally, high-protein foods, especially animal products, tend to be high in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol, all of which can negatively affect cardiovascular health. As with most nutrients, more is not always better. How do you determine the “optimal” food sources of protein? In the world of strength/power athletes, “high-quality” and “complete” proteins receive the most attention. Although the quality of a protein is certainly important, true success is achieved with variety. It should be noted that the term incomplete protein often is misinterpreted as meaning “inadequate” or “useless” for strength/power athletes. This interpretation is erroneous and misleading. The bottom line is that all sources of protein are valuable for the strength/power athlete. To maximize the benefits of dietary protein, consider putting into practice the tips outlined in TRAINING TABLE 13.4 . Training Table 13.4 Tips for Maximizing the Benefits of Dietary Protein for Strength/Power Athletes Consume enough total calories to meet energy needs. If calorie intake declines, a higher percentage of ingested protein will be used for energy versus for muscle building and repair. Consume a level of protein that falls within 1.4 to 2.0 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. This level of protein generally contributes 15 to 20% of total calories. Athletes should ensure that plenty of carbohydrates and at least minimum amounts of fat are also ingested daily. Include a protein source in every meal and snack. By focusing on including a protein source at every meal and snack, protein is digested gradually and continuously throughout the day. This recommendation is especially important for athletes engaging in multiple training sessions daily. Choose a variety of different protein sources. Lean meats, poultry, fish, and dairy products are excellent choices because of their amino acid profile and high overall protein content. Vegetarians should consume plenty of soy products, which also contain an ideal amino acid profile and high protein content. Beans, lentils, nuts, seeds, and grains supply protein in smaller amounts and with low levels of one or two amino acids. By consuming a variety of these sources on a daily basis and in larger quantities, strength/power athletes can achieve optimal intakes of protein. Consume protein supplements in moderation, if necessary. In general, protein needs can be met through “real” foods consumed throughout the day. Studies have shown that supplemental protein provides no added benefit over whole food sources.39 However, if an athlete is already eating a well-balanced diet but is still having a hard time obtaining optimal quantities of protein, a supplement can be used in moderation. Protein powders are an appropriate supplement to use because a powder can be added to “real” foods such as milk, yogurt, cereal, and smoothies. Do individual amino acids have an ergogenic effect on muscle growth and development? The ingestion of specific amino acids or groups of amino acids has been purported to enhance muscle strength and development. It has been suggested that amino acids can influence muscle strength and development through the initiation of protein synthesis and/or increase the secretion of various anabolic hormones. The current research provides some insight into the action of various amino acids, but more research is needed to make firm conclusions and subsequent dietary recommendations. Glutamine is one of the most popular amino acid supplement products on the market because of its touted “anticatabolic” effects with regard to skeletal muscle. It is the most abundant amino acid found in blood plasma and skeletal muscle43 and accounts for more than 60% of the total intramuscular free amino acid pool.44 However, glutamine is in high demand by other tissues of the body. For example, glutamine is needed by the cells of the gastrointestinal system to support their continual high protein synthesis rates. Glutamine is also used as a fuel source for cells of the immune system and hair follicles.44,45 As a result, if glutamine levels are not sufficient to meet the body’s total needs, particularly during periods of high stress such as intense training, glutamine is taken and/or synthesized from amino acids present in skeletal muscle. It appears that glutamine not only prevents muscle catabolism, but several studies have reported that glutamine is also critical for protein synthesis within skeletal muscle.46,47 Although the current research appears promising, the long-term effects of glutamine supplementation on protein synthesis and body composition have yet to be confirmed. As a result, more research is needed before conclusions can be drawn and recommendations made for glutamine supplementation. The branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), particularly leucine, have been suggested to be positive regulators of muscle protein synthesis.48 However, the research on the effects of the BCAAs on exercise performance is ongoing. The exact actions of these amino acids before, during, and after exercise and the subsequent requirements and recommendations for intake are yet to be elucidated. The increased secretion of growth hormone is at the center of many amino acid supplement claims; however, study results have shown mixed conclusions. For example, Suminski et al.49 reported that 1,500 