1. Speed limit issue• they have a fifty five speed limit and then fifty yards down is a thirty five
speeding sign. You can’t expect people to go from a speed of fifty five miles
per hour and then in 50 yards slow down by twenty miles per hour without
getting pulled over. The speed should at least be reduced by ten if it’s gonna
be reduced fifty yards down the road. That’s why so many tickets are being
handed to people. It’s an unrealistic time frame for people to reduce speed in.
• On top of that not having enough time to reduce speed they can not be five
miles per hour over the speed limit.
• sheriffs should not be giving our 12 tickets per shift that is way too many in
my opinion.
2. Minority community issue• The police are making the community an unsafe place because they are on
defense mode. Law enforcement is making the community feel as though because
they are minority they crest a lot of criminal acts. The drugs are understandable
but the police are being too harsh on the community as a whole. They need to do
more community policing so the people don’t feel acted. Which is why they
started rioting and marching variants the police they feel as though they are being
attacked for crime they did not commit.
• As for the other stuff happening because of the riots that is because people are
taking advantage of the people who are fighting for their community. They don’t
have respect for the community or the police because they aren’t trust and if the
police don’t care why should they.
3. Political influence issue• I feel as though the sergeant should be hands long the people giving them the jobs
under the table in cash for tax purposes. They should investigate the people
stealing raping and guessing the immigrants. And they should also creat a
program to help the immigrants with getting citizenship or residency. They should
show the people of the community that though they are immigrants and can’t vote
or whatever the excuse is that they are people who come to our home to better
their lives. There is nothing wrong with that.
4. Kayla Williams issue• The officer who told the family the were the wrong color should be fired. Law
enforcement should never discriminate a civilian especially in a situation like this.
The fact that she had to get friends and family to search for the missing child is a
big problem.
• The forensic team did not do everything they needed to do in the crime scene
investigations. They needed to make casts the underwear needed to be
photographed and placed into evidence.
• The autopsy of her body wasn’t complete and they needed to do a rape kit and
check for any sexual assault signs. The officer in charge should’ve done more to
enforce that it be done but of course he took his word for it.
• Lastly instead of have the man quit they should’ve investigated tried to get more
evidence and do everything in their power to put the man behind. Letting him go
off and into a new life to continue his killing was not okay.
Situational Report
Courtelaney Pass is a mid-sized municipality in the Southeastern United
States. It has a population of 80,000 residents made up of: 55% white, 38% black,
and 7% Hispanic. The primary industry is agricultural and industrial with the
unemployment rate at 8.7%. By national standards the city would be considered “blue
collar” with a median household income of $38,000. The school system remains
troubled as the drop-out rate is high and, other than the elementary schools, the middle
and high schools have perpetual “D” ratings. There is a great deal of “southern pride”
evident in this community as confederate flags are frequently flown and unfortunately,
the fledgling local KKK is attempting to revitalize itself.
Two out of the five city council members are considered “good old boys”
that are satisfied with the status quo and are apathetic towards the civil unrest that has
been percolating in the black community. Within the past twelve months there have
been protests in the black community that have steadily been growing. Those
residents complain that policing is biased against them and that unnecessary and
excessive force is commonplace; especially amongst young black males. Due to
recent nationwide events surrounding similar claims, the national media is paying
particular attention to Courtelany Pass.
The police department is appropriately sized to police this jurisdiction. The
chief is a 42-year old white male who has been with the department for twenty years
working his way up the ranks. He has no college degree but is working towards it via
on-line classes. The demographics of the agency do not mirror the community as
94% of the department is white. The only minorities in the agency work in non-sworn
support roles. The chief claims that he is attempting to attract minority applicants but
the majority of those interested cannot pass the entrance exam. He claims that those
who can pass end up going to work for the state police instead where the salary is
$12,000 per year more.
Questionable Enforcement Tactics?
There are eight major intersections in Courtelaney Pass (CP) and each is
equipped with intersection cameras. As municipalities that employ such devices share
the revenue from fines with the manufacturer, the city averages $2.1 million dollars
per year in revenue from these fines. The constitutionality of this practice is highly
debated and public support is low according to recent surveys. A local “action group”
has filed a lawsuit against the city in an attempt to remove these cameras; this
lawsuit is pending a court date. A recent study conducted by a local CP reporter
indicated that per capita, the revenue generated for the city is twice as high as any
similarly situated city in the state that utilizes these cameras. The reporter also
alluded to the fact (not substantiated yet) that black residents are twice as likely as
whites to be ticketed for intersection violations.
