Here is the instructions: please let me know if you can do it.
Standards:
The Journal Article Critical Reviews must be 1,000 – 1,500 words in length. The general
format of will consist of an executive summary or generalized overview of the homeland security
issue being examined, followed by an executive summary as to what the article revealed relevant
to the issue, and conclude with your critical analysis and review of the author’s findings and/or
conclusions. The article reviews can be research-based or expository, as long as they are current
(published within the last 3-5 years) and relevant to terrorism and domestic preparedness and
homeland security issue. Each will be submitted in the Canvas course room for grading.
As this is a critical review, you should be able to critique the author’s work and its relevance,
implications, and application to homeland security. Your reviews will adhere to the APA Style
guidelines in all respects. Refer to the Journal Article Review – How to document, in the
student documents section in the Canvas course room.
Journal Article Submission Standards:
•
•
•
Article submission was made on or before the respective deadline
Article is from an approved publication
Article relates to Terrorism, Domestic Preparedness or homeland security issue/problem
Students will use the University Library electronic database entitled: International Security and
Counter Terrorism Reference Center (Ebsco) to select their Journal Article to critique.
Journals include:
Homeland Defense Journal
Homeland Security Affairs
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Information Security
Information Systems Security
Intelligence and National Security
International Journal of Conflict Management
International Journal of Information Security
International Journal of Police Science and Management
International Security
Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management
Journal of Information Privacy and Security
Journal of Security Education
Safety Director’s Report
Security and Terrorism Bulletin
Security Director’s Report
Security Studies
Included here are supplemental reference for deeper research in Terrorism and Domestic
Preparedness, and Homeland Security.
Public Documents
For general reference, a selection of public documents is provided. These documents were
carefully chosen to compliment the overall subject matter of Understanding Homeland Security.
› Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.
› The National Strategy for Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets (Links
to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› National Strategy for Aviation Security (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› National Incident Management System (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› Quadrennial Homeland Security Review Report (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site.
› National Security Strategy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› Protecting Americans in the 21st Century: Imperatives for the Homeland White Paper (Links to
an external site.)Links to an external site.
› Country Reports on Terrorism 2011 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› National Homeland Security Consortium Fact Sheet (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.
› 9/11 Opinion Survey Report: A Changed Nation (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site.
› FBI: Law Enforcement Bulletin, September 2011 (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.
› NOAA Hurricane Intensities (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› NOAA Hurricane Sandy (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› Federal Emergency Management Agency National Preparedness Goal, September 2011 (Links
to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› Federal Emergency Management Agency: National Response Framework (Links to an external
site.)Links to an external site.
› Federal Emergency Management Agency: National Response Framework Information
Sheet (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
› National Emergency Management Associate Organizational Details (Links to an external
site.)Links to an external site.
THE JOURNAL ARTICLE REVIEW…HOW TO:
Here is an example of the proper form for your journal article review [don’t type the brackets,
that’s just sample information]. Your review must be 1,000 – 1,500 words in length, typed, and
double spaced. Since this article will be submitted online simply add the following to the first
page to identify you as the author:
Your Name
CJ 251 Terrorism and Domestic Preparedness
Journal Article Critical Review Assignment #
Instructor’s Name [Dr. Matthews, etc]
[Journal Article Information]
Author(s). (year of publication). Article title. Journal name, volume, number, pages.
Example:
Smith, K. W. (2015). Drone technology: Benefits, risks, and legal considerations. Seattle Journal
of Environmental Law, 5(1), 12. Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=sjel (Links to
an external site.)Links to an external site.
First, summarize the article in your own words.
Beneficially envisioned and applied applications of drones include forest health monitoring, fire
mapping applications, forest inventory, wildlife surveys, avalanche patrols, air quality
monitoring, plume tracking, groundwater discharge monitoring, mine surveys, and precision
agriculture for things like the monitoring of crop health and precision application of chemicals.
In a recent survey about drone use, 63 percent of Americans indicated a belief that uninhibited
personal and commercial drone use would represent a change for the worse.