milligrams of arginine and 1,500 milligrams of lysine consumed at rest increased growth hormone levels 60 minutes after ingestion. However, the same quantity of amino acids provided immediately prior to weight lifting did not alter circulating growth hormone levels in males while exercising. Amino acids and their respective influence on insulin, testosterone, and cortisol have also been highlighted as potential factors in protein metabolism and synthesis. Once again, more research is needed to ascertain the connections and interactions of amino acid ingestion and hormonal responses and the subsequent effects on protein metabolism and muscle protein synthesis. Is protein needed before and during training sessions and competitions? The benefits of consuming protein before strength/power sports have recently received more attention in the research. Most of the studies have explored not only the effects of protein but also the combination effect of carbohydrates and protein on muscle synthesis, catabolism, and performance. The influence of ingesting protein during training or competition on strength/power performance has received minimal attention, and therefore, the relationship between these two factors is still under investigation. Until recently, many of the recommendations related to nutrition and muscle building have focused on the recovery period. Although the 1 to 4 hours after exercise are still considered a critical time for replenishment, it may not be the only time when the athlete can affect muscle and strength gains. The argument for consuming both protein and carbohydrates before strength/power training is based on the anabolic effects of increasing the secretion of insulin and circulating amino acids. By consuming carbohydrates before strength/power exercise, insulin levels will rise and thus decrease the normal exercise-induced catabolism of muscle tissue.50,51 A supply of exogenous protein results in a greater delivery and increased concentration of intracellular amino acids in the muscle during exercise, enhancing protein synthesis.40 Although the action of carbohydrates and protein is the same after exercise, the reason that preactivity consumption is preferable to postactivity is related to blood flow. The theory is that when the concentration of nutrients (through the digestion of a preactivity carbohydrate–protein source) and blood flow (caused by exercise) are both increased, the rate of nutrient uptake and utilization as well as protein synthesis is maximized.40 The positive effects of consuming carbohydrates and protein prior to exercise have been reported with the consumption of 10 grams of essential amino acids (15–25 grams of high-quality protein) and 35 grams of carbohydrates.19 Therefore, large volumes of food do not need to be consumed to gain the anabolic benefits. Gaining the Performance Edge Until further research is conducted to elucidate the benefits and drawbacks of consuming individual or groups of amino acids, the best way for athletes to obtain amino acids is from proteinrich, whole foods eaten daily in appropriate amounts. Strength/power athletes should strongly consider consuming a source of both carbohydrates and protein before a training session to maximize the ability of the body to synthesize new proteins. The benefit of consuming additional protein during strength/power sports still needs to be determined. Is protein needed for recovery from strength/power activities? High-intensity exercise and strength training stimulate protein synthesis in muscle tissue. In response to this physical stress, amino acids are released from the free amino acid pools within plasma and cellular spaces of the body.52,53 To meet the basic metabolic needs of muscle tissue, to repair damage from high-intensity exercise, and to build new muscle tissue, exogenous amino acids are required. Therefore, protein is a critical component of any strength/power athlete’s postexercise meal or snack. Several studies have examined the effects of consuming macronutrients at various intervals after exercise to determine an ideal environment for muscle synthesis and recovery from training. It appears that the provision of amino acids after resistance exercise stimulates greater protein synthesis, producing a net positive effect (more synthesis versus breakdown compared with fasting after exercise).54 When a combination of essential amino acids (6–10 grams) and carbohydrates (35 grams) is provided, an even greater increase in protein synthesis is observed.42 The current recommendation is to consume 15 to 25 grams of protein, or 0.25 to 0.30 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight, after exercise.19 Consuming a combination of carbohydrates and protein both before and after high-intensity training will be beneficial for protein synthesis. A study conducted by Chandler55 and colleagues reported that the combination of carbohydrates and protein was more advantageous than either carbohydrates or protein alone in stimulating anabolic hormone secretion after resistance exercise. Subjects performed a standardized resistance training workout and then consumed an isocaloric amount of one of three supplements (carbohydrates only, 1.5 g/kg; protein only, 1.38 g/kg; or carbohydrates and protein, 1.06 g/kg and 0.41 g/kg, respectively) immediately and 2 hours after the session. Both the carbohydrates and