Courtelaney Pass is listed by AAA as the “Biggest Speed Trap in the South” as
a major highway runs north to south through the town. Particularly, the speed limit
reduces from 55 mph to 35 mph in a 50 yard stretch of road and consistently a police
officer is running radar (in a concealed fashion) at the 35 mph speed sign. The CP
reporter has also written that blacks and out of town travelers passing through receive
87% of the speeding tickets. This statement is backed up by the reporter’s study of
statistics from the Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles. The reporter
has also spoken to former officers (off the record) who report that the Chief of Police
mandates that each officer issue at least 12 citations per shift. It is common that most
traffic enforcers allow a motorist 10 mph over the posted limit, but during a recent
interview with the chief he has stated that he has a “zero tolerance for speed, as it
kills” so he instructs his officers to issue tickets for 5 mph over the limit. The chief
would not comment on the 12 citation minimum per shift policy.
As Courtelaney Pass has recently seen its violent crime rate soar by 35%, the
chief believes that this is due to the proliferation of street drugs being sold in open air,
drive up, drug markets. These “markets” are located on the southern edge of the city
where the majority of the population is minority. The CP Police Narcotics Unit
conducts regular and aggressive enforcement actions including crack cocaine search
warrants and reverse sales operations wherein undercover officers pose as drug sellers
and customers are arrested for purchasing. During one of these operations, a shooting
occurred wherein a known dealer shot at the undercover officer who returned fire,
killing the dealer. The ensuing internal affairs investigation cleared the officer and the
day that this report was made public, rioting erupted in the minority community. This
unrest actually spilled over into the down- town area requiring the chief of police to
call in re-enforcements from neighboring agencies and the state police. As a result, 13
businesses were badly damaged, 8 officers injured, and 112 rioters and looters were
arrested. The minority community has warned that if relations do not immediately
improve with the police that more unrest was certain. After this shooting incident and
subsequent riots, the chief has suspended all narcotic enforcement actions in the area.
Political Influences
The 5,600 Hispanic residents are counted only as those who responded to the
census or were property owners. It is estimated that an additional 5,000 +
undocumented immigrants also call Courtelaney Pass home. The majorities of these
folks work in the immense strawberry fields and orange groves and are paid $5.00 per
hour in cash (off the books). It is very common for these migrants to be the victims of
home invasion robberies on pay day. Local drug dealers and MS13 gangsters kick in
their doors, take their hard earned cash, and occasionally even rape their
wives. The CP Police Sergeant that oversees street crimes reports that these migrants
are easy prey as they will not report these crimes to the police for fear of being
deported. The sergeant addressed this issue at a city council meeting where no words
of wisdom were offered to him. At the conclusion of the meeting, in the parking lot, a
white city councilman told the sergeant “I couldn’t care less what happens to those
people….they don’t vote!!!”
More Revelations
4 years ago, Kayla Williams disappeared from her bedroom. Kayla, a 9 year
old African American child was sleeping in her bed in a very small bedroom with no
air-conditioning so, as typical, her window was open. Her mother found her bed
empty the next morning and frantically called the police. The responding officer from
Courtelaney Pass Police Department downplayed the mother’s fears by stating that
Kayla probably ran away. The officer told her to call back if Kayla did not come
home by the next day and left without documenting the incident. The horrified
mother spoke with her father who told her that the police would not help them as they
are “the wrong color” and they must help themselves. The family and friends
convened a search party and two days later found Kayla’s body in a cypress swamp
bordering Lake Diemer. She was wearing her night shirt, no panties, and there were
no visible signs of trauma or injury.
The police were summoned to the scene and two officers responded. Upon
viewing her body, which laid on its backalmost in a peaceful sleeping position, the
officers notified the forensics unit and one technician came to the scene. The body
was photographed and the area was searched for any sign of evidence. Numerous
footprints, large and small, were detected in the immediate area which was no
surprise; the area is a favorite fishing spot. Most of the footprints were photographed,
but plaster casts were not made. Kayla’s ripped panties were discovered on the leaf
covered trail that leads to the water’s edge. The medical examiner responded to the
scene and removed the body. The following day, Det. Singer attended the autopsy
which was to be performed by Dr. Elmer Clausen, a lifelong resident of CP. Det.