Registration of drones and even permitting of drone use under four hundred feet should be
undertaken by individual states, relieving the FAA of exhaustive and often regressive rulemaking
on this promising technology.
Next, explain and critique the methods use and/or the findings presented.
The author found several issues that needed to be resolved in the near future with regard to the
use of drones:
1. How will the privacy issue be addressed when these flying cameras have the capacity to
invade your backyard and take photographs at will?
2. The unchecked potential for mischief using these devices, particularly with regard to the
rise in domestic terrorism.
3. The FAA concerns about near misses with aircraft due to the lack of regulatory authority.
As a result he suggested…
Finally, offer your opinion on the value of the study. Describe how this study contributes
to or fails to contribute to furthering our knowledge base or the goals relevant to terrorism
or domestic preparedness, i.e., analyze, explain, evaluate, predict, infer, concur or disagree
with the perspective the author espouses.
Although the format is APA, the opinion and position expressed is your own. As a result,
you should be able to cite other sources, including the course text to support your opinion.
Police Practice and Research
An International Journal
ISSN: 1561-4263 (Print) 1477-271X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gppr20
Changes in homeland security activities since 9/11:
an examination of state and local law enforcement
agencies’ practices
Thomas C. Johnson & Ronald D. Hunter
To cite this article: Thomas C. Johnson & Ronald D. Hunter (2017) Changes in homeland security
activities since 9/11: an examination of state and local law enforcement agencies’ practices, Police
Practice and Research, 18:2, 160-173, DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2016.1261253
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1261253
Published online: 01 Dec 2016.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 343
View related articles
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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gppr20
Download by: [Park University]
Date: 27 November 2017, At: 16:42
Police Practice and Research, 2017
VOL. 18, NO. 2, 160–173
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1261253
Changes in homeland security activities since 9/11: an
examination of state and local law enforcement agencies’
practices
Thomas C. Johnsona
and Ronald D. Hunterb
Criminology and Criminal Justice Department, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC, USA; bCriminal Justice/
Criminology, School of Liberal Arts, Georgia Gwinnett College, Lawrenceville, GA, USA
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a
ABSTRACT
This study investigated differences in state and local law enforcement
agencies participation in homeland security activities within the year
after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and 13 years later. Further, this investigation
assessed whether there were regional differences for these practices during
these same time periods. Activities assessed were based on a homeland
security initiatives index. Data suggest that, in the year after the attacks,
agencies’ participation in all of Stewart and Morris’ homeland security
activities was not high and statistically significant differences existed across
several regions for some of these practices. However, since then, the number
of agencies participating in all of Stewart and Morris’ homeland security
activities increased and statistically significant differences between regions
decreased. The increase in participation may be attributed to incentives
provided by the federal government. Nevertheless, data suggest that
support may be waning within law enforcement agencies to participate in
homeland security activities.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 22 July 2015
Accepted 3 November 2016
KEYWORDS
Homeland security
policing; homeland security
preparedness; homeland
security risk; terrorism
preparedness; terrorism risk;
first responders
Introduction
The law enforcement profession was profoundly affected by the September 11th (9/11) terrorist attacks.
Many agencies faced uncertainty as it became apparent that agencies at all levels would confront the
potential for terrorism in the U.S. and many agencies were unsure of their roles. Further, many state
and local law enforcement agencies found it difficult to define their role in homeland security (Morreale
& Lambert, 2009) and were hampered in preparing to address terrorism issues by a lack of funding
and a unifying strategy (Gilmore, 2003; Henry, 2002; Holden, 2003).
