Chapter 4:
Business Process and
Functional Modeling
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Objectives
Understand the process used to identify business processes and use
cases.
Understand the process used to create use-case diagrams
Understand the process used to model business processes with
activity diagrams.
Understand the rules and style guidelines for activity diagrams.
Understand the process used to create use case descriptions.
Understand the rules and style guidelines for use case descriptions.
Be able to create functional models of business processes using usecase diagrams, activity diagrams, and use case descriptions.
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Introduction
Now begin the process of turning the requirements into
functional models
Models are logical; i.e., independent of how they are implemented
(manual or computerized)
Develop use-cases from the requirements
Use-case: how a business system interacts with its environment
Includes a diagram and a description to depict the discrete activities that
the users perform
Develop activity diagrams from the use-cases
These model the business processes or how a business operates
Used to illustrate the movement of objects (data) between activities
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Business Process Identification
With Use-Cases
Elements of Use-Case Diagrams
Actors: users
or other interacting systems
Associations: lines to connect actors and use-cases
Interactions, inclusions, extensions or generalizations
Use-case:
a major process in the system that gives a
benefit to the users
Subject boundary: a named box that depicts the scope of the
system
An association relationship: links an actor with the use case(s)
with which it interacts
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Business Process Identification
With Use-Cases(Cont.)
Elements of Use-Case Diagrams
An include relationship: Represents the inclusion of the
functionality of one use case within another
An extend relationship: Represents the extension of the use
case to include optional behavior.
A generalization relationship: Represents a specialized use
case to a more generalized one.
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Identifying Major Use-Cases
Review the requirements definition
Identify the subject’s boundaries
Identify the primary actors and their goals
Identify the business processes and major use-cases
Carefully review the current set of use-cases
Split or combine some to create the right size
Identify additional use-cases
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Create a Use-Case Diagram
Place & draw the use-cases
Place & draw the actors
Draw the subject boundary
Add the associations
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Example Use-Case
Library Book Collection
Management System
Use Case Diagram
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BPM With Activity Diagrams
Business processes consist of a number of activities
Activity diagrams depict the sequence of these
activities
Diagrams are abstract and describe processes in general
They model behavior independent of objects
Can be used for any type of process
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Activity Diagram Syntax
• Action or Activity
– Represents action or set of actions
• Control Flow
– Shows sequence of execution
• Initial Node
– The beginning of a set of actions
• Final Node
– Stops all flows in an activity
• Decision Node
– Represents a test condition
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Elements of an Activity Diagram
Actions & Activities
Something performed for some specific business reason
Named with a verb and a noun (e.g., Get Patient
Information)
Activities can be further sub-divided; actions cannot
Object Nodes: represent the flow of information
from one activity to another
Control Flows: model execution paths
Object Flows: model the flow of objects
Control Nodes: 7 types
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Control Nodes
Initial node: the beginning of the set of actions/activities
Final-activity node: stops all actions/activities
Final-flow node: stops one execution path but allows others
to continue
Decision node: represents a test to determine which path to
use to continue (based on a guard condition)
Merge node: rejoins mutually exclusive execution paths
Fork node: separates a single execution path into one or more
parallel paths
Join node: rejoins parallel execution paths
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Activity Diagram Symbols
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Sample Activity Diagram
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Swim lanes
Used to assign
responsibility to objects or
individuals who actually
perform the activity
Represents a separation of
roles among objects
Can be drawn horizontally
or vertically
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Guidelines for Activity Diagrams
1. Set the scope of the activity being modeled
2. Identify the activities; connect them with
flows
3. Identify any decisions that must be made
4. Identify potential parallelism in the process
5. Draw the activity diagram
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Creating an Activity Diagram
Choose a business process identified previously
Review the requirements definition and use-case diagram
Review other documentation collected thus far
Identify the set of activities used in the business
process
Identify control flows and nodes
Identify the object flows and nodes
Lay out & draw the diagram (minimize crossing
lines)
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Use Cases
The primary driver for all UML diagramming
techniques
Depicts activities performed by the users
Describe basic functions of the system:
What the user can do