carbohydrate– protein supplements caused an increase in circulating insulin levels. However, only the carbohydrate–protein supplement additionally caused a modest but significant increase in growth hormone levels. The results of this study reveal that the combination of carbohydrate and protein ingestion after strength training can produce a hormonal environment during recovery that may be favorable to muscle growth. A study performed by Rassmussen et al.56 provided more evidence that a combination of protein and carbohydrates after resistance training stimulates muscle protein synthesis. In their study, six subjects randomly consumed a treatment drink (6 grams of essential amino acids, 35 grams of sucrose) or a flavored placebo drink one to three hours after a bout of resistance exercise on two separate occasions. Muscle protein synthesis was significantly increased over the placebo drink at both the one and three hour dose periods. The end result was that essential amino acids combined with carbohydrates stimulate muscle protein anabolism by increasing muscle protein synthesis up to three hours postexercise. Although the optimal balance and ideal quantity of carbohydrates and protein to consume after strength/power activities are yet to be determined, athletes can gain an edge on competitors by consuming a snack or full meal containing both carbohydrates and protein to help recover after training sessions or competitions. So the next question is: When should these macronutrients be ingested? Similar to consuming carbohydrates immediately after endurance exercise to optimize glycogen replenishment, a combination of protein and carbohydrates should be consumed as soon as possible after strength/power activities. A protein– carbohydrate food or beverage should be consumed immediately following a training session or competition, with benefits diminishing 1 to 3 hours postexercise.56 This nutrition protocol will stimulate the release of insulin to prevent muscle breakdown while also supplying amino acids needed as building blocks for muscle tissue. Gaining the Performance Edge Strength/power athletes should aim to consume at least 15 to 25 grams of protein (0.25–0.30 grams protein per kilogram body weight) and 35 grams of carbohydrates as soon as possible after training sessions and competitions. The combination of carbohydrates and protein will not only help muscle protein synthesis but also glycogen replenishment. Are fat needs different for strength/power athletes? Strength/power athletes burn very little fat during the performance of their sport. The bioenergetic demands of the forceful muscle actions performed by strength/power athletes are met by the phosphagen and anaerobic energy systems, neither of which relies on the metabolizing of fats for production of ATP. Does that mean that strength/power athletes do not need to consume fat? No. Essential fatty acids are needed for the general health of all bodily tissues. Fats are also attractive to the strength/power athlete because of their caloric density. A moderate amount of fat should be consumed on a daily basis, with an emphasis placed on unsaturated fats. The timing of fat consumption is also of importance to avoid any potential performance disturbance during training or competition. How are daily fat needs calculated for strength/power athletes? For strength/power athletes, the goal is to find the right balance of carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake to supply all essential nutrients and allow athletes to perform at their best. Fat is a controversial topic requiring the consideration of several factors, including caloric needs; the athlete’s desire to lose, maintain, or gain weight; health history; and ideal sources of fat. All strength/power athletes need fat; however, fat intake recommendations can vary greatly. A general recommendation cited by Rogozkin18 suggests a daily fat intake of approximately 2 grams of fat per kilogram of body weight. This quantity of fat may be appropriate for most athletes; however, as always, the calculated estimate should be compared with total calorie needs before a final recommendation is made to the athlete. For general health, a fat intake of 30 to 35% of total calories is considered an upper limit. A range of 20 to 25% is more appropriate for strength/power athletes who are trying to lose weight because fat is more calorically dense, and it takes less energy to digest, absorb, and assimilate fats than carbohydrates and proteins. What this means is that if excess calories from fatty foods are ingested, more of the excess will be stored as fat than if the excess calories had come from proteins or carbohydrates. An athlete who is aiming to gain weight will generally find the 25 to 30% range sufficient in supplying extra calories as well as decreasing the total volume of food needed to meet total energy needs. General health and specific athletic goals/objectives should be considered when estimating fat needs. For example, consider two athletes who both weigh 150 pounds: one is a wrestler aiming to lose weight who consumes about 2,500 calories per day, whereas the other is a shot putter with the goal of increasing muscle mass who requires 4,500 calories per day. Basing their fat needs on 2 grams per kilogram of current body weight, both athletes would require 136 grams of fat per day. Comparing this recommendation to