Drafting Your Abstract
Your Topic Area:
_______________________________________
DRAFTING THE ABSTRACT – Draft the abstract of your final paper. Remember to meet the limits of
150-250 words in the final version of the abstract. You may handwrite or type your draft in the spaces
provided, or you may word process, and attach your abstract. This is a draft. You will revisit it when
you have completed your final paper, and revise it as needed, based on your final product.
Part 1 -
State the issue/topic & problem
This should be based on your problem statement, but revised for brevity:
Part 2 -
Explain the methods/procedures/approaches
Outline the perspectives of inquiry in your preferred order. If appropriate, discuss
the research process you used, and/or the key research sources you employed:
Part 3 -
Reveal your results and findings (understandings from inquiry papers)
Briefly describe the key take-aways or major/main points from each of the inquiry sections:
Part 4 -
Disclose/expose your concluding solution
Avoid the details, but divulge the solution you will propose in the concluding section:
Drafting Your Abstract
Your Topic Area:
_______________________________________
DRAFTING THE ABSTRACT – Draft the abstract of your final paper. Remember to meet the limits of
150-250 words in the final version of the abstract. You may handwrite or type your draft in the spaces
provided, or you may word process, and attach your abstract. This is a draft. You will revisit it when
you have completed your final paper, and revise it as needed, based on your final product.
Part 1 -
State the issue/topic & problem
This should be based on your problem statement, but revised for brevity:
Part 2 -
Explain the methods/procedures/approaches
Outline the perspectives of inquiry in your preferred order. If appropriate, discuss
the research process you used, and/or the key research sources you employed:
Part 3 -
Reveal your results and findings (understandings from inquiry papers)
Briefly describe the key take-aways or major/main points from each of the inquiry sections:
Part 4 -
Disclose/expose your concluding solution
Avoid the details, but divulge the solution you will propose in the concluding section:
1
Negative Impact of Social Disparities and Racism in Workplace And It’s Negative
Influence Among Low Income Population Health.
xxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
2
Abstract
Social disparities have led to decades of negative health outcomes for low-income families,
Latino and African Americans, population. To better understand the feasibility of the proposed
solution to the problem, which involves creating a culturally diverse workplace in the workplace
from the public, this paper focused on a review of existing findings on the issue of social
differences in the American workplace and the countermeasures that have been implemented
before. The focus on this topic is because of the nature of the workers and the workplace climate
because most of the disparities in healthcare emanate from the workplace. Also, nurses play a
critical role in advocating for the rights of the patients, and when the composition is biased
against minority populations, the possibility of achieving positive outcomes is limited. Racism in
the workplace has reduced although with minimal positive effects. Thus, the proposed solution is
to create a culture that tolerates differences, from the public to the workplace through legal and
ethical standards of employment and patient care.
3
Introduction
Social disparities and racism have a negative effect on the quality of care and has
been associated to workplace discrimination. While several factors play a role in the
prevalence of this issue, healthcare policies that disappointedly benefit marginalized populations
are major contributors (Selden & Berdahl, 2020). African Americans and Latino communities
are at a higher possibility of living in low-income neighborhoods, working in riskier occupations,
and having more underlying health conditions and limited access to health care (Selden &
Berdahl, 2020). Despite the attempts by the United States government to bridge the mitigating
factors, a disparity remains (Selden & Berdahl, 2020). Data from the National Academy of
Sciences demonstrates that African Americans are predisposed to poor healthcare delivery
compared to their white peers (Zapolski & Oruche, 2020). Social disparities and racism have
been cited as the major contributor to this issue. Additionally, implicit bias from care providers is
also a major contributor (Selden & Berdahl, 2020).
Increasing diversified healthcare providers and focusing on promoting inclusive
healthcare employment policies are potential solutions to social disparity in access to quality
affordable care. To better understand the feasibility of the proposed solution to the problem,
which involves creating a culturally diverse workplace in the workplace from the public, this
paper focused on a review of existing findings on the issue of social differences in the American
workplace and the countermeasures that have been implemented before.
In this paper, eight questions will be answered from the historical, mathematical, cultural,
and ethical, perspectives of inquiry related to the thesis.
4
Historical Perspective of Inquiry
•
What are the Historical Aspects of Racism that Bred Racial Discrimination in the
Workplace?
•
How has Racial Discrimination been Institutionalized in the Workplace?
Mathematical Perspective
•
How have the reported cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace Against Blacks
Changed Over Time?
•
How Has Racial Composition of the American Workforce Changed Overtime?
Cultural Perspective
•
What is the relationship between perceived racial discrimination at work and its outcomes
among minorities?
•
how does a change to a major employment discrimination law influence employee
reaction to perceived discrimination?
Ethical Perspective
•
Is workplace discrimination based on race morally justifiable?
•
How can interventions against racial discrimination at work be Customized for Optimum
Positive Effect?
5
Historical Perspective of Inquiry
Level One: What are the Historical Aspects of Racism that Bred Racial Discrimination in
the Workplace?