Singer was surprised that the doctor did not perform a full autopsy wherein the body
cavity was opened and internal organs examined, nor did he perform a sexual assault
examination. When asked by Det. Singer, the doctor stated that he had already
“surmised” that she had died as a result of a snake bite, probably from a water
moccasin. He pointed out two small puncture type wounds on the back side of
Kayla’s right thigh. He promised Singer that toxicology would support his
belief. When Singer questioned him about the ripped panties, he replied “That’s your
job; there is a scratch by her upper thigh that looks like a tree branch hit her, it
probably ripped her panties and they fell off”. When Det. Singer reported this to his
Sergeant he was told that there is no fighting Dr. Clausen….historically what he says
goes!! Kayla Williams “official” cause of death was snake venom poisoning, even
though the toxicological results were still pending, and she was buried the following
week.
The black community was outraged at what it deemed an insufficient
investigation due to the fact that Kayla, and her family, was poor and black. Det.
Singer, who was relatively new to the police department and area, was invited to
lunch with a reporter from the Courtelaney Journal. The reporter told Singer that this
was not the first time a young minority girl had been found dead under suspicious
circumstances in Courtelaney. During the past seven years, three other pre-teens, two
Hispanic, one black, were discovered “missing” from their bedrooms and later their
bodies were discovered in wooded areas. Reportedly, none had obvious signs of
trauma and all were deemed “Death by Non-Homicide” by Dr. Clausen.
Very recently, retired CP police Detective Sid Throtmorten became terminally
ill and called for his best friendand local plumber Tom Johnson to come to his
bedside. Sid, knowing that he was hours away from death told Tom that he had to
make something right before he died. He asked Tom if Tom remember Officer Iozzi
who worked for the agency for ten years before being fired for gross
insubordination. Tom vaguely recalled Iozzi. Throtmorten told Tom that Iozzi was
attracted to young girls and that he had raped and killed that “little Kayla girl”. He
further advised that Iozzi, also a former police defensive tactics instructor, bragged
that by utilizing a “carotid choke hold” he could kill someone without leaving marks
on the victim’s neck. Just before dying, Throtmorten also reported that other officers,
still with the agency, are aware of what Iozzi did. After being terminated from the
department, Iozzi moved to Idaho. Tom reported this revelation to Det. Singer.
One month ago, as a result of continual racial tensions and allegations of
corruption, the Chief of Police resigned under pressure. Governor Neely has installed
an interim Chief of Police to heal the community, examine and evaluate policy,
practices, and procedures, and restore the faith and trust of the people. He also
appointed a Special Prosecutor to examine all things of legal relevance to the issues in
this community. The Special Prosecutor must evaluate civil and criminal issues
pertaining to the governance of Courtelany Pass and utilize his/her legal power as
needed to issue subpoenas, search/arrest warrants, etc. The Interim Chief of Police
has brought with him/her a special investigator who will hold the rank of Captain
of Investigations. This individual will evaluate, examine, lead, and investigate all
issues pertaining to criminal acts.
1
Annotated Bibliography
Santa-Li Santana
Saint Leo University
Senior Seminar In Criminal Justice
Moneque Walker-Pickett
October 5, 2022
2
Annotated Bibliography
Kahn, B. K., & Martin, K. D. (2020). The social psychology of racially biased policing:
evidence-based policy responses. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences
7(2), 107-114 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2372732220943639
The increased rates through which nonwhite Americans are stopped, questioned, injured,
or arrested by police officers shows some of the ineffectiveness of the criminal justice policy in
the United States. Since such police actions are linked to some forms known as proactive
policing, the American government needs to recognize this reality which has affected the
country’s criminal justice system. The concerns about policing and race have been there for a
long time. The recent high-profile cases regarding police shootings and other citizen-police
interactions caught on camera have raised many questions regarding racial discrimination,
fairness, and the excessive use of different types of force against nonwhites in America.