estimated calorie needs, the percentage of total calories from fat would be 49% and 27% for the wrestler and shot putter, respectively. Knowing that the wrestler wants to lose weight, that the fat intake recommendation for overall health is no more than 30 to 35% of total calories; that fat is calorically dense, making it easier to err on the side of overconsumption; and that fats do not increase the metabolic demands for digestion and absorption like proteins and carbohydrates, the 136-gram recommendation is not to the wrestler’s advantage. Using the range of 20 to 25% of total calories from fat to estimate his needs: (2,500 calories × [0.20–0.25])/9 calories per gram of fat = 55–69 grams of fat per day Thus, 55 to 69 grams of fat per day will supply the wrestler with a small amount of fat to provide satiety and essential fatty acids, while minimizing the impact on total calorie intake. In contrast, the 136 grams of fat calculated for the shot putter is appropriate, providing a moderate amount of fat to allow the athlete to meet his increased energy needs while maintaining a healthy diet (see FIGURE 13.3 ). Figure 13.3 Dietary fat consumed in moderation allows the strength/power athlete to meet increased energy needs while maintaining a healthy diet. © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock Strength/power athletes should also consider their health history when consuming fats. Saturated and trans fats are the most detrimental to health, whereas monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are beneficial to overall health. For those who are at risk for heart disease, high cholesterol, or cancer, special attention should be placed on unsaturated fats. An intake of mainly unsaturated fats is also considered protective for future health problems for all athletes. Strength/power athletes should be guided toward healthy types of fats, especially those who are consuming large quantities of protein, which are often rich sources of saturated fats. Protein sources that are lower in total fat and saturated fat include lean cuts of beef, chicken, turkey, fish, legumes, and soy products. Are fats needed before and during training sessions and competitions? Although fats are important to consume on a daily basis, fat intake should be minimized in the hours leading up to, as well as during, an intense training session or competition. Fats take longer to digest, leading to a sense of fullness and potentially gastrointestinal discomfort during exercise. Very small amounts of fat can be included in a preexercise meal consumed several hours prior to the initiation of exercise to provide a feeling of satiety. However, a majority of fat intake should be reserved for after training sessions and competitions, spread evenly throughout the day. Gaining the Performance Edge Fats are an important component to an overall healthy diet for strength/power athletes. Fat consumption should be kept within the range of 20 to 35% of total calories, based on total caloric needs and the athlete’s goals and objectives. Fats should be obtained from mainly unsaturated sources, while minimizing saturated and trans fat intake. The ingestion of fats before, during, and immediately postexercise should be kept to a minimum. Fats should be ingested in other meals and snacks spread throughout the day. Is fat needed for recovery from strength/power activities? It is not essential to replace any fat used during strength/power exercise by consuming fat-rich foods immediately following training or a competition. Strength/power sports rely minimally on fat for energy during training sessions and competitions, and therefore, fat “depletion” is not an issue. Even if fat was used during strength/power sports, the body’s stores of fat are so great that they will not be depleted in one workout. For athletes aiming to lose weight and become lean, training sessions help to burn calories, leading to a long-term loss of fat mass, and therefore, a replacement of fat postworkout would be counterproductive. Instead, the postexercise meal should consist of mainly carbohydrate- and protein-rich foods. However, fats add flavor to foods and create a sense of satiety, and therefore, can be included in small amounts in the postexercise meal or snack. Food for Thought 13.2 Nutrition Specifics for Gaining Weight In this exercise, you are asked to provide and justify macronutrient intakes you recommend for an athlete wishing to gain weight. Are vitamin and mineral needs different for strength/power athletes? The vitamin and mineral needs of strength/power athletes have not been studied extensively. As with all active individuals, nutrient needs may be slightly higher than for sedentary counterparts, but an increased intake of specific vitamins and minerals may or may not be critical for optimal strength/power performance. This section reviews several of the micronutrients that have been suggested to be of importance, including antioxidants, boron, calcium, chromium, iron, magnesium, and zinc. As more research develops, clearer recommendations can be made. Do strength/power athletes need to supplement with antioxidant vitamins? The main antioxidants receiving attention in the exercise arena are beta-carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium. Antioxidants are touted to combat free radical damage occurring during and after exercise, including strenuous