The race is not a term that has been used in modern times only, it has existed for
centuries. In the 1500s, the term ‘race’ was commonly used to define people with affiliations to
popular entities. While the world got along without race for most of its history, the U.S. has
never been without it. The concept of “race,” as it is understood and used today, was part of the
evolution and development of the United States and has a strong connection with the emergence
of the terms “white” and “slave.” Race, which is currently used as the means of categorizing
people based on their color and origin, was brought by the Europeans, who did not use the term
the same way as it is used today (National Museum of African American History and Culture,
2019). The basis for discrimination in the United States workforce is the color of the individuals,
as people of color are considered inferior, and unworthy of better working conditions, pay, or
workplace benefits compared to their white peers (Fekedulegn et al., 2019).
These discriminations were the results of the biased needs of the developing American
society. 17th century European Enlightenment philosophers preferred secular reasoning,
rationality in contrary to faith-based religious understandings of the world. These new beliefs
were based on the notion that the world and human beings were guided and governed by natural
laws. (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019)
Misguided by this understanding, the idea that white people are smarter and better off,
with more intelligence and more human compared to people of color developed over the
centuries. This misguided belief has been accepted the world over and found its way into several
6
sectors in the United States, involving the employment sector. It would transcend to be the
foundation for the European colonization and subsequent enslavement of African people.
Enslaved people, “slaves,” had to work for others. The same concept can be inferred from how
Blacks are treated today within the American employment sector. (National Museum of African
American History and Culture, 2019)
Level 2: How has Racial Discrimination been Institutionalized in the Workplace?
The definition of race has changed significantly, and how it is used in the workplace is
based more on the superficial physical features of the person rather than their ancestral or
familial origins (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019). For
instance, a young Black man can be seen as a “Black person,” or as a “young person,” or as a
“man” He may be exposed to discrimination based on any of the grounds of race and/or color,
age, and gender on their own. However, he may also be exposed to discrimination on intersecting
grounds based on being identified as a "young Black man" based on the various assumptions
and/or stereotypes that are uniquely associated with this socially significant intersection
(National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
The term “white is entangled with the word “race” and “slave” in the American culture.
As a result, the white supremacists have created “races” of “subhuman” Africans, and
supernatural “white” men (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
The inferior races, composed of people of color, are pushed down the ladder in society, work
positions, and other sectors. Tragically, American culture, from the very beginning, developed
around the ideas of race and racism. John Lewis, a former Congressman and one of the Civil
Rights Movement pioneers, argued that "The scars and stains of racism are still deeply embedded
in the American society" (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
7
Therefore, drawing from the long and troubling history of racism in America, one can argue that
the current racial discrimination in the United States is the due to fact that American society has
had generations of ideas about race that still circulate, and legal and social policies that have
profoundly shaped the lives of nonwhite and white people (National Museum of African
American History and Culture, 2019). The long-term effects are that an incredible gap has been
created between white people and Black people in terms of household income, one that has
widened since 1967.
Mathematical Perspective
Level Question: How have the reported cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace
Against Blacks Changed Over Time?
Racial discrimination has been embedded within American history for decades. In the
workplace, the cases are not different. Based on an analysis of data from 1997 to 2018, from
EEOC Enforcement & Litigation Statistics, authors from Paychex found that from 1997 to 2018,
1,889,631 discrimination complaints were filed with the EEOC. In 2017, most of the cases were
grouped as retaliation (49%), race (34%), disability (32%), or sex (over 30%). This means that
racial discrimination is the second most common form of discrimination in the workplace.
However, the same study found that only 64% of racial discrimination cases are reported,
considering that most employees choose not to report such cases because of mitigating factors
such as fear of retaliation, termination, or general lack of trust in law enforcement agencies to
handle their cases with the anticipated precision. This is because, despite racial discrimination
cases being commonly reported, only 15% of those reported end with an agreement or
settlement. As a result, the prevalence rate of racial discrimination in the workplace is not clearly
established. Additionally, Southern States are frequented with race-based discrimination cases,
8
with Alabama leading the least with 62.2 complaints per 100,000 residents, followed by
Mississippi and Georgia in the third place. The same data shows that although racial
discrimination cases have decreased in other states, such as Minnesota (nearly 69%) and Oregon
(57%), other states like Utah (almost 104%) and Connecticut (56%) recorded significant
increases between 2009 and 2018. (Paychex, 2019)
Despite the implementation of policies such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the number of
race and color-based discrimination cases reported has not changed significantly. Between 1997
and 2018, more than 710,500 racial discrimination complaints were filed against the EEOC
(Paychex, 2019). However, the overall number of cases slumped slightly from 2002 to 2005,
although an intense spike in color and race discrimination charges was recorded from 2006
through 2010 (Paychex, 2019). The total number of color and race discrimination charges
remains higher than any other category of complaints. A 2019 study by Fekedulegn, Alterman,
Charles, Kershaw, Safford, Howard & MacDonald (2019) indicated that blacks were seven times
more likely to suffer from racial discrimination than whites.