Police murder cases of unarmed Blacks, including George Floyd, have continued to lead
to countrywide calls for change and protests. Extensive findings of social psychology on
attitudes, stereotyping, and intergroup relations can assist in clarifying the police’s role in racial
bias. The study in this article sought to review explicit and implicit bias, intragroup bias, racecrime stereotypes, stereotype threat, in-group favouritism, and dehumanization across police
interactions likely to cause racially disparate force. There are, however, policy responses that can
address bias. These policies include using body-worn cameras, de-biasing training for officers,
and initiation of plate readers for the automatic license. However, the audience of a wellcoordinated countrywide strategy for collecting and assessing the use of force by police officers
blocks tracking of fatal incidents and biasness, which are hard to solve.
3
Browning, M., & Arrigo, B. (2021). Stop and risk: Policing, data and the digital age of
discrimination. American Journal of Criminal Justice 46(2), 298-316
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09557-x
Several innovations have been made in law enforcement, including predictive policing.
Programs used in predictive policing incorporate algorithms in assessing the available crime data
to make predictions concerning future crimes; this includes the kind of crimes that are likely to
be committed, where and a list of potential offenders and victims. Although its proponents
consider it necessary and argue that it is a proactive and effective form of law enforcement that
lacks biasness based on its data-driven nature, predictive policing is also naturally discriminatory
like other police practices such as stop and frisk. They are all ineffective. They
disproportionately focus on minorities; predictive policing and stop and frisk are challenging
types of surveillance that lead to various legal and ethical issues and are presented as impartial,
objective, and equitable.
The article sought to highlight the problematic and potential similarities between
predictive policing and stop and frisk, highlighting the key challenges associated with predictive
policing, like biased foundation, questionable effectiveness, and ethical and legal footing. The
study also sought to evaluate ways through which programs related to discriminatory criminal
justice, including predictive policing and stop and frisk, are presented within the public domain
as non-discriminatory and objective policies.
Durlauf, N. S., & Heckman, J. J. (2020). An empirical analysis of racial differences in
police use of force: A comment. Journal of Political Economy 128(10), 3998-4002
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/710976
4
Based on the available research studies, police officers in the US tend to kill more Black
than white Americans at higher rates than what would happen based on a generative model
where police officers tend to encounter and murder White and Black citizens in proportion to
their population sites. Available disparities in race-specific rates of armed criminal activity
instead of or in addition to unintended stereotypes and prejudice by police officers have been
referenced as a possible cause of increased cases of shootings of Blacks by police officers. It has
been challenging to differentiate the unjustifiable case of segregation by race in police use of
force from the disparities likely to result from a justifiable response by police officers to
differential crime levels.
The study reveals the availability of evidence against African Americans in the excessive
use of force, except for those involved in shootings. With the necessity of the involved issues,
there is a need for clarity in providing the understanding of this or other studies that contribute to
understanding the nature of racial injustice and inequality issues today. The study focuses on the
failure of the paper to provide empirical differences in police shootings by race. Based on the
study, the paper, ‘An empirical analysis of racial differences in Police Use of Force,' does not
provide enough evidence on the lack of or availability of discrimination against Blacks in police
shootings.
Goff, A. P., & Rau, H. (2020). Predicting bad policing: theorizing burdensome and racially
disparate policing through the lenses of social psychology and routine activities. The
ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 687(1), 67-88
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716220901349
Even today, social psychologists have continued to rely mostly on experimental studies to
justify the reasons for issues of racial disparities in police departments. There are few studies on
5
the causes of racially disparate policing. Economists, on the other hand, have sought to evaluate
discrimination in oiling by predicting the racial disparity in police encounters which can be
predicted by crime rates, yield rates, and differences in demography and income. Researchers in
criminal justice have continued to use risk assessments in aggregating situational risk factors and
creating risk profiles.
According to this article, even though there has been a rise in research studies that relate
to racial differences in policing, especially in relation to the use of deadly force, there have also
been few attempts that seek to theorize the key factors that predict disparate policing. The study,
however, sought to fill the gap by integrating routine activity theory from criminology with
situations techniques to discrimination from social psychology. The authors also suggest that
disparate policing is more likely to occur when vulnerable police officers to situational risk
aspects of bias come across individuals who are part of the vulnerable-part groups. The study
argues that factors that relate to situational risk for bias and aggression among police officers
provoke threat feelings and encourage self-protection or feelings of out-group derogation and
disgust.