How the system responds
Use cases are building blocks for continued
design activities
Each use-case describes 1 and only 1 function
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Types of Use Cases
Essential
High-level overview
of issues essential to
understanding
required functionality
Detailed description of
issues essential to
understanding required
functionality
Real
Purpose
Amount of information
Overview
Detail
High-level overview
of a specific set of
steps performed on
the real system once
implemented
Detailed description of a
specific set of steps
performed on the real
system once implemented
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Elements of a Use Case
Description
• Overview:
• Name, ID Number, Type, Primary Actor, Brief Description, Importance
Level, Stakeholder(s), Trigger(s)
• Relationships:
•
•
•
•
Association: Communication between the use case and the actors
Extend: Extends the functionality of a use case
Include: Includes another use case
Generalization: Allows use cases to support inheritance
• Flow of events
• Normal flow: the usual set of activities
• Sub-flows: decomposed normal flows to simplify the use-case
• Alternate or exceptional flows: those not considered the norm
• Optional characteristics (complexity, time, etc.)
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Use Case Writing Guidelines
1. Write in the form of subject-verb-direct object
2. Make sure it is clear who the initiator of the step is
3. Write from independent observer’s perspective
4. Write at about the same level of abstraction
5. Ensure the use case has a sensible set of steps
6. Apply the KISS principle liberally.
7. Write repeating instructions after the set of steps to
be repeated
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Creating Use-Case Descriptions
1. Pick a high priority use-case and create an overview:
List the primary actor
Determine its type (overview or detail; essential or real)
List all stakeholders and their interests
Determine the level of importance of the use-case
Briefly describe the use-case
List what triggers the use-case
List its relationship to other use-cases
2. Fill in the steps of the normal flow of events required to
complete the use-case
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Creating Use-Case Descriptions
(cont.)
3. Ensure that the steps listed are not too complicated
or long and are consistent in size with other steps
4. Identify and write the alternate or exceptional flows
5. Carefully review the use-case description and
confirm that it is correct
6. Iterate over the entire set of steps again
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Example Use-Case Description
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Verifying & Validating
a Use-Case
Use-cases must be verified and validated before beginning
structural and behavioral modeling
Utilize a walkthrough:
Perform a review of the models and diagrams created so far
Performed by individuals from the development team and the
client (very interactive)
Facilitator: schedule and set up the meeting
Presenter: the one who is responsible for the specific representation
being reviewed
Recorder (scribe) to take notes and especially to document errors
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Rules for Verification & Validation
1. Ensure one recorded event in the flows of the use-case description for
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
each action/activity on the activity diagram
All objects in an activity diagram must be mentioned in an event of the
use-case description
The sequence of the use-case description should match the sequence in
the activity diagram
One and only one description for each use-case
All actors listed in a use-case description must be shown on the use-case
diagram
Stakeholders listed in the use-case description may be shown on the usecase diagram (check local policy)
All relationships in the use-case description must be depicted on the usecase diagram
All diagram-specific rules must be enforced
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Summary
Presented in this chapter:
The identification of business processes using use-case
diagrams and descriptions
Modeling business processes with activity diagrams
How to create the documentation of use-cases and use-case
descriptions
How to verify and validate the business processes and
functional models
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Chapter 3:
Requirements
Determination
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Learning Objectives
• Learn how to create a requirements definition
• Learn various requirements analysis techniques
• Learn when to use each requirements analysis techniques
• Learn how to gather requirements using interviews, JAD
sessions, questionnaires, document analysis & observation
• Learn various requirements documentation techniques such as
concept maps, story cards & task-lists
• Understand when to use each requirements-gathering technique
• Be able to begin the creation of a system proposal
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Introduction
The systems development process transforms the existing (as
is) system into the proposed (to be) system
Requirements determination
The single most critical step of the entire SDLC
Changes can be made easily in this stage
Most (>50%) system failures are due to problems with
requirements
The iterative process of OOSAD is effective because:
Small batches of requirements can be identified and implemented
incrementally
The system will evolve over time
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Requirements Determination
Purpose: to convert high level business requirements (from
the system request) into detailed requirements that can be
used as inputs for creating models
What is a requirement?