Government agencies are typically quick to respond to public concerns during crises and, in the
aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, law enforcement agencies sought to engage in homeland security activities to enhance public perceptions of safety (Ortiz, Hendricks, & Sugie, 2007). Indeed, it
has been argued that the 9/11 terrorist attacks ushered in a new policing era known as homeland
security policing that reflected a change from the traditional approaches to law enforcement services
that included local crime analysis, strategies, and responses, to a homeland security approach that
includes social event analysis, target-oriented strategies, coordinated intelligence work, and proactive
and intensified responses (de Guzman, 2002; Oliver, 2005). Immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks,
local law enforcement agencies were considered instrumental in preventing future terrorist attacks
and ensuring homeland security, as they are the agencies that know their communities and are the
CONTACT Thomas C. Johnson
tjohnson@wcu.edu
© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
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POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH
161
first responders and the ones that are in the best position to contain incidents and minimize the life
loss and property damage (Gilmore, 2003; Hart, Rudman, & Flynn, 2002; Murphy & Plotkin, 2003;
Pollard, Tuohy, & Garwin, 2003; Rinaldi, 2003; White, 2004). Many Americans expected state and local
law enforcement agencies to enhance security by concentrating resources on preventing, deterring,
and responding to potential terrorist threats against the homeland (Henry, 2002) to the detriment of
other policing strategies such as community policing (Kim & de Guzman, 2012).
Although public expectations were that state and local law enforcement agencies assume responsibility for engaging in homeland security activities, this did not mean that every agency did so. The
study assesses the extent to which state and local law enforcement agencies engaged in homeland
security activities in the year after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and whether regional differences existed.
This study also explores the extent to which these agencies engaged in these activities 13 years after
the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the extent to which regional differences may still exist. This study only
assesses these two periods as no data were located that assessed agencies’ homeland security practices
before 9/11 for comparative analysis.
This study contributes to the body of research on homeland security. This contribution is important
because, compared to other police practices, the volume of research on law enforcement homeland
security practices is comparatively small (Burruss, Schafer, Giblin, & Haynes, 2012) with little clarification as to the activities in which agencies participate (Lum, Haberfeld, Fachner, & Lieberman, 2009).
This study’s results hold important implications for understanding how homeland security practices
have evolved since immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Related literature
Immediately following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, attention was directed to the role that state and local
law enforcement agencies were expected to play in homeland security. President Bush stated that
countering and investigating terrorist activity is the number one priority for law enforcement agencies
(President Bush signs anti-terrorism bill, 2001). Further, many individuals perceived that state and local
law enforcement agencies would evolve into effective counterterrorism components (White, 2004).
However, at the local level, there was little direction in homeland security practices for agencies
to follow (Gilmore, 2003; Henry, 2002; Holden, 2003). Further, exacerbating this problem was the
decentralized nature of law enforcement in the United States. There are over 18,000 law enforcement
agencies in the U.S., the majority of which operate at the state and local level (Banks, Banks, Hendrix,
Hickman, & Kyckelhahn, 2016), of which approximately 50% of agencies employ 10 or fewer officers
while another 40% employ 50 or fewer officers (Reaves, 2015). Each of these agencies generally function
with autonomy from other agencies with their priorities set by the communities they serve.
Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, guidance regarding homeland security activities has increased
substantially with the National Strategy for Homeland Security serving as the basis for recommended
activities for state and local agencies (Pelfrey, Jr., 2007). Stewart and Morris (2009) codified these recommended activities into a homeland security initiatives index. Recommended homeland security
activities include:
• implementing the national incident management system (NIMS) for managing terrorism and
other major events,
• developing or updating an all-hazards plan to include terrorist activities,
• changing the agency’s mission statement to reflect homeland security responsibilities,
• broadening an agency’s investigation functions’ to include intelligence gathering and analysis,
• creating or updating mutual aid agreements to include homeland security responsibilities,
• participating in exercises or drills that include terrorism scenarios,
• ensuring interoperable radio communications between public safety agencies,
• implementing a linked records management system (RMS) that allows agencies to share records
and information,
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T. C. JOHNSON AND R. D. HUNTER
• conducting agency and community risk assessments to terrorist threats,
• forming or strengthening non-governmental organizations (NGO) partnerships that increase
resource-sharing, and
• participating in anti-terrorism task forces.
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National incident management system
The Bush administration issued Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5 (HSPD-5) that addressed
the management of domestic incidents (Sylves, 2008). One component of HSPD-5 was the development of a National Response Plan and NIMS. NIMS provides a national, standardized method for
managing all incidents and allowing the assimilation of responding agencies and organizations into
an effective response protocol (Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA], 2016). Although
adoption of NIMS is required for federal agencies, it was initially only suggested that state and local
agencies adopt it. State and local agencies were eventually required by the federal government to adopt
NIMS as a condition to receive federal assistance during a terrorist or disaster event (Association of
State & Territorial Health Officials [ASTHO], 2016).