Level Two Question: How Has Racial Composition of the American Workforce Changed
Over time?
Statistically, the basic structure of the American workplace, in term of race, age, gender,
and ethnicity have changed significantly over the last seven decades. In 2017, Naranjo and
Vizcaino conducted an in-depth analysis of data collected from IPUMS-USA on the age, gender,
race, educational level, and current occupation of workers. The authors categorized the data into
white, black, Asian, and other for ease of analysis concerning the racial composition of
American workers. Based on the analysis, which included data collected between 1950 and 2015,
the authors mapped the shifts in the composition of the American works over these years. They
9
established that generally, nonwhites have increased in the American workforce, comprising one
in four workers, contrary to the 1950s when their part in the job sector was lower than a third of
the whole workforce (Naranjo & Vizcaino, 2017). In terms of wage earnings, the analysis
pointed to the significant increase in the number of nonwhites occupying some of the highest
levels of professions, noting that from virtually being negligible in these two broad groups of
higher-paying occupations, nonwhite workers now account for 20% of professionals and 15
percent of managers (Naranjo & Vizcaino, 2017). These changes are partly attributed to the
increase in college enrollment for nonwhites, as well as the elimination of distortions or barriers
in the workplace that bars them from professional development.
10
Conclusions
Racism in the United States is not a story of the recent past. It has been there for
centuries, and despite several measures having been proposed and some implemented, these
solutions have had limited effect in addressing the issue of racial discrimination in the healthcare
sector, among other sectors. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to (1) illuminate and inform
healthcare policymakers, providers, and the public about the existence of systematic racial
discrimination in healthcare, and (2), propose a solution to address the issue of the higher cost of
accessing quality care for African Americans. With such solutions in place, the overall quality of
life of African Americans will improve, and the United States will experience significant
reductions in healthcare costs that it currently faces. African Americans have suffered from the
negative effects of racial discrimination for decades. These suffering emerge from the emergence
of the definitions of race and whites as the constructs for defining the fitness of individuals in the
hierarchy of intelligent and worthy individuals. The idea that one person or group of people is
better than the other based on their skin color or racial background continues to remain a
significant feature of diverse communities or nations. The initial foundations and development of
white privilege are associated with European colonialism and contact with indigenous people.
Studies have shown a detailed history of white privilege. These are just some of the examples of
the actions that led to the development of white privilege, which continues to affect non-white
populations in countries like America. White privileges led to exclusions and segregation, with
people of color denied access to better job opportunities. People of color are seen as a danger to
the white community, and a threat to their civilization. Therefore, based on these ideologies, a
person of color is less likely to have the privilege of being employed for higher or executive
positions. Issues of white privilege and colorism continues to be an issue in American society, as
11
demonstrated by the persistence of racial discrimination against Blacks in the American
workforce. Therefore, the proposed solution is to create a culture that tolerates differences, from
the public to the workplace through legal and ethical standards of employment and patient care.
12
References
Fekedulegn, D., Alterman, T., Charles, L., Kershaw, K., Safford, M., Howard, V., &
MacDonald, L. (2019). Prevalence of workplace discrimination and mistreatment in a
national sample of older U.S. workers: The REGARDS cohort study. SSM - Population
Health, 8, 100444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100444
Hunter, N. (2018). Statutory Protections for Individual Rights. The Law Of Emergencies, 165189. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-804275-5.00010-3
Naranjo, A., & Vizcaino, J. (2017). Shifting Times: The Evolution of the American Workplace.
Regional Economist. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/fourth-quarter2017/evolution-american-workplace.
National Museum of African American History and Culture. (2019). Historical Foundations of
Race. National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race.
Paychex. (2019). Employment and Discrimination: Exploring the Climate of Workplace
Discrimination from 1997 to 2018. Paychex. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.paychex.com/articles/human-resources/eeoc-workplace-discriminationenforcement-and-litigation.
Salter, P., Adams, G., & Perez, M. (2017). Racism in the Structure of Everyday Worlds: A
Cultural-Psychological Perspective. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 27(3), 150155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417724239
13
Triana, M., Jayasinghe, M., & Pieper, J. (2017). Perceived workplace racial discrimination and
its correlates: A meta-analysis. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 36(4), 491-513.
https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1989
United Nations. (2019). The Ideology of Racism: Misusing Science to Justify Racial
Discrimination. United Nations. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/ideology-racism-misusing-science-justify-racialdiscrimination.
