Asset & Security Management Chapter 9 IT Asset Management (ITAM) • Is the process of tracking information about technology assets through the entire asset life cycle, from initial ordering or purchase to retirement and disposal. • Asset management provides IT department with the information to efficiently manage and leverage assets for increased productivity and reduced cost of ownership. Assets include… • • • • • • • • • Hardware Software Proprietary data Backups and archives Manuals, guides and books Printouts Audit records Distribution media for licensed software Warranties and maintenance records. Organisational benefits… • Helpdesk can view configurations, service history & track problems • Facilities manager know where the assets are located • Service manager has easy access to warranty and maintenance records • Network manager sees network configuration in detail • Accounting has value of assets & tracks technology investment Organisational benefits… • Purchasing manager views costs and orders across the organisation • Financial manager can view the entire inventory and determine how to get the best return on technology investment • System manager can see lease and maintenance status and can efficiently plan upgrades • Software manager can view licensing information • IT manager can discover ways of optimising IT resources across the organisation Challenges… • Constant change • Non-standard environment • Mobile devices Collecting information… • First step is to compile an inventory of all technology assets – Auto discovery tools gather data about technology assets via the network Asset tracking information – User contact information – Hardware configuration – System software configuration – Serial number – Warranty information – Network wall jack and port numbers – Physical location – Asset identification tag umbers – Troubleshooting and service histories Helpdesk benefit • • • • • • • • • Availability of configuration Information Accuracy of information Prevention of widespread problems Remote diagnosis of problems Detection of unauthorised software Tracking of software usage Determination of Total cost of ownership Implementation of Change Requests Tracking of warranty and maintenance information Question • Is an asset management system a replacement for an existing helpdesk information system? Computer Security Computer Security • Is the process of planning, implementing and verifying the protection of an organisation's computer-related assets from internal and external threats. Measures • Passwords, locks, file protections and encryption to keep intruders out • Log files and system alerts to warn of unauthorised entry • Backups, uninterruptable power supplies and mirrored disk images to repair or replace items after damage • Security policies to handle violations that do occur Physical security • Protection of building sites & equipment from theft, vandalism, natural disasters, manmade catastrophes and accidental damage. Security Threats • • • • • • • • • Natural disaster Utility outage Hackers Viruses Theft of assets Political terrorism Subversive employees or contractors System configuration changes Bugs in software Security Process • Stages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identifying assets Assessing risk Preparing Monitoring Responding 1. Identifying Assets • Before assets can be protected, they must be identified. 2. Assessing security needs & risks • Determine the risk level of the organisations technology assets – Physical security – Computer/data centre – Data security – Data classification – Data access privileges – Social engineering 3. Preparing for Security Violations • A well written, comprehensive security policy is the foundation for a secure computing environment. • Must state – – – – – – Purpose Scope Terms Rights of users Delegate responsibilities & action Reference related documents Example Information Security Policy • http://www.it.ox.ac.uk/policies-andguidelines/information-security-policy 4. Monitoring • An intrusion detection system (IDS) e.g., a sniffer, inspects all inbound & outbound network activity & identifies suspicious activity 5. Responding to Incidents • Incidents will occur • Incident handling demands the ability to quickly and efficiently react to disruptions • There should be a written procedure to be followed in the event of a violation or attack • A disaster recovery plan must be in place and practiced Backups • The activity of copying files to another medium so that they will be preserved in case the originals are no longer available. Backup Methods • Full backup – All files are backed up. Most complete and most time consuming. • Incremental – Only files that have changed since the last backup are backed up. Least time consuming to backup but most time consuming to restore. • Differential – Only files that have changed since the last full backup are backed up. • Daily copy – Only files that were changed on that day are backed up • Copy – Backing up of only selected files. Chapter 1 Introduction to the Help Desk Introduction to Help Desk Concepts & Skills Mike Meyers’ Computer Skills Support in the 21st Century • • • • • • • • Proactive Personal Users Business Broad scope 24 x 7 – follow the sun Experienced users Users rely on HD & self-help tools What is a Help Desk? • Single-point of contact • Support for Users – Internal or external – Customers and users • Technologies – Hardware – Communication devices – Software Question How is an internal help desk different from an external help desk? Users • Experience – Various levels of experience and confidence – “power users” • Exposure – To certain aspects but not all • Reliance – Varies Question Suppose a help desk gets three problems at once: – The Web site on which the company takes sales orders is not working – A vice president cannot print a report that he must distribute in three days – Several employees are unable to send e-mail What priority would you give to each of these problems, and why? Common User Problems • Hardware – Compatibility, configuration and malfunction • Software – Installation, compatibility and performance • Network – Connection • Security – User accounts, passwords and access • Operating System – Conflicts, virus and corrupt files – Severity can vary • User – did something incorrectly People Skills • Communication – Listening, questioning & communicating • Problem-solving – Definition, analysis, identification & evaluation of solutions, plan • Customer-service – Service Level Agreements (SLA) • Technical • Business Debate “Technical skills and knowledge are not the most important requirements for a support specialist” Do you agree or disagree? Justify your answer. Process Management • A process is a set of activities performed in a specific order that results in a desired end. – Problem • Receiving, monitoring & resolving – Request/change • Responding to user requests – Knowledge • Collecting, organising, analysing and distributing information – Asset • Collecting and marinating information on assets – Network • Managing and controlling the network configurations – Security • Providing and maintaining security for IT assets Help Desk Tools • Problem management Tools – Log, track and record information about problems reported to the helpdesk • HELPSTAR • Computer Telephony – Identify caller, monitor, route, prioritise and record calls Help Desk Tools • Problem Resolution Tools – Determine cause of users’ problems and develop effective solutions • • • • Remote access Knowledge bases Self-help technology Web Measuring Performance • Objective measures – Average length of an incoming call – Average queue time – Abandon rate – First line resolution rate – Average resolution time – Calls exceeding SLA Measuring Performance • Subjective measures – Customer satisfaction – Staff satisfaction – Organisation satisfaction Review • Page 23 & 24 • Projects 1, 7, 9 & 10 • Strategies 1 - 3 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Help Desk Introduction to Help Desk Concepts & Skills Mike Meyers’ Computer Skills Support in the 21st Century • • • • • • • • Proactive Personal Users Business Broad scope 24 x 7 – follow the sun Experienced users Users rely on HD & self-help tools What is a Help Desk? • Single-point of contact • Support for Users – Internal or external – Customers and users • Technologies – Hardware – Communication devices – Software Question How is an internal help desk different from an external help desk? Users • Experience – Various levels of experience and confidence – “power users” • Exposure – To certain aspects but not all • Reliance – Varies Question Suppose a help desk gets three problems at once: – The Web site on which the company takes sales orders is not working – A vice president cannot print a report that he must distribute in three days – Several employees are unable to send e-mail What priority would you give to each of these problems, and why? Common User Problems • Hardware – Compatibility, configuration and malfunction • Software – Installation, compatibility and performance • Network – Connection • Security – User accounts, passwords and access • Operating System – Conflicts, virus and corrupt files – Severity can vary • User – did something incorrectly People Skills • Communication – Listening, questioning & communicating • Problem-solving – Definition, analysis, identification & evaluation of solutions, plan • Customer-service – Service Level Agreements (SLA) • Technical • Business Debate “Technical skills and knowledge are not the most important requirements for a support specialist” Do you agree or disagree? Justify your answer. Process Management • A process is a set of activities performed in a specific order that results in a desired end. – Problem • Receiving, monitoring & resolving – Request/change • Responding to user requests – Knowledge • Collecting, organising, analysing and distributing information – Asset • Collecting and marinating information on assets – Network • Managing and controlling the network configurations – Security • Providing and maintaining security for IT assets Help Desk Tools • Problem management Tools – Log, track and record information about problems reported to the helpdesk • HELPSTAR • Computer Telephony – Identify caller, monitor, route, prioritise and record calls Help Desk Tools • Problem Resolution Tools – Determine cause of users’ problems and develop effective solutions • • • • Remote access Knowledge bases Self-help technology Web Measuring Performance • Objective measures – Average length of an incoming call – Average queue time – Abandon rate – First line resolution rate – Average resolution time – Calls exceeding SLA Measuring Performance • Subjective measures – Customer satisfaction – Staff satisfaction – Organisation satisfaction Review • Page 23 & 24 • Projects 1, 7, 9 & 10 • Strategies 1 - 3 Chapter 2 Organisation and People HD Location • Centralised – Single physical location within an organisation • Decentralised – Multiple support sites located throughout the organisation HD Structure • Pool – Simplest, shared resource, generalised • Dispatch – Log and pass onto second-level personnel • Tiered – First-line resolution(80%), ownership, timed resolution at each level • Specialised Structure – By product or business • Method Structure – Organised in manner in which support is provided Question Which kind of HD structure offers the best career opportunities for a HD analyst? Why? Outsourcing • Process of using an external company to provide support services for internal employees. Reasons for Outsourcing • • • • Lack of resources Global issues Language differences Core competencies • Advantages – Reduced support costs – Access to latest tools & technologies – Flexible staff size – Highly qualified support staff • Disadvantages – Lack of familiarity with the business – Lack of quality control Roles of a HD analyst • • • • • • • Team member Problem-solver Communicator Marketer Researcher Expert Customer Service representative Qualities of a HD analyst • • • • • • Focus Problem solving skills Initiative Communication skills – written & verbal Technical aptitude and skills Customer relations skills Reflect Do your own skills and personality traits match the requirements for working on a help desk? Which of the required skills and traits are your strongest and which do you feel you need to develop further? Careers • Help desk management – Managing, monitoring, planning of the HD function • Network Engineer – Building and maintaining the network infrastructure • Quality Assurance/Test Engineer – Responsible for ensuring that the technology products are error free before going live Careers • Software Engineer/Developer – Design, develop and maintain software – VB, C++, Java … • Database Administration – Develop, implement, update, test and repair company’s server databases • Project Manager – Plan and monitor project executions • Web Production and Development – Creating, maintaining, revising and optimising web sites Question In your opinion, should companies require helpdesk employees to perform other kinds of work, such as configuring workstations for a network? Why? Case Study You are the new head of IT in a medium-sized company with approximately 500 employees that manufactures outdoor clothing. You have facilities in Mayo and Donegal. The company recently invested heavily in new technology for inventory and distribution. Describe how you would organise the IT support function for the organisation. Give reasons for your suggestion. Case Study You are the manager of a HD with a tiered structure. Your job performance ratings for HD analysts are based primarily on the number of calls they handle. The first-level analysts who answer all calls, have 15 minutes to resolve the problem before passing it on to second-level analysts. The first-level help desk analyst with the highest rating (highest number of calls answered) does not solve as many problems as most of the other first-level analysts. Questions • What might explain why this analyst solves fewer problems than others at the same level? • Would you want this analyst to solve more problems? Explain your answer. • What steps could you take to encourage the analyst to solve more problems? Chapter 3 Receiving the Incident Incident Management • Process of receiving, processing and resolving user problems or requests. • Here we are going to look into the detail of receiving the call. • The first few minutes of any encounter directly affects every event that follows, including problem diagnosis, problem solving, and user satisfaction. Why? Steps in Receiving the Incident 1. Becoming aware of the problem 2. Contacting the helpdesk 3. Authenticating the problem and verifying the user 4. Logging the call 5. Screening the call 6. Prioritising the call 1. Becoming aware of the problem • Most will attempt to remedy the issue before contacting the helpdesk other always ring. • Productivity 2. Contacting the helpdesk • Critical Events – Information is gathered – Relationship is established • Single point of contact • Contact made by e-mail, phone call, online, fax… • Phone answering script for consistency example 3. Authenticating the problem and verifying the user • Authentication = gather enough information to establish whether the issue falls within the helpdesk domain – Description of the problem – Hardware & software in use • Verification = determine if the user is eligible for support – Caller/User/Organisation ID – Name & location Call Categories • Question – “How do I…” – Is it the responsibility of the HD? • Request – “I want to get…” – For hardware and software • Problem – “I cannot…” – The user is unable to perform a task because of a technology issue. 4. Logging the Call • Process of logging basic information of the call into the helpdesk management system – HELPSTAR • Information and quantity varies between organisation • Dependent on integration of information systems • Unique ticket number identifies call from here on. 5. Screening the Call • Process of gathering further information about the problem so that problem solving can begin. • At what level within the helpdesk structure will this step happen? 