All-hazards plan
The all-hazards plan is an outgrowth of a requirement in the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and
Emergency Assistance Act (1988) that all states have emergency operation plans. This act serves as a
catalyst for the FEMA to work with state and local governments in developing emergency operations
plans. The Stafford Act was amended by the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 that required state and local
jurisdictions to have plans if they expect to receive federal assistance for terrorist or disaster events.
The term all-hazards plan is somewhat misleading. This term does not suggest that an agency
should prepare for every possible hazard that may occur; rather, an all-hazards plan recognizes that,
for terrorist and disaster events, there are many common activities that must be performed, such as
emergency notification, evacuation, or mobilizing resources (Schultz, Koenig, Whiteside, & Murray,
2012). These activities should be codified into an all-hazards plan that not only identifies these activities, but addresses how they will occur for different events.
Agency mission statement
An agency’s mission statement is important since it reflects the specific goals and objectives of the
agency (Gurley, Peters, Collins, & Fifolt, 2015). Commensurate with a shift to homeland security
policing is the belief that an agency’s mission statement should include homeland security activities
to inform agency employees and other stakeholders that such activities are important (David, 2012).
A carefully constructed mission statement promotes unanimity of purpose within the agency, provides a basis for allocating resources, establishes a general agency climate, serves as a focal point for
individuals to identify with this purpose and direction, and translates purposes into objectives (King
& Cleland, 1979).
Intelligence gathering
Intelligence gathering, particularly as it relates to homeland security, has been crafted with federal
oversight since World War II (Carter, 2005). The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals (1973) recommended that each state has a centralized law enforcement intelligence function that included participation by every agency. Further, the Commission recommended
that all agencies support the federal intelligence function. Similarly, the Police Executive Research
Forum identified intelligence gathering as a crucial homeland security activity for law enforcement
agencies to perform (Loyka, Faggiani, & Karchmer, 2005).
POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH
163
A primary reason that local law enforcement agencies are instrumental in intelligence gathering is
that they tend to be more cognizant of activities within their communities than are state and federal
agencies. While very large agencies may have the resources to form a dedicated intelligence unit,
most agencies must assign intelligence gathering to their existing investigative function. Indeed, this
function is a good resource for the intelligence information as the investigative function typically
serves as a repository for crime reports from the different patrol shifts. The use of the investigations
function as the intelligence information repository is a logical choice for detecting a relationship
between terrorism and other crimes. For example, terrorists have been known to use techniques to
obtain funds, weapons, and other resources that are also used to commit street (Hamm, 2005) and
white-collar (Kane & Wall, 2004) crimes.
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Mutual aid
Mutual aid is the sharing of resources across jurisdictional lines (Stier & Goodman, 2007). The decentralized nature of U.S. law enforcement results in many agencies, particularly smaller agencies, having
insufficient resources to respond to terrorist events. Many states allow local agencies to develop mutual
aid agreements. However, mutual aid agreements between states were problematic until the passage of
the Emergency Management Assistance Compact following Hurricane Andrew (National Emergency
Management Association, 2013). Now, mutual aid agreements may exist between agencies intrastate
and interstate (Stier & Goodman, 2007).
Terrorism exercises and drills
FEMA (2012) suggests that exercises and drills are an effective way for agencies to prepare for an
emergency, including a terrorist attack. Specifically, FEMA (2012) indicates that exercise and drill
benefits include allowing agencies to evaluate plans, clarifying roles and responsibilities, obtaining
participant feedback and recommendations for improvement, measuring performance objectives,
improving agencies’ cooperation and coordination, validating training, and assessing existing resources’
capabilities. Functional and full-scale exercises are especially important. While other exercise types,
such as seminars and table tops, may allow responders to conceptually envision how their plans may
work, functional and full-scale exercises allow responders to physically practice their skills by acting
realistically in response to a scenario (Mahoney, 2010).