1
Negative Impact of Social Disparities and Racism in Workplace And It’s Negative
Influence Among Low Income Population Health.
xxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
2
Abstract
Social disparities have led to decades of negative health outcomes for low-income families,
Latino and African Americans, population. To better understand the feasibility of the proposed
solution to the problem, which involves creating a culturally diverse workplace in the workplace
from the public, this paper focused on a review of existing findings on the issue of social
differences in the American workplace and the countermeasures that have been implemented
before. The focus on this topic is because of the nature of the workers and the workplace climate
because most of the disparities in healthcare emanate from the workplace. Also, nurses play a
critical role in advocating for the rights of the patients, and when the composition is biased
against minority populations, the possibility of achieving positive outcomes is limited. Racism in
the workplace has reduced although with minimal positive effects. Thus, the proposed solution is
to create a culture that tolerates differences, from the public to the workplace through legal and
ethical standards of employment and patient care.
3
Introduction
Social disparities and racism have a negative effect on the quality of care and has
been associated to workplace discrimination. While several factors play a role in the
prevalence of this issue, healthcare policies that disappointedly benefit marginalized populations
are major contributors (Selden & Berdahl, 2020). African Americans and Latino communities
are at a higher possibility of living in low-income neighborhoods, working in riskier occupations,
and having more underlying health conditions and limited access to health care (Selden &
Berdahl, 2020). Despite the attempts by the United States government to bridge the mitigating
factors, a disparity remains (Selden & Berdahl, 2020). Data from the National Academy of
Sciences demonstrates that African Americans are predisposed to poor healthcare delivery
compared to their white peers (Zapolski & Oruche, 2020). Social disparities and racism have
been cited as the major contributor to this issue. Additionally, implicit bias from care providers is
also a major contributor (Selden & Berdahl, 2020).
Increasing diversified healthcare providers and focusing on promoting inclusive
healthcare employment policies are potential solutions to social disparity in access to quality
affordable care. To better understand the feasibility of the proposed solution to the problem,
which involves creating a culturally diverse workplace in the workplace from the public, this
paper focused on a review of existing findings on the issue of social differences in the American
workplace and the countermeasures that have been implemented before.
In this paper, eight questions will be answered from the historical, mathematical, cultural,
and ethical, perspectives of inquiry related to the thesis.
4
Historical Perspective of Inquiry
•
What are the Historical Aspects of Racism that Bred Racial Discrimination in the
Workplace?
•
How has Racial Discrimination been Institutionalized in the Workplace?
Mathematical Perspective
•
How have the reported cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace Against Blacks
Changed Over Time?
•
How Has Racial Composition of the American Workforce Changed Overtime?
Cultural Perspective
•
What is the relationship between perceived racial discrimination at work and its outcomes
among minorities?
•
how does a change to a major employment discrimination law influence employee
reaction to perceived discrimination?
Ethical Perspective
•
Is workplace discrimination based on race morally justifiable?
•
How can interventions against racial discrimination at work be Customized for Optimum
Positive Effect?
5
Historical Perspective of Inquiry
Level One: What are the Historical Aspects of Racism that Bred Racial Discrimination in
the Workplace?
The race is not a term that has been used in modern times only, it has existed for
centuries. In the 1500s, the term ‘race’ was commonly used to define people with affiliations to
popular entities. While the world got along without race for most of its history, the U.S. has
never been without it. The concept of “race,” as it is understood and used today, was part of the
evolution and development of the United States and has a strong connection with the emergence
of the terms “white” and “slave.” Race, which is currently used as the means of categorizing
people based on their color and origin, was brought by the Europeans, who did not use the term
the same way as it is used today (National Museum of African American History and Culture,
2019). The basis for discrimination in the United States workforce is the color of the individuals,
as people of color are considered inferior, and unworthy of better working conditions, pay, or
workplace benefits compared to their white peers (Fekedulegn et al., 2019).
These discriminations were the results of the biased needs of the developing American
society. 17th century European Enlightenment philosophers preferred secular reasoning,
rationality in contrary to faith-based religious understandings of the world. These new beliefs
were based on the notion that the world and human beings were guided and governed by natural
laws. (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019)
Misguided by this understanding, the idea that white people are smarter and better off,
with more intelligence and more human compared to people of color developed over the
centuries. This misguided belief has been accepted the world over and found its way into several
6
sectors in the United States, involving the employment sector. It would transcend to be the
foundation for the European colonization and subsequent enslavement of African people.
Enslaved people, “slaves,” had to work for others. The same concept can be inferred from how
Blacks are treated today within the American employment sector. (National Museum of African
American History and Culture, 2019)
Level 2: How has Racial Discrimination been Institutionalized in the Workplace?
The definition of race has changed significantly, and how it is used in the workplace is
based more on the superficial physical features of the person rather than their ancestral or
familial origins (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019). For
instance, a young Black man can be seen as a “Black person,” or as a “young person,” or as a
“man” He may be exposed to discrimination based on any of the grounds of race and/or color,
age, and gender on their own. However, he may also be exposed to discrimination on intersecting
grounds based on being identified as a "young Black man" based on the various assumptions
and/or stereotypes that are uniquely associated with this socially significant intersection
(National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
The term “white is entangled with the word “race” and “slave” in the American culture.