and high-intensity exercise. Most of the current research conducted on the effects of antioxidants and exercise-related free radical damage has focused on endurance athletes. Although strength/power athletes may need more of these nutrients, a specific recommendation cannot be made at this time. The best option is to consume a variety of antioxidantrich foods such as citrus fruits, dark green and orange vegetables, nuts, seeds, and Brazil nuts. Should strength/power athletes supplement boron intake? Boron is a nonessential trace mineral found in foods such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and wine. It is readily absorbed by the body, and the average dietary intake is estimated to be 1 to 2 milligrams a day. Boron received considerable attention in the world of strength/power sports after a study in 1987 reported that people taking boron supplements had elevated testosterone levels.57 Boron supplements quickly appeared on the market, claiming the product could be used as an “anabolic steroid alternative.” However, a review of the study reveals that the researchers’ conclusions were sorely misinterpreted and taken out of context. Nielsen and colleagues57 fed a group of postmenopausal women a boron-deficient diet, and then once hormone levels had dropped, a boron supplement was provided. After taking a 3-milligram daily dose of boron, serum testosterone and estrogen levels returned to normal levels. This study focused on older women who were not athletes, and the supplement was intended to correct a deficiency in the diet. When a study was conducted on young individuals engaged in the sport of body building, a boron supplement of 2.5 milligrams per day had no effect on testosterone levels, lean mass, or strength compared with the control group.58 An RDA has not been established for boron; however, the estimated daily requirement is thought to be 1 milligram per day. A UL has been established at 20 milligrams per day for adults 19 years or older and 17 milligrams per day for adolescents.59 Low intake of boron, as with all nutrients, can potentially cause adverse effects; however, supplemental boron at levels higher than the 20-milligram UL have not been shown to be beneficial and can have negative effects. Should strength/power athletes be concerned about calcium intake? Calcium is critical for optimal bone health, muscle development, and nerve transmission in both men and women. Unfortunately, many strength/power athletes are not consuming adequate amounts of daily calcium. This deficiency is often caused by an avoidance of dairy products in the quest for a leaner body. Ironically, studies have shown that higher intakes of calcium can actually aid in weight loss and body fat loss.60 Much of this research has focused on overweight individuals placed on calorie-restricted diets with varied dairy calcium or supplemental calcium intakes. Of potential interest to strength athletes is the growing evidence that high dairy calcium intake aids not only increased weight loss but also higher body fat losses compared with low dairy or supplemental calcium intakes.61 In addition, dairy products contain many other essential nutrients for strength/power athletes, including protein, carbohydrates, vitamin D, and riboflavin. To promote overall health and a strong body, a minimum of three to four servings of calcium-rich foods such as milk, yogurt, calcium-fortified orange juice, green leafy vegetables, soy milk, and other soy-based dairy alternatives should be consumed on a daily basis to meet, but not necessarily to exceed, current recommendations (1,000 milligrams for 19- to 50-year-old men and women). Is chromium supplementation important for strength/power athletes? Chromium is an essential mineral involved in the regulation of insulin-mediated metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Some early chromium studies reported positive changes in body composition,62,63 which have led to a variety of ergogenic claims, such as increased muscle mass, decreased fat mass, and enhanced muscular strength. However, most studies reveal no effect on body composition or muscular strength after chromium supplementation.64–67 Chromium can be easily obtained through the diet in foods such as mushrooms, prunes, nuts, whole grains, brewer’s yeast, broccoli, wine, cheese, egg yolks, asparagus, dark chocolate, and some beers. Should strength/power athletes worry about iron? “Pumping iron” should not be reserved only for the weight room—it should also happen in the kitchen. Strength/power athletes perform a variety of activities that often involve highintensity, weight-bearing movements causing hematuria. Hematuria is the presence of hemoglobin or myoglobin in the urine caused by a breakdown of red blood cells (i.e., hemolysis) or damage to muscle tissue, respectively. Hemolysis has been observed in weight lifters as a result of the mechanical stress of lifting heavy weights. As is the case for hemoglobin, iron is also essential for the formation of myoglobin, which stores oxygen inside muscle cells until it is needed for chemical reactions and muscular contraction. Sprint swimmers are a unique group of strength/power athletes that have been found to have low iron levels, even though a majority of their training is non-weight-bearing. A study conducted by Brigham and colleagues68 examined 25 female college swimmers for iron status