Interoperable radio communications
The 9/11 Commission found that agencies responding to the World Trade Center had difficulties in communicating with their own employees due to having a limited number of radio channels and could not
communicate with other agencies due to not having a common radio frequency (National Commission
on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, 2004). Radio interoperability requires that an agency is
able to effectively communicate with its personnel. Finally, radio interoperability necessitates that all
responding agencies, regardless of jurisdiction, be able to communicate with one another (Huyck, 2015).
Linked RMS
Post-9/11 information sharing among law enforcement agencies is extremely important given the
amplified concerns for homeland security (Carter & Carter, 2009; Department of Homeland Security
[DHS], 2011; Matei, 2009). Indeed, the failure to share information, particularly intelligence information, was cited as a major problem in failing to prevent the 9/11 terrorist attacks (Friedman, 2012).
Since the terrorist attacks, the federal government has placed considerable emphasis upon local agencies
sharing information and records from which intelligence information may be gleaned (Cordner &
Scarborough, 2010). Therefore, an effective records-sharing system is essential to improving the ability of
law enforcement agencies to play a meaningful role in detecting and preventing future terrorist attacks.
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T. C. JOHNSON AND R. D. HUNTER
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Risk assessment
Former DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff advocated for a risk-based approach to homeland security (Garcia & von Winterfeldt, 2016). Risk assessment is critical to mitigating the effect of terrorist
events because it allows officials to estimate the chances of these events occurring and their potential
consequences (Haynes & Giblin, 2014). DHS has identified many potential terrorist targets within
communities based on two criteria: the asset’s value and its geographical impact (Nemeth, 2013). Local
agencies are encouraged to use this criterion to assess their communities to determine the perceived
vulnerability of and risk to potential targets. Risk assessment also includes identifying means to mitigate the consequences that may result from potential harm.
Law enforcement agencies should assess their own vulnerability to a terrorist attack or disaster. As
an armed first responder organization, law enforcement agencies should not ignore the possibility that
they may be a potential terrorist target. The loss of an agency’s critical infrastructure, systems, and other
assets will affect its ability to immediately respond to a major event (Leson, 2005). Having an effective
agency risk assessment process in place helps administrators understand their vulnerabilities that
might increase their exposure to a terrorist event. Further, an effective assessment allows agencies to
increase monitoring or correction of vulnerabilities and implement basic defensive steps (Leson, 2005).
NGO partnerships
Homeland security cannot occur through governmental efforts alone. Many critical gaps in preparedness and critical infrastructure protection exist that can be addressed through effective partnerships
between law enforcement agencies and NGOs (Newsome & Jarmon, 2016). These partnerships are
essential for ensuring the availability of critical services such as communications, health care, food,
water, and other commodities. Further, since approximately 85% of the nation’s critical infrastructure is under the control of NGOs (Busch & Givens, 2012), law enforcement agencies require their
assistance for protecting this infrastructure. By enlisting the aid of NGOs, law enforcement agencies
may find that they have fewer tasks and responsibilities to manage and fewer resources to expend as
NGOs can perform a number of critical functions during a terrorist event (Busch & Givens, 2012).
Further, NGOs may be able to perform some functions better as they may have greater resources and
less legal constraints than law enforcement agencies (Coppola, 2015).
Anti-terrorism task forces
In the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft directed each of
the 94 U.S. Attorneys to establish an anti-terrorism task force (United States Attorney’s Office’s, 2001).
Attorney General Ashcroft indicated that these task forces should serve several purposes. First, the task
forces should be a conduit for sharing terrorism information between federal, state, and local agencies.
Second, the task forces should serve as a coordinating body that assists agencies with implementing
terrorism prevention plans. Finally, the task forces should serve as the organizational structure for
coordinating terrorism responses.