6. Prioritising the Call • Process of determining both the timing and the level of support that will be provided. • Indication of the seriousness of the problem A standard 5 point scale. Priority Definition Example A critical component is affected with direct business impact Sales registers are offline, online store is down, key people have no email access 2 A component is degraded Slow response times on back office systems, intermittent errors 3 Back office reports are nonNon-critical component is down with functional, spam filtering some business impact is offline 4 Non-critical component is down with A user cannot print, A staffer no direct business impact needs a software update 5 Little or no impact or need for immediate attention, cosmetic issues 1 Out of place icons, constructive user feedback 3 Level scale based on severity and breadth of issue Priority 1 Severe 2 Important 3 Low Definition Component is critical and multiple users are affected Component is important and multiple users are affected Component is not critical; few users are affected Determining Factors • • • • • • • Person Impact Number of people affected Possibility of a work around Projects – business initiatives Time Increasing number of call Questions to consider • • • • • • • • What is the status of the caller? What is the problem’s effect? How many are affected? Is there a workaround? Does it affect a key business initiative? What is the timing of the problem? Are report of the problem increasing? Is the problem important or time-critical? Soft Skills The Listening Process Listening Steps 1. Receiving the message – Receive the communication, listen for the tone of voice and words spoken 2. Interpreting the message – Analyse the message to determine what the speaker is saying 3. Evaluating the message – Do you agree? Does your biases, attitude, or beliefs interfere with an accurate evaluation of the message. 4. Responding to the message – Indicate that you are paying attention, check understanding. Challenges • • • • Handling Emotions Ignoring distractions Dealing with different levels of knowledge Communicating by telephone Communication Style • Complete the Communication Style SelfAssessment, page 73 • What is your communication style? Accent the Positive • Page 75 Effective Communication • Listen to the caller – – – – – – – – Respond to the message Empathise with the caller Acknowledge what the caller is saying Consider the caller’s feelings Act as if you are in the same room as the caller Mirror the caller Be present Listen between the lines Effective Communication • Communicating with the caller – Keep it simple – Allow the caller to speak – Suspend judgement – Clarify the caller’s statements – Use a positive tone of voice – Maintain a positive attitude Responses to avoid • • • • • • • • • Do not deny feelings Do not be defensive Do not minimise the problem Do not use jargon Do not finish the person's statement Do not assume Do not use abbreviations or acronyms Do not use negative language Do not argue Practical • Computer Practice – HelpSTAR • Audio exercises Chapter 4 Processing and Resolving the Incident Problem Solving • Process used to arrive at a solution to a difficult or disruptive situation Problem Solving Steps 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identifying the problem Determining the problem’s root cause Generating options Evaluating and prioritising options Determining a course of action Step 1. Identifying the Problem • Collect Data – User data • Internal and external users – Problem data • • • • Component affected Symptoms Date & time of problem Description of the problem – – – – What was the user doing? What happens? What should happen? When does it happen? • Rule out the obvious – Plugged in, turned on, reboot Step 2. Determine the Cause • Ask questions – open-ended • Have you tried rebooting? – closed-ended • Describe what you see on the screen. • Replication – Recreate the problem • Root Cause Analysis – Identify cause areas – Identify underlying causes – Identify root cause • Fishbone diagram Step 3. Generating Options • Left brain and right brain – Use both side of the brain to solve a problem, think creatively • Brainstorming – Group technique resulting in creative solutions to the problem • Think outside the box – Look at the problem from different prespectives Step 4. Evaluating and Prioritising Options • Module Replacement – Replace components one at a time with ones that you know are working • Hypotheses testing – Evaluate each possible solution through testing • Configuration management – Revert to basic configuration and gradually introduce hardware and software Step 5. Determining a Course of Action • Decision Making – Timing – Resources – Cost – Likelihood of solving the problem Problem Ownership • Responsibility for the incident is assigned to an individual – – – – – – Communicate with the user Tracking incident progression Ensuring progression Ensuring resolution is to users satisfaction Entering resolution information Closing incident • Notification – informing others (other analysts and users) of the problem where necessary and appropriate Escalating Problems • Reasons for Escalating – Time – No communication from helpdesk – Problem is serious and time critical – Problem is getting worse – High level user – User dissatisfaction with analyst Escalation Policies • • • • Who can decide to transfer a problem? When does escalation occur? How are