Miller, C., & Vittrup, B. (2020). The indirect effects of police racial bias on African
American families. Journal of family issues 41(10), 1699-1722.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0192513X20929068
The increased number of protests, especially after the death of George Floyd in America,
has raised several concerns about the attitude police officers have toward black Americans.
Individuals’ views on the same have also raised many issues of concern. Most white and black
Americans claim that African Americans are treated less than whites when dealing with officers
and the entire justice system in the country. Nearly half of African Americans seem to have little
6
or less confidence that police officers in the country treat individuals with different skin colours
equally. Most of the time, blacks are over-policed and over-profiled, resulting in increased death
cases among the black community.
This qualitative research sought to assess the personal experiences of police brutality and
racial bias among eighteen African American parents, the impacts of the experiences on them,
how they share such happenings with their families, and their sources of strength during such
times. The study's findings showed that the respondents and some children had negative
encounters with police officers. Most of them went through mental health consequences due to
stress, anger, and fear, among other factors. Most respondents argued that they had to do this to
ensure their children survive in the long run. The study further describes the implications of the
findings obtained.
Kovera, B. M. (2019). Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: Prevalence, causes
and a search for solutions. Journal of Social Issues 75(4), 1139-1164
https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/josi.12355
Past research studies have extensively documented racial discrimination in the criminal
justice system. This study sought to assess the racial differences in three system areas:
participation on juries, prison populations and police. Although not all of them, the differences
can be due to implicit racial bias. However, even though the differences are a result of implicit
racial bias, with the nature of people who take part in the decision-making process that results in
the difficulties and disparities in training individuals to overcome implicit bias, the strategies put
in place to deal with the available disparities by minimizing implicit racial bias are bound to fail.
Policies developed to constrain the existence of explicit and implicit bias or do away with the
7
challenging consequences for everybody, despite their race, can be more effective in minimizing
racial rice segregation than strategies developed to do away with implicit bias.
Gonzalez, Y. (2019). The social origins of institutional weakness and change: Preferences,
power and police reform in Latin America. World Politics 71(1), 44-87
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/social-origins-ofinstitutional-weakness-and-change/48687E91FED8A6A4369B420EB583766C
Although there has been a significant increase in violence and criminal cases, police
officers in Latin America are characterized by long-term seasons of institutional weaknesses
resulting from the rate and multiple sweeping reforms. As a way of comprehensively assessing
the existing pattern of institutional change and continuity, the researcher uses the structural
power concept, showing the ways in which police officers hold their coercion authority in
constraining the available policy options to politicians. With the nature of the strained policy
space, the politicians choose between reform assessment and continuity of the societal
preferences for political competition patterns and police reform. Despite the prevailing political
competition, reform results in some electoral benefits and risks differentiating a powerful
bureaucracy within the fragmented societal preferences. In case there is a convergence of
preferences of the society, and considerable political opposition threatens the incumbents,
politicians tend to deal with a situation of balance to the police officers' structural power,
increasing the likelihood of reform. Based on the evidence from Columbia, Brazil and Argentina,
the study races the outcomes to changes in political opposition and societal preferences.
Kienscherf, M (2019). Race, class and persistent coloniality: US policing as liberal
pacification. Capital and class 43(3), 417-436
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0309816818815246
8
The study argues that policing in the America reinforces and maintains class and
intersecting racial divisions mainly due to its nature of neutrality. The study is divided into two;
first, it details a theoretical basis for conceptualizing the likely contradiction between specific
and general social control. The first part claims that policing in the US is based on a colonial
genealogy but currently serves to bring out a neo-colonial order mainly characterized by class
inequalities, substantive racial inequalities, and legal equality. The section also indicates that the
change to a present colonial order has been significantly affected by changes in policing strategic
focus to liberal pacification from classical colonial pacification. Liberal pacification integrates
coercion with developmentalism. On the other hand, empirical, the second part demonstrates
how policing in the US changes toward a strategy of liberation pacification through its genealogy
and has continued to provide for the production of a neo-colonial social order. The study
enhances the understanding of why and how the previously neutral law enforcement produces
and reproduces class and racial divisions.