As a result, the white supremacists have created “races” of “subhuman” Africans, and
supernatural “white” men (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
The inferior races, composed of people of color, are pushed down the ladder in society, work
positions, and other sectors. Tragically, American culture, from the very beginning, developed
around the ideas of race and racism. John Lewis, a former Congressman and one of the Civil
Rights Movement pioneers, argued that "The scars and stains of racism are still deeply embedded
in the American society" (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
7
Therefore, drawing from the long and troubling history of racism in America, one can argue that
the current racial discrimination in the United States is the due to fact that American society has
had generations of ideas about race that still circulate, and legal and social policies that have
profoundly shaped the lives of nonwhite and white people (National Museum of African
American History and Culture, 2019). The long-term effects are that an incredible gap has been
created between white people and Black people in terms of household income, one that has
widened since 1967.
Mathematical Perspective
Level Question: How have the reported cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace
Against Blacks Changed Over Time?
Racial discrimination has been embedded within American history for decades. In the
workplace, the cases are not different. Based on an analysis of data from 1997 to 2018, from
EEOC Enforcement & Litigation Statistics, authors from Paychex found that from 1997 to 2018,
1,889,631 discrimination complaints were filed with the EEOC. In 2017, most of the cases were
grouped as retaliation (49%), race (34%), disability (32%), or sex (over 30%). This means that
racial discrimination is the second most common form of discrimination in the workplace.
However, the same study found that only 64% of racial discrimination cases are reported,
considering that most employees choose not to report such cases because of mitigating factors
such as fear of retaliation, termination, or general lack of trust in law enforcement agencies to
handle their cases with the anticipated precision. This is because, despite racial discrimination
cases being commonly reported, only 15% of those reported end with an agreement or
settlement. As a result, the prevalence rate of racial discrimination in the workplace is not clearly
established. Additionally, Southern States are frequented with race-based discrimination cases,
8
with Alabama leading the least with 62.2 complaints per 100,000 residents, followed by
Mississippi and Georgia in the third place. The same data shows that although racial
discrimination cases have decreased in other states, such as Minnesota (nearly 69%) and Oregon
(57%), other states like Utah (almost 104%) and Connecticut (56%) recorded significant
increases between 2009 and 2018. (Paychex, 2019)
Despite the implementation of policies such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the number of
race and color-based discrimination cases reported has not changed significantly. Between 1997
and 2018, more than 710,500 racial discrimination complaints were filed against the EEOC
(Paychex, 2019). However, the overall number of cases slumped slightly from 2002 to 2005,
although an intense spike in color and race discrimination charges was recorded from 2006
through 2010 (Paychex, 2019). The total number of color and race discrimination charges
remains higher than any other category of complaints. A 2019 study by Fekedulegn, Alterman,
Charles, Kershaw, Safford, Howard & MacDonald (2019) indicated that blacks were seven times
more likely to suffer from racial discrimination than whites.
Level Two Question: How Has Racial Composition of the American Workforce Changed
Over time?
Statistically, the basic structure of the American workplace, in term of race, age, gender,
and ethnicity have changed significantly over the last seven decades. In 2017, Naranjo and
Vizcaino conducted an in-depth analysis of data collected from IPUMS-USA on the age, gender,
race, educational level, and current occupation of workers. The authors categorized the data into
white, black, Asian, and other for ease of analysis concerning the racial composition of
American workers. Based on the analysis, which included data collected between 1950 and 2015,
the authors mapped the shifts in the composition of the American works over these years. They
9
established that generally, nonwhites have increased in the American workforce, comprising one
in four workers, contrary to the 1950s when their part in the job sector was lower than a third of
the whole workforce (Naranjo & Vizcaino, 2017). In terms of wage earnings, the analysis
pointed to the significant increase in the number of nonwhites occupying some of the highest
levels of professions, noting that from virtually being negligible in these two broad groups of
higher-paying occupations, nonwhite workers now account for 20% of professionals and 15
percent of managers (Naranjo & Vizcaino, 2017). These changes are partly attributed to the
increase in college enrollment for nonwhites, as well as the elimination of distortions or barriers
in the workplace that bars them from professional development.
10
Conclusions
Racism in the United States is not a story of the recent past. It has been there for
centuries, and despite several measures having been proposed and some implemented, these
solutions have had limited effect in addressing the issue of racial discrimination in the healthcare
sector, among other sectors. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to (1) illuminate and inform
healthcare policymakers, providers, and the public about the existence of systematic racial
discrimination in healthcare, and (2), propose a solution to address the issue of the higher cost of
accessing quality care for African Americans. With such solutions in place, the overall quality of
life of African Americans will improve, and the United States will experience significant
reductions in healthcare costs that it currently faces. African Americans have suffered from the
negative effects of racial discrimination for decades. These suffering emerge from the emergence
of the definitions of race and whites as the constructs for defining the fitness of individuals in the
hierarchy of intelligent and worthy individuals. The idea that one person or group of people is
better than the other based on their skin color or racial background continues to remain a
significant feature of diverse communities or nations. The initial foundations and development of
white privilege are associated with European colonialism and contact with indigenous people.