A statement of what the system must do or a characteristic it
must have
Will later evolve into a technical description of how the system
will be implemented
Types:
Functional: relates to a process or data
Non-functional: relates to performance or usability
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Requirements Definition
Functional & non-functional requirements listed in outline
format
May be prioritized
Provides information needed in subsequent workflows
Defines the scope of the system
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Sample of Requirements Definition
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Determining Requirements
Business & IT personnel need to collaborate
Strategies for problem analysis:
Root cause analysis
Duration analysis
Activity-based costing
Informal benchmarking
Outcome analysis
Technology analysis
Activity elimination
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Determining Requirements
Requirements are best determined by systems analysts and
business people together
Techniques for identifying requirements
Interviews, questionnaires and/or observation
Joint application development (JAD)
Document analysis
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Creating a
Requirements Definition
Determine the types of functional and non-functional
requirements applicable to the project
Use requirements-gathering techniques to collect details
Analysts work with users to verify, change and prioritize
each requirement
Continue this process through analysis workflow, but be
careful of scope creep
Requirements that meet a need but are not within the current
scope can be added to a list of future enhancements
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Problems in
Requirements Determination
Analyst may not have access to the correct users
Requirements specifications may be inadequate
Some requirements may not be known in the beginning
Verifying and validating requirements can be difficult
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Requirements Analysis Strategies
Problem analysis
Ask users to identify problems with the current system
Ask users how they would solve these problems
Good for improving efficiency or ease-of-use
Root cause analysis
Focus is on the cause of a problem, not its solution
Create a prioritized list of problems
Try to determine their causes
Once the causes are known, solutions can be developed
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Requirements Analysis
Strategies(Cont.)
Duration analysis
Determine the time required to complete each step in a business process
Compare this to the total time required for the entire process
Large differences suggest problems that might be solved by:
Integrating some steps together
Performing some steps simultaneously (in parallel)
Activity-based costing
Same as duration analysis but applied to costs
Informal benchmarking
Analyzes similar processes in other successful organizations
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Requirements Analysis
Strategies(Cont.)
Outcome analysis
What does the customer want in the end?
Technology analysis
Apply new technologies to business processes & identify
benefits
Activity elimination
Eliminate each activity in a business process in a “force-fit”
exercise
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Requirements Gathering
Techniques
Process is used to:
Uncover all requirements (those uncovered late in the process
are more difficult to incorporate)
Build support and trust among users
Which technique(s) to use?
Interviews
Joint Application Development (JAD)
Questionnaires
Document analysis
Observation
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Interviews
Most popular technique—if you need to know something,
just ask
Process:
Select people to interview & create a schedule
Design interview questions (Open-ended, closed-ended, &
probing types of questions)
Prepare for the interview (Unstructured vs. structured interview
organized in a logical order)
Conduct the interview (Top-down vs. bottom-up)
Follow-up after the interview
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Question Types
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Interviewing Strategies
Top-down
High-level:
Very general
How
can order
processing be
improved?
How can we reduce the
Medium-level:
number of times that customers
Moderately specific
return ordered items?
Low-level:
Very specific
How can we reduce the number of
errors in order processing (e.g., shipping
the wrong products)?