as well as the effectiveness of iron supplementation during the competitive season. The baseline tests revealed that 17 swimmers had depleted iron stores and five swimmers were classified as anemic. The experimental group consumed 39 milligrams of iron per day, which was successful in preventing a further decline in iron status compared with the control group. However, the authors suggested that a higher dosage might be indicated to increase iron stores to a healthy range. The best line of defense is to prevent an iron deficiency from occurring by ensuring that athletes are consuming plenty of iron-rich foods daily. If anemia is suspected, a physician should be consulted before iron supplements are taken. Strength/power athletes should focus on sources of heme iron found in foods such as beef, poultry, and fish as well as nonheme iron, which is found primarily in plant foods such as soy products, dried fruits, legumes, whole grains, fortified cereals, and green leafy vegetables. Nonheme iron’s bioavailability can be enhanced by eating nonheme foods with either a meat product or a vitamin C source. © Petur Asgeirsson/Shutterstock. Is magnesium supplementation important for strength/power athletes? Magnesium has become a popular supplement in the area of strength/power sports. Because of its role in muscle contraction and protein synthesis, magnesium supplementation has been touted to increase muscle mass and strength. However, only a few studies have demonstrated an ergogenic effect, and many of the studies have not been well controlled. Therefore, the verdict is still out on whether intake of magnesium above the RDA will provide any benefit. Until the picture becomes clearer, athletes should focus on consuming magnesium-rich foods such as whole grains, green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seafood. Why is zinc important for strength/power athletes? Zinc has a variety of functions in the body, including roles as an antioxidant, a regulator of growth and development, and a wound healer. Strength/power athletes benefit from all of these functions of zinc. Many athletes, especially those on calorie-restricted diets, may not be consuming adequate amounts of zinc, and thus it should become a focus of attention. Zinc is found in a variety of foods, including beef and other dark meats, fish, eggs, whole grains, wheat germ, legumes, and dairy products. Zinc supplements are generally not necessary when an athlete is consuming enough food. Is multivitamin/mineral supplementation necessary for strength/power athletes? It is a common practice for athletes to take a multivitamin/mineral supplement on a regular basis. Although this may be a good practice for nutrient “insurance,” it may not be ergogenic. Several research articles have been published reporting no performance benefit from multivitamin/mineral supplementation for athletes participating in strength/power sports.69,70 If an athlete is looking for insurance, it is best to choose a brand containing no more than 100 to 200% of the Daily Value for each nutrient to prevent side effects that could be caused by ingesting large doses of vitamins and minerals. Gaining the Performance Edge There is little research to support taking specific vitamins or minerals to provide an ergogenic benefit to strength/power athletes, unless an individual is deficient in a nutrient. Athletes should focus on whole foods first, ensuring balance, variety, and moderation of all food groups on a daily basis. Food for Thought 13.3 Dietary Analysis of a Power Athlete In this exercise, you will analyze the meal plan of an athlete whose goal is to gain weight. Are fluid needs different for strength/power athletes? Fluid consumption and hydration are important for all types of athletes. Muscle tissue is composed mainly of water, and therefore, when dehydration sets in, muscular function and performance decline. Consuming adequate amounts of fluid before, during, and after strength/power training sessions and competitions will ensure that an athlete feels energetic; has the stamina for long, intense workouts; and recovers well after each session. What issues are of concern regarding the fluid intake of strength/power athletes? Muscle function and performance will decline when athletes are in a dehydrated state. To be well hydrated at the onset of any training session or competitive event, strength/power athletes should adhere to fluid consumption recommendations. Note that fluid losses during exercise are in addition to daily fluid recommendations. Because of the frequency, intensity, and duration of strength/power athletes’ training and competition sessions, maintaining euhydration is of utmost importance and should be a dietary focus every day. One aspect of strength/power sports that often leads to a restriction of daily fluid intake and dehydration is the weight-class system. Sports such as boxing, judo, wrestling, and weight lifting classify athletes based upon body weight for competitive events. The goal for these athletes is to maximize their strength/power relative to their body weight. To gain an advantage over a competitor, many athletes will aim for weight reduction immediately prior to a weigh-in for competition so that they can compete in a lower weight category. Competing in a lower body weight category can allow the athlete theoretically to dominate an athlete who legitimately