Studies have shown a detailed history of white privilege. These are just some of the examples of
the actions that led to the development of white privilege, which continues to affect non-white
populations in countries like America. White privileges led to exclusions and segregation, with
people of color denied access to better job opportunities. People of color are seen as a danger to
the white community, and a threat to their civilization. Therefore, based on these ideologies, a
person of color is less likely to have the privilege of being employed for higher or executive
positions. Issues of white privilege and colorism continues to be an issue in American society, as
11
demonstrated by the persistence of racial discrimination against Blacks in the American
workforce. Therefore, the proposed solution is to create a culture that tolerates differences, from
the public to the workplace through legal and ethical standards of employment and patient care.
12
References
Fekedulegn, D., Alterman, T., Charles, L., Kershaw, K., Safford, M., Howard, V., &
MacDonald, L. (2019). Prevalence of workplace discrimination and mistreatment in a
national sample of older U.S. workers: The REGARDS cohort study. SSM - Population
Health, 8, 100444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100444
Hunter, N. (2018). Statutory Protections for Individual Rights. The Law Of Emergencies, 165189. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-804275-5.00010-3
Naranjo, A., & Vizcaino, J. (2017). Shifting Times: The Evolution of the American Workplace.
Regional Economist. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/fourth-quarter2017/evolution-american-workplace.
National Museum of African American History and Culture. (2019). Historical Foundations of
Race. National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race.
Paychex. (2019). Employment and Discrimination: Exploring the Climate of Workplace
Discrimination from 1997 to 2018. Paychex. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.paychex.com/articles/human-resources/eeoc-workplace-discriminationenforcement-and-litigation.
Salter, P., Adams, G., & Perez, M. (2017). Racism in the Structure of Everyday Worlds: A
Cultural-Psychological Perspective. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 27(3), 150155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417724239
13
Triana, M., Jayasinghe, M., & Pieper, J. (2017). Perceived workplace racial discrimination and
its correlates: A meta-analysis. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 36(4), 491-513.
https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1989
United Nations. (2019). The Ideology of Racism: Misusing Science to Justify Racial
Discrimination. United Nations. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/ideology-racism-misusing-science-justify-racialdiscrimination.
1
Negative Impact of Social Disparities and Racism in Workplace And It’s Negative
Influence Among Low Income Population Health.
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Abstract
Social disparities have led to decades of negative health outcomes for low-income families,
Latino and African Americans, population. To better understand the feasibility of the proposed
solution to the problem, which involves creating a culturally diverse workplace in the workplace
from the public, this paper focused on a review of existing findings on the issue of social
differences in the American workplace and the countermeasures that have been implemented
before. The focus on this topic is because of the nature of the workers and the workplace climate
because most of the disparities in healthcare emanate from the workplace. Also, nurses play a
critical role in advocating for the rights of the patients, and when the composition is biased
against minority populations, the possibility of achieving positive outcomes is limited. Racism in
the workplace has reduced although with minimal positive effects. Thus, the proposed solution is
to create a culture that tolerates differences, from the public to the workplace through legal and
ethical standards of employment and patient care.
3
Introduction
Social disparities and racism have a negative effect on the quality of care and has
been associated to workplace discrimination. While several factors play a role in the
prevalence of this issue, healthcare policies that disappointedly benefit marginalized populations
are major contributors (Selden & Berdahl, 2020). African Americans and Latino communities
are at a higher possibility of living in low-income neighborhoods, working in riskier occupations,
and having more underlying health conditions and limited access to health care (Selden &
Berdahl, 2020). Despite the attempts by the United States government to bridge the mitigating
factors, a disparity remains (Selden & Berdahl, 2020). Data from the National Academy of
Sciences demonstrates that African Americans are predisposed to poor healthcare delivery
compared to their white peers (Zapolski & Oruche, 2020). Social disparities and racism have
been cited as the major contributor to this issue. Additionally, implicit bias from care providers is
also a major contributor (Selden & Berdahl, 2020).
Increasing diversified healthcare providers and focusing on promoting inclusive
healthcare employment policies are potential solutions to social disparity in access to quality
affordable care. To better understand the feasibility of the proposed solution to the problem,
which involves creating a culturally diverse workplace in the workplace from the public, this
paper focused on a review of existing findings on the issue of social differences in the American
workplace and the countermeasures that have been implemented before.
In this paper, eight questions will be answered from the historical, mathematical, cultural,
and ethical, perspectives of inquiry related to the thesis.
4
Historical Perspective of Inquiry
•
What are the Historical Aspects of Racism that Bred Racial Discrimination in the
Workplace?
•
How has Racial Discrimination been Institutionalized in the Workplace?
Mathematical Perspective
•
How have the reported cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace Against Blacks
Changed Over Time?
•
How Has Racial Composition of the American Workforce Changed Overtime?
Cultural Perspective
•
What is the relationship between perceived racial discrimination at work and its outcomes
among minorities?