Kurlychek, C. M., & Johnson, D. B. (2019). Cumulative disadvantage in the American
criminal justice system. Annual Review of Criminology 2(1), 291-319.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian-Johnson26/publication/330376110_Cumulative_Disadvantage_in_the_American_Criminal_Justice_
System/links/6022b41792851c4ed55e86e6/Cumulative-Disadvantage-in-the-AmericanCriminal-Justice-System.pdf
Evidence based on the available inequalities in administering punishment has a long
documented history. However, much attention has been drawn on the disparities in the isolated
stages of processing criminal cases. These stages include sentencing, prosecution and arrest.
Even though there are various theories of cumulative disadvantage within the field of
9
criminology, they are rarely included in accounting for the treatment nature within the criminal
justice system. This reviews the available data on the growth of cumulative disadvantages within
the different stages of the justice system. While doing so, the study also appraises the empirical
study that primarily focuses on prosecution, policing and the courts, considering the largely
separate scholarship bodies are connected. The study further concludes that there is a need for
future studies to focus more on the strategies in which the disadvantages of life-course results in
contact with the justice system and how the process results in disadvantage patterns across the
system and the resulting life outcomes.
Siegel, M. (2020). Racial disparities in fatal police shootings: An empirical analysis
informed by critical race theory. https://heinonline.org/hol-cgibin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/bulr100§ion=31
Even though the use of more force by police has raised many concerns among people of
colour for a long time, the subject has recently reached the public's attention through coverage of
high-profile police killings of unarmed black Americans by the media. The most commonly used
response has always been implementing implicit bias training and body cameras in monitoring
and shaping the interactions between citizens and officers.
The study uses a distinct perspective. Specifically, the study describes the differences in
fatal police shootings across major US cities and states. It further reviews the past studies that
assess structural racism as potential evidence for the differences in racial segregation across
different environments while considering the possible responsibility of racially identified spaces
in developing how police perceive individuals and their neighbourhoods. The study suggests that
various-level interventions may not properly deal with racial disparities in police violence and
10
that remedying and confronting the impacts of the long history of residential racial
discrimination is vital.
11
References
Browning, M., & Arrigo, B. (2021). Stop and risk: Policing, data and the digital age of
discrimination. American Journal of Criminal Justice 46(2), 298-316
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12103-020-09557-x
Durlauf, N. S., & Heckman, J. J. (2020). An empirical analysis of racial differences in police use
of force: A comment. Journal of Political Economy 128(10), 3998-4002
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/710976
Goff, A. P., & Rau, H. (2020). Predicting bad policing: theorizing burdensome and racially
disparate policing through the lenses of social psychology and routine activities. The
ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 687(1), 67-88
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716220901349
Gonzalez, Y. (2019). The social origins of institutional weakness and change: Preferences, power
and police reform in Latin America. World Politics 71(1), 44-87
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/social-origins-ofinstitutional-weakness-and-change/48687E91FED8A6A4369B420EB583766C
Kahn, B. K., & Martin, K. D. (2020). The social psychology of racially biased policing:
evidence-based policy responses. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences
7(2), 107-114 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2372732220943639
Kienscherf, M (2019). Race, class and persistent coloniality: US policing as liberal pacification.
Capital and class 43(3), 417-436
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0309816818815246
12
Kovera, B. M. (2019). Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: Prevalence, causes and a
search for solutions. Journal of Social Issues 75(4), 1139-1164
https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/josi.12355
Kurlychek, C. M., & Johnson, D. B. (2019). Cumulative disadvantage in the American criminal
justice system. Annual Review of Criminology 2(1), 291-319.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian-Johnson26/publication/330376110_Cumulative_Disadvantage_in_the_American_Criminal_Justic
e_System/links/6022b41792851c4ed55e86e6/Cumulative-Disadvantage-in-theAmerican-Criminal-Justice-System.pdf
Miller, C., & Vittrup, B. (2020). The indirect effects of police racial bias on African American
families. Journal of family issues 41(10), 1699-1722.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0192513X20929068
Siegel, M. (2020). Racial disparities in fatal police shootings: An empirical analysis informed by
critical race theory. https://heinonline.org/hol-cgibin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/bulr100§ion=31
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