has a lower body weight and possibly also less strength and power. One of the quickest, yet unhealthiest, ways to cut weight quickly is to dehydrate the body through a variety of methods such as rubber suits, steam rooms, and the restriction of fluid intake. The magnitude of weight loss can range from a couple of pounds to as high as 9.1 kilograms.71 Athletes may aim to lose weight on a regular basis, often weekly, during the competitive season. This continuous pattern of weight loss, and then often subsequent weight gain, leads to a pattern of weight cycling, which not only can be detrimental on a daily/weekly basis, but also can have a cumulative effect over the course of an entire season. Some of the negative effects of severe and intentional dehydration include poor thermoregulation; loss of electrolytes, thus increasing the risk for cardiac arrhythmias; and extra strain on the kidneys, potentially affecting short-term function. Because of the harmful nature of these practices, many governing bodies have made changes in policies and established strict guidelines to prevent the life-threatening combination of severe dehydration and high-intensity competition. The sport of wrestling has received attention for its efforts to prevent health-related problems caused by dehydration by changing its policies and procedures related to establishing a minimum weight for all athletes. Currently, both the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the National Federation of State High School Associations have minimum weight standards in place.72,73 Minimum weight for wrestlers is established through body composition testing to ensure that athletes do not drop to unhealthy weights and body fat levels. In addition to weight and body fat testing, all colleges and many high schools are also measuring hydration through urine specific gravity, requiring a specific gravity of ≤1.020 before assessing a minimum weight. Changes to wrestling policies and procedures are a positive step forward in safeguarding the athletes’ health and performance. The established guidelines provide an example to other sports on the importance of enforcing daily hydration for athletes. Although severe dehydration is mainly a health concern, it should be noted that it can also significantly decrease strength/power performance. The impact on performance for very short duration activities (
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Nutrition Questions

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Question 1 answer

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1) Calories
1 pound gain requires 5 to 8 calories per gram
1 pound has 454 grams
Therefore a gain of 454 grams require
(454×5) to (454 × 8) = 2270 to 3632 calories.
The recommendation is a gain of about 1 to 2 pounds per week. Therefore daily calorie
intake to add 1 pound in a week is (2270 ÷ 7) to (3632 ÷ 7) = 324.3 to 518.9 calories daily to
gain 1 pound in a week. (324.3 × 2) to (518.9 × 2) = 648.6 to 1037.8 calories per day to gain
2 pounds weekly. These calories are needed to replenish the energy used during exercise. In
addition, the aid of the calories in the formation and development of tissue by providing
nutrients.
Carbohydrates
Each kilogram of body weight requires 6 to 10 grams of carbohydrate intake. This should
make up roughly 55% to 65% of your daily calorie intake. To burn calories during activity,
carbohydrates are needed.
Proteins
Protein intake per kilogram of body weight should be between 1.2 and 1.7 grams per day.
According to several studies, protein intake should not exceed the weight's 2.5 - 3.5 grams
range. Damaged muscles may be repaired with the protein found in meat and milk. Muscle
growth and development are also aided by it.
Total calories intake as fat.
The mass requirement is 2g of fat daily per kg of body weight. Fat provides satiety and
essential fatty acid.

Question 2 Answer
• Cool the fluids that the athletes are using


Take a short time to drink every 15 to 20 minutes throughout practice.



Every participant should be given a sports bottle with the number of ounces indicated
on it. Keep an eye on hydration intake.



You should give out sports bottles to athletes and encourage them to hydrate as soon
as they come out of the warm-up.



Discuss the advantages of sports drinks over water in most situations. Allow athletes
to make their own decisions, but arm them with the knowledge they need to make
well-informed choices.

3



Athletes should be weighed at least once daily for many days and in various
environments. Analyze the expected weight loss during regular practice and suggest
that water techniques recoup some of the lost.

Question 3 Answers
To avoid the dangers of hypoglycemia, patients must regularly self-monitor blood
glucose levels. Her urine should be tested for ketones before she engages in any strenuous
activity with blood glucose levels above 250 mg/dL. You should wait until your blood glucose
level has decreased and your ketones have disappeared before indulging in any physical activity.
Ketoacidosis can result from a combination of high blood glucose and the presence of ketones in
the urine. People with type 1 diabetes should take extra insulin to avoid developing
hypoglycemia. Before beginning any activity, athletes must give their bodies time to lower blood
...


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