•
how does a change to a major employment discrimination law influence employee
reaction to perceived discrimination?
Ethical Perspective
•
Is workplace discrimination based on race morally justifiable?
•
How can interventions against racial discrimination at work be Customized for Optimum
Positive Effect?
5
Historical Perspective of Inquiry
Level One: What are the Historical Aspects of Racism that Bred Racial Discrimination in
the Workplace?
The race is not a term that has been used in modern times only, it has existed for
centuries. In the 1500s, the term ‘race’ was commonly used to define people with affiliations to
popular entities. While the world got along without race for most of its history, the U.S. has
never been without it. The concept of “race,” as it is understood and used today, was part of the
evolution and development of the United States and has a strong connection with the emergence
of the terms “white” and “slave.” Race, which is currently used as the means of categorizing
people based on their color and origin, was brought by the Europeans, who did not use the term
the same way as it is used today (National Museum of African American History and Culture,
2019). The basis for discrimination in the United States workforce is the color of the individuals,
as people of color are considered inferior, and unworthy of better working conditions, pay, or
workplace benefits compared to their white peers (Fekedulegn et al., 2019).
These discriminations were the results of the biased needs of the developing American
society. 17th century European Enlightenment philosophers preferred secular reasoning,
rationality in contrary to faith-based religious understandings of the world. These new beliefs
were based on the notion that the world and human beings were guided and governed by natural
laws. (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019)
Misguided by this understanding, the idea that white people are smarter and better off,
with more intelligence and more human compared to people of color developed over the
centuries. This misguided belief has been accepted the world over and found its way into several
6
sectors in the United States, involving the employment sector. It would transcend to be the
foundation for the European colonization and subsequent enslavement of African people.
Enslaved people, “slaves,” had to work for others. The same concept can be inferred from how
Blacks are treated today within the American employment sector. (National Museum of African
American History and Culture, 2019)
Level 2: How has Racial Discrimination been Institutionalized in the Workplace?
The definition of race has changed significantly, and how it is used in the workplace is
based more on the superficial physical features of the person rather than their ancestral or
familial origins (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019). For
instance, a young Black man can be seen as a “Black person,” or as a “young person,” or as a
“man” He may be exposed to discrimination based on any of the grounds of race and/or color,
age, and gender on their own. However, he may also be exposed to discrimination on intersecting
grounds based on being identified as a "young Black man" based on the various assumptions
and/or stereotypes that are uniquely associated with this socially significant intersection
(National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
The term “white is entangled with the word “race” and “slave” in the American culture.
As a result, the white supremacists have created “races” of “subhuman” Africans, and
supernatural “white” men (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
The inferior races, composed of people of color, are pushed down the ladder in society, work
positions, and other sectors. Tragically, American culture, from the very beginning, developed
around the ideas of race and racism. John Lewis, a former Congressman and one of the Civil
Rights Movement pioneers, argued that "The scars and stains of racism are still deeply embedded
in the American society" (National Museum of African American History and Culture, 2019).
7
Therefore, drawing from the long and troubling history of racism in America, one can argue that
the current racial discrimination in the United States is the due to fact that American society has
had generations of ideas about race that still circulate, and legal and social policies that have
profoundly shaped the lives of nonwhite and white people (National Museum of African
American History and Culture, 2019). The long-term effects are that an incredible gap has been
created between white people and Black people in terms of household income, one that has
widened since 1967.
Mathematical Perspective
Level Question: How have the reported cases of Racial Discrimination in the Workplace
Against Blacks Changed Over Time?
Racial discrimination has been embedded within American history for decades. In the
workplace, the cases are not different. Based on an analysis of data from 1997 to 2018, from
EEOC Enforcement & Litigation Statistics, authors from Paychex found that from 1997 to 2018,
1,889,631 discrimination complaints were filed with the EEOC. In 2017, most of the cases were
grouped as retaliation (49%), race (34%), disability (32%), or sex (over 30%). This means that
racial discrimination is the second most common form of discrimination in the workplace.
However, the same study found that only 64% of racial discrimination cases are reported,
considering that most employees choose not to report such cases because of mitigating factors
such as fear of retaliation, termination, or general lack of trust in law enforcement agencies to
handle their cases with the anticipated precision. This is because, despite racial discrimination
cases being commonly reported, only 15% of those reported end with an agreement or
settlement. As a result, the prevalence rate of racial discrimination in the workplace is not clearly
established. Additionally, Southern States are frequented with race-based discrimination cases,
8
with Alabama leading the least with 62.2 complaints per 100,000 residents, followed by
Mississippi and Georgia in the third place. The same data shows that although racial
discrimination cases have decreased in other states, such as Minnesota (nearly 69%) and Oregon
(57%), other states like Utah (almost 104%) and Connecticut (56%) recorded significant
increases between 2009 and 2018. (Paychex, 2019)
Despite the implementation of policies such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the number of
race and color-based discrimination cases reported has not changed significantly. Between 1997
and 2018, more than 710,500 racial discrimination complaints were filed against the EEOC
(Paychex, 2019). However, the overall number of cases slumped slightly from 2002 to 2005,
although an intense spike in color and race discrimination charges was recorded from 2006
through 2010 (Paychex, 2019). The total number of color and race discrimination charges
remains higher than any other category of complaints. A 2019 study by Fekedulegn, Alterman,
Charles, Kershaw, Safford, Howard & MacDonald (2019) indicated that blacks were seven times
more likely to suffer from racial discrimination than whites.