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Bottom-up
Post-Interview
Prepare notes and send to the interviewee for verification
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Joint Application Development
(JAD)
Joint user-analyst meeting hosted by a facilitator
10 to 20 users
1 to 2 scribes as needed to record the session
Usually in a specially prepared room
Meetings can be held electronically and anonymously
Reduces problems in group settings
Can be held remotely
Sessions require careful planning to be successful
Users may need to bring documents or user manuals
Ground rules should be established
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Questionnaires
A set of written questions used to obtain information from
individuals
May be paper based or electronic (e.g., web based)
Common uses:
Large numbers of people
Need both information and opinions
When designing for use outside the organization (customers,
vendors, etc.)
Typical response rates: < 50% (paper); < 30% (Web)
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Questionnaire Steps
Select the participants
Identify the population
Use representative samples for large populations
Designing the questionnaire
Careful question selection
Remove ambiguities
Administering the questionnaire
Working to get good response rate
Offer an incentive (e.g., a free pen)
Questionnaire follow-up
Send results to participants
Send a thank-you
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Good Questionnaire Design
Begin with non-threatening and interesting questions
Group items into logically coherent sections
No important items at the very end
Do not crowd a page with too many items
Avoid abbreviations
Avoid biased or suggestive items or terms
Number questions to avoid confusion
Pretest to identify confusing questions
Provide anonymity to respondents
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Document Analysis
Provides information about the “as-is” system
Review technical documents when available
Review typical user documents:
Forms
Reports
Policy manuals
Look for user additions to forms
Look for unused form elements
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Observation
Users/managers often don’t remember everything they do
Checks validity of information gathered in other ways
Behaviors may change when people are watched
Workers tend to be very careful when watched
Keep a low profile
Try not to interrupt or influence workers
Be careful not to ignore periodic activities
Weekly … Monthly … Annually
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Requirements-Gathering
Techniques Compared
A combination of techniques may be used
Document analysis & observation require little training; JAD
sessions can be very challenging
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Alternative Techniques
Concept Maps
Represent meaningful relationships between concepts
Focus individuals on a small number of key ideas
User Stories, Story Cards & Task Lists
Associated with agile development methods
Very low tech, high touch, easily updatable, and very portable
Captured using story cards (index cards)
Capture both functional and nonfunctional requirements.
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Story Cards & Task Lists
Capture requirement using story cards (index cards)
File card with single requirement
Each requirement (card) is discussed
How much effort is required to implement it
A task list is created for each requirement (story)
Large requirements can be split into smaller sections
The story can be prioritized by risk level and importance
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The System Proposal
Combines all material created in planning & analysis
Included sections:
Executive summary
Provides all critical information is summary form
Helps busy executives determine which sections they need to read
in more detail
The system request
The workplan
The feasibility analysis
The requirements definition
Current models of the system (expected to evolve)
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System Proposal Template
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Summary
Presented in this chapter:
Discussion of functional and non-functional requirements
determination
Requirements analysis strategies
problem analysis, root cause analysis, duration analysis, activitybased costing analysis, informal benchmarking analysis, outcome
analysis, technology analysis and activity elimination
Requirements gathering techniques
Interviews, joint application development, questionnaires,
document analysis and observation
Alternative requirements documentation techniques
concept maps, story cards and task lists
The system proposal
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CS552BH1 OOAD
Homework Assignment #1
Fall 2022, Term 1
Rivier University
CS552BH1: Object-Oriented Design
Homework Assignment #1
Student’s Name: ____________________________________
Please write clearly. Ambiguity will be penalized. Use EXTRA pages if necessary.
Copying and pasting answers will also be penalized. You are expected to read and understand
the material in the textbook and then answer the questions based on your understanding in
your own words.
1. Describe the roles of and activities performed by the Business Analyst and Systems
Analyst.
2. Briefly summarize the purpose of the Design Phase in SDLC. Explain why it exists and
what it contributes to the completion of the system.
3. Briefly explain what the creators of the Unified Modeling Language (UML) mean by
use-case driven, architecture centric, and iterative and incremental.
4. Explain the three different aspects of a feasibility analysis.
5. Plot a Use-Case Diagram for an Online Car Shopping System. Use the Use-Case syntax
to draw your diagrams.
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