problems escalated? Who has ownership of a transferred problem? • Non-technical Escalation Dealing with Difficult Users • Angry Caller – Exercise 4.2 • Abusive Caller – Exercise 4.3 • Talkative Caller – Exercise 4.4 Resolving Calls Call resolution occurs when a solution that is implemented results in the elimination of the problem. • Closing Calls • Determining user satisfaction • Follow up Lab • Complete the computer practice exercises from this chapter in the lab. • Critical thinking questions, page 126. • Helpdesk project 3,4,5,7,8, pages 126 & 127 . • Helpdesk strategies 1, pages 127 & 128 Chapter 5 Computer Telephony Integration Automated Call Distributors (ACD) • Telephone systems that: – route and prioritise calls – play recorded messages – Record the number of calls in the system – Record the number of dropped calls – Record the average hold time – Inform callers of current average hold time – Allow monitoring of calls – Produce management reports Interactive Voice Response (IVR) • Telephone systems that allow individuals to interact with a telephone using the buttons to the telephone keypad – Provide automated help to users – Collect caller information – Route calls Voice Applications • Speech recognition technology has advanced IVR’s to allow the user to say the option Voice over Internet Protocol (voIP) • Or Internet Protocol (IP) telephony • Allows voice calls to be routed over the Internet or a corporate intranet. • Eliminates long-distance call charges • International call routing Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) • Allows for the integration of many different helpdesk technologies into one system – Displays caller and call details automatically – Routes voice, fax, e-mail, text messaging and live chat into specified queues – Enables voice, fax and e-mail to be retrieved from a single location – Delivers automated responses – Handles data analysis and reporting Advantages of CTI • Caller identification, routing and automated responses • Integration of user access methods • Efficient use of resources • Integration of technology systems, resulting in a working environment that is easier to maintain and staff Questions Why should helpdesks automate their call systems? • You are the manager of a helpdesk with a CTI system that collects the following data. – – – – – – – – – Log on and log off times for all analysts Total time spent on each call Total time spent on other tasks Total and average call resolution times Number of calls handled by each agent Date, time and duration of all calls Caller wait times Hang up rates Caller’s identity • How would you use this information to make sure that the helpdesk is performing as well as possible? Chapter 6 Web Based Support Self-Service Support • Provide users with the ability to solve problems on their own through the use of a support web site. • Cost savings • Examples – Online problem ticket submission by the users – Searchable knowledge base Advantages • • • • 24*7*365 support Speedy response Easy to use Results in better educated and confident users • Reduced calls to helpdesk Characteristics • • • • • • • Easy to use Fast & accurate Variety of support options Consistent Assisted help Regularly updated Easy to administer Problems Suited • • • • Password resets Problem status automation Break/fix problem resolution How to… Question • What web-based solutions might be used to resolve each of the following? – An employee cannot open a document because he has an out-of-date version of the word processing software the company uses. – A user who called to report a printer is out of toner. – A user who called about a problem two hours ago wants to know why it has not been solved yet. Progressive Support • Stage 1: Automated help – No action required by the user, happens in the background • Stage 2: Self-Service – User actively seeks help • Stage 3: Real-time assisted support – Live contact between the user and support • Stage 4: Delayed assisted support – Delayed contact with support, i.e., by e-mail Question • What would you do to motivate employees to use a new Web-based support service? • Why are progressive stages of support provided on a Web site? • Why would a helpdesk put product documentation on a support site? • Case Study – Marketing Web-based Support, page 177 • Strategies – 1,2 & 3 Pages 182 & 183 Chapter 7 Performance Management Performance Management • Measuring the performance of a helpdesk is challenging, because statistics that seem impressive at first glance are often misleading when examined more closely. • Example: – Number of calls received by an analyst. – Number of calls closed. Service Level Agreement (SLA) • An SLA is a written agreement between the support helpdesk and its customers (users) that defines the nature and levels of service provided. • See Fig. 7.1 and page 304 for examples. Characteristics of Effective SLAs • Based on business objectives and user requirements • Developed in conjunction with the helpdesk personnel and the users • Define roles & responsibilities of both sides • Define levels of services • Define response times • Service Evaluation defined • Include metrics, reporting, conflict resolution • Define services provided • Realistic SLA Benefits • Two-way accountability for all services provided • Negotiated and standardised services • Documentation of services • Definition of criteria for evaluation • Provision for performance