Level Two Question: How Has Racial Composition of the American Workforce Changed
Over time?
Statistically, the basic structure of the American workplace, in term of race, age, gender,
and ethnicity have changed significantly over the last seven decades. In 2017, Naranjo and
Vizcaino conducted an in-depth analysis of data collected from IPUMS-USA on the age, gender,
race, educational level, and current occupation of workers. The authors categorized the data into
white, black, Asian, and other for ease of analysis concerning the racial composition of
American workers. Based on the analysis, which included data collected between 1950 and 2015,
the authors mapped the shifts in the composition of the American works over these years. They
9
established that generally, nonwhites have increased in the American workforce, comprising one
in four workers, contrary to the 1950s when their part in the job sector was lower than a third of
the whole workforce (Naranjo & Vizcaino, 2017). In terms of wage earnings, the analysis
pointed to the significant increase in the number of nonwhites occupying some of the highest
levels of professions, noting that from virtually being negligible in these two broad groups of
higher-paying occupations, nonwhite workers now account for 20% of professionals and 15
percent of managers (Naranjo & Vizcaino, 2017). These changes are partly attributed to the
increase in college enrollment for nonwhites, as well as the elimination of distortions or barriers
in the workplace that bars them from professional development.
10
Conclusions
Racism in the United States is not a story of the recent past. It has been there for
centuries, and despite several measures having been proposed and some implemented, these
solutions have had limited effect in addressing the issue of racial discrimination in the healthcare
sector, among other sectors. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to (1) illuminate and inform
healthcare policymakers, providers, and the public about the existence of systematic racial
discrimination in healthcare, and (2), propose a solution to address the issue of the higher cost of
accessing quality care for African Americans. With such solutions in place, the overall quality of
life of African Americans will improve, and the United States will experience significant
reductions in healthcare costs that it currently faces. African Americans have suffered from the
negative effects of racial discrimination for decades. These suffering emerge from the emergence
of the definitions of race and whites as the constructs for defining the fitness of individuals in the
hierarchy of intelligent and worthy individuals. The idea that one person or group of people is
better than the other based on their skin color or racial background continues to remain a
significant feature of diverse communities or nations. The initial foundations and development of
white privilege are associated with European colonialism and contact with indigenous people.
Studies have shown a detailed history of white privilege. These are just some of the examples of
the actions that led to the development of white privilege, which continues to affect non-white
populations in countries like America. White privileges led to exclusions and segregation, with
people of color denied access to better job opportunities. People of color are seen as a danger to
the white community, and a threat to their civilization. Therefore, based on these ideologies, a
person of color is less likely to have the privilege of being employed for higher or executive
positions. Issues of white privilege and colorism continues to be an issue in American society, as
11
demonstrated by the persistence of racial discrimination against Blacks in the American
workforce. Therefore, the proposed solution is to create a culture that tolerates differences, from
the public to the workplace through legal and ethical standards of employment and patient care.
12
References
Fekedulegn, D., Alterman, T., Charles, L., Kershaw, K., Safford, M., Howard, V., &
MacDonald, L. (2019). Prevalence of workplace discrimination and mistreatment in a
national sample of older U.S. workers: The REGARDS cohort study. SSM - Population
Health, 8, 100444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100444
Hunter, N. (2018). Statutory Protections for Individual Rights. The Law Of Emergencies, 165189. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-804275-5.00010-3
Naranjo, A., & Vizcaino, J. (2017). Shifting Times: The Evolution of the American Workplace.
Regional Economist. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/fourth-quarter2017/evolution-american-workplace.
National Museum of African American History and Culture. (2019). Historical Foundations of
Race. National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race.
Paychex. (2019). Employment and Discrimination: Exploring the Climate of Workplace
Discrimination from 1997 to 2018. Paychex. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.paychex.com/articles/human-resources/eeoc-workplace-discriminationenforcement-and-litigation.
Salter, P., Adams, G., & Perez, M. (2017). Racism in the Structure of Everyday Worlds: A
Cultural-Psychological Perspective. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 27(3), 150155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417724239
13
Triana, M., Jayasinghe, M., & Pieper, J. (2017). Perceived workplace racial discrimination and
its correlates: A meta-analysis. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 36(4), 491-513.
https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1989
United Nations. (2019). The Ideology of Racism: Misusing Science to Justify Racial
Discrimination. United Nations. Retrieved 10 July 2022, from
https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/ideology-racism-misusing-science-justify-racialdiscrimination.
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