improvement • Read the SLA from page 304. • Does this SLA meet the characteristics of effective SLAs as identified on page 187? • Performance Metrics • Monitoring the helpdesk performance to determine the level of service provided. • Quantitative data from: – Problem management tracking system (HelpStar) – Automated call distribution (ACD) systems – Call monitoring – Customer satisfaction surveys Metrics • • • • • Takes time & effort Define metrics and set targets Collect , analyse and report results Metrics require monitoring and adjustment Must be achievable Metrics • See Table 7.1 on page 189 and descriptions on pages 190 to 193 Interpreting Metrics • Understanding and interpreting performance metrics is crucial to the success of the helpdesk. • The overall goal is increased customer satisfaction. • Metrics should only be used as a means to improve customer satisfaction not as a “carrot and stick”. • See situations defined on pages 195 & 196. Customer Satisfaction • The customers perspective of the service that is being provided by the helpdesk • Influenced by: – Quality of the answer – Hold time – Total time to resolve their problem – Courtesy & respect shown – Knowledge of the helpdesk personnel Measuring Customer Satisfaction • Formal methods – Surveys, questionnaires, evaluation forms • Informal methods – Telephone call, e-mails, conversation, Customer Satisfaction Surveys • Part of the quality assurance program for the helpdesk • Event based satisfaction – A one-time survey after an event • Overall satisfaction – Ongoing surveys Question Write a list of the questions you would include in an annual customer satisfaction survey. Call Monitoring • For observing and evaluating agents performance for quality assurance the training purposes • See Call Recording: Beyond Metrics page 203 Effective Call Monitoring • • • • Inform analysts that they may be monitored Clarify the purpose of call monitoring Identify lines that are not monitored (if any) Only qualified designated personnel are permitted to monitor • Evaluation criteria are objective and standardised and are applied consistently • Prompt constructive feedback • Anonymous results reported Questions • Should an SLA for a new service use aggressive service standards or conservative service standards? Why? • What is the relationship between customer satisfaction and standard metrics? Written assignments Reflective writing: a basic introduction An increasing number of courses require students to write reflectively. Reflective writing may be an occasional requirement or it may be a core feature of most or all assignments. There are many different models of reflection and it is vital that you follow any guidelines offered on your course. The aim of this handout is to model some basic ideas about reflective writing. We are not suggesting that this is the only way to approach it! What is reflective writing? Reflective writing is evidence of reflective thinking. In an academic context, reflective thinking usually involves: 1 Looking back at something (often an event, i.e. something that happened, but it could also be an idea or object). 2 Analysing the event or idea (thinking in depth and from different perspectives, and trying to explain, often with reference to a model or theory from your subject). 3 Thinking carefully about what the event or idea means for you and your ongoing progress as a learner and/or practising professional. Reflective writing is thus more personal than other kinds of academic writing. We all think reflectively in everyday life, of course, but perhaps not to the same depth as that expected in good reflective writing at university level. Example of basic reflective writing Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. Initially, however, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by all team members. Cooperation between group members was at risk because of this perception of unfairness. Social interdependence theory recognises a type of group interaction called ‘positive interdependence’, meaning cooperation (Johnson & Johnson, 1993, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2001), and many studies have demonstrated that “cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement” (Maughan & Webb, 2001). Ultimately, our group achieved a successful outcome, but to improve the process, we perhaps needed a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks were being shared out. In future group work, on the course and at work, I would probably suggest this. Reference Maughan, C., & Webb, J. (2001). Small group learning and assessment. Retrieved August 01, 2007, from the Higher Education Academy website: www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/temp/assessment.html A possible structure for reflective writing Reflective thinking – especially if done in discussion with others – can be very ‘free’ and unstructured and still be very useful. Even reflective writing can be unstructured, for example when it is done in a personal diary. In assignments that require reflective writing, however, tutors normally expect to see carefully-structured writing. The example of basic reflective writing on the previous page can be broken down into three parts: description, interpretation and outcome. 1 Description (keep this bit short!) What happened? What is being examined? Specific tasks were shared out amongst members of my team. Initially, however, the tasks were not seen as equally difficult by all team members. 2 Interpretation What is most important / interesting / useful / relevant about the object, event or idea? How can it be explained e.g. with theory? How is it similar to and different from others? Cooperation between group members was at risk because of this perception of unfairness. Social interdependence theory recognises a type of group interaction called ‘positive interdependence’, meaning cooperation (Johnson & Johnson, 1993, cited by Maughan & Webb, 2001), and many studies have demonstrated that “cooperative learning experiences encourage higher achievement” (Maughan & Webb, 2001). 3 Outcome What have I learned from this? What does this mean for my future? Ultimately, our group achieved a successful outcome, but to improve our achievement, we perhaps needed a chairperson to help encourage cooperation when tasks were being shared out. In future group work (on the course and at work), I would probably suggest this. This is just one way of structuring reflective writing. There are others and you may be required to follow a particular model. Whichever approach to reflection you use, however, try to bear in mind the following four key points (all of which were made by course tutors who set and mark reflective work): • Reflection is an exploration and an explanation of events – not just a description of them. • Genuinely reflective writing often involves ‘revealing’ anxieties, errors and weaknesses, as well as strengths and successes. This is fine (in fact it’s often essential!), as long as you show some understanding of possible causes, and explain how you plan to improve. • It is normally necessary to select just the most significant parts of the event or idea on which you’re reflecting. (The next page has some suggestions on how to do this in your writing.) If you try to ‘tell the whole story’ you’re likely to use up your words on description rather than interpretation. • It is often useful to ‘reflect forward’ to the future as well as ‘reflecting back’ on the past. Vocabulary aid The following are just a few suggestions for words and phrases that might be useful in reflective writing. Using any of these words and phrases will not in itself make you a good reflective writer, of course! The vocabulary aid is structured according to the three-part analysis that is modelled on the previous page of this handout. 1 Description (the short bit!) We are not suggesting specific vocabulary for any descriptive elements of your reflective writing, because the range of possible events, ideas or objects on which you might be required to reflect is so great. Do remember, though, that if describing an idea, for example a theory or model, it is usually best to use the present tense e.g. ‘Social interdependence theory recognises…’ (not ‘recognised’). Events, of course, are nearly always described using the past tense. 2 Interpretation (probably the most important bit) ⎧ aspect(s) ⎪ element(s) ⎨ experience(s) ⎪ issue(s) ⎩ idea(s) ⎧ meaningful ⎪ significant ⎨ important ⎪ relevant ⎩ useful For me, the [most] was (were)… ⎧ arose from… ⎨ happened when… ⎩ resulted from… learning Previously, At the time, At first Initially, Subsequently, Later, [Alternatively,] [Equally,] This [Un]Like... ⎫ ⎪ ⎬ ⎪ ⎭ ⎧ ⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎩ I thought (did not think)... felt (did not feel)... knew (did not know)... noticed (did not notice)... questioned (did not question)... realised (did not realise)... be ⎧ might is perhaps ⎨ could be ⎩ is probably This ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ is similar to... is unlike... this of… ⎧ because due to… ⎨ explained by… ⎩ related to… because… ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ reveals… demonstrates… 3 Outcome Having ⎧ read... experienced... ⎪ applied... ⎨ discussed... ⎪ analysed... ⎩ learned... I now ⎫ [Additionally,] ⎪ ⎬ [Furthermore,] ⎪ [Most importantly,] ⎭ I have significantly ⎫ ⎪ slightly However, I have not [sufficiently] ⎬ ⎪ ⎭ ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ ⎧ feel… think… ⎪ realise… ⎨ wonder… ⎪ question… ⎩ know… I have learned that... skills in… ⎧ my my understanding of… ⎨ my knowledge of… ⎩ my ability to… developed improved This means that… This makes me feel… This knowledge This understanding This skill Because I ⎧ is ⎨ could be ⎩ will be ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ essential important useful ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ not... ⎧ did have not yet... ⎪ am not yet certain about... ⎨ am not yet confident about... ⎪ do not yet know... ⎩ do not yet understand... to me as a learner [because…] to me as a practitioner [because…] I will now need to… As a next step, I need to… Martin Hampton email: academicskills@port.ac.uk www.port.ac.uk/ask WA13a: 08/10 DCQE Department for Curriculum and Quality Enhancement Self-Reflection When you complete this project, reflect on the process by answering the statements below: What I did: (explain what you or your group did to finish your project.) What I enjoyed: (write about what you liked most about the project) What I found difficult: (write about any part of the project you found hard to do.) What really worked: (write about any part that you thought worked well). Next time: (write what you would do differently next time).
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