Some jurisdictions have also formed local anti-terrorism task forces. For example, Logan
International Airport, from which two of the jets hijacked by terrorists on 9/11 were launched, started
its own Joint Terrorism Task Force (Sweet, 2001). This task force’s status was solidified in 2011 when
Logan International Airport created a self-contained ‘nerve center’ for a counterterrorism task force
(Valencia, 2011). While many task forces included federal law enforcement officers, some task forces
are comprised almost exclusively of local law enforcement officers. For example, Klamath County,
Oregon’s (n.d.) District Attorney formed a local task force designed to promote and coordinate local
anti-terrorist efforts (Mark McDaniel, personal communication, May 9, 2016). However, this task
force lasted for only a few years until the next district attorney was elected.
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Current study
Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, a number of studies have been conducted to assess law enforcement agencies’ homeland security practices. However, many studies have focused on agencies within
individual states such as Illinois (Burruss, Giblin, & Schafer, 2009), Ohio (Marion & Cronin, 2009),
South Carolina (Pelfrey, Jr., 2007), Texas (Stewart & Morris, 2009), and Virginia (Chappell & Gibson,
2009). One study assessed only state law enforcement agencies (Foster & Cordner, 2006). Morreale
and Lambert (2009) assessed New England regional police departments while Lee (2010) assessed
large police departments nationally. However, little was found that indicated that state and local law
enforcement agencies, regardless of size, were assessed nationally.
Of particular interest in the current study is assessing how law enforcement agencies’ homeland
security practices have changed from those implemented immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
For example, immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, there was a strong commitment to do whatever was necessary to prevent another terrorist attack (Bloch-Elkon, 2011). However, it is unknown if
this commitment remains strong. In 2013, President Obama indicated that the war on global terror was
over (Burns, 2013) suggesting that interest in homeland security activities may be waning. However,
in the interim, the global war on terrorism has shifted to Syria, causing a mass migration from that
country and there have been terrorist attacks in Paris, Brussels, San Bernardino, CA, and Orlando,
FL. Therefore, this study investigates law enforcement agencies’ recent homeland security practices
compared to those practices implemented in the year after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Method
To determine if significant differences exist by region between current law enforcement agencies’
homeland security practices and those practices implemented immediately after the 9/11 terrorist
attacks, survey data were collected and analyzed. A 61-item survey was developed using Qualtrics, an
online survey software package. Several survey question types were used, including Likert-type scale,
single-answer, and multiple-answer response questions. Descriptive statistics were used to describe
the data and chi-square tests of independence were conducted to determine if statistically significant
relationships (p ≤ .05) existed between measures that addressed differences in agencies’ practices.
The survey link was emailed nationally to 6715 law enforcement administrators who were selected
from the membership directories for the International Association of Chiefs of Police, state police chiefs
associations, state sheriff ’s associations, the International Association of Campus Law Enforcement
Administrators, and individual agency websites. There were responses from 1205 administrators for a
response rate of approximately 17.9%. Web surveys are a low-cost option for reaching large groups of
individuals (Bethlehem & Biffignandi, 2012). Despite this advantage, the response rates for web-based surveys tend to be approximately 15% or less, substantially lower than other methods for presenting surveys
(Lozar Manfreda et al., 2008). Therefore, the 17.9% response rate for this web-based survey is acceptable.
Data were analyzed for associations in current law enforcement agencies’ homeland security practices by region in the year after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and 13 years later. Specific variables studied
were based on Stewart and Morris (2009) homeland security initiatives index. The null hypothesis
suggests that there are no statistically significant differences between agencies by region for homeland
security practices immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and current practices.
Results
Agencies’ homeland security activities immediately after 9/11
Within the year after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, a majority of agencies had implemented NIMS
(75%), updated mutual aid agreements to include homeland security responsibilities (55%), included
terrorism scenarios in disaster response exercises (64%), and ensured radio interoperability within
local government units (64%) and with other public safety agencies (74%). Agencies in the northeast
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T. C. JOHNSON AND R. D. HUNTER
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Table 1. Significant differences in homeland security activities by region for the year after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and 13 years
later.
Rocky
Far west Great lakes Mideast Northeast Plains mountains Southeast Southwest
Number of agencies
113
233
150
100
135
82
268
124
Assigned intelligence function to investigations unit
Immediately after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .01) 47%
23%
35%
32%
29%
30%
37%
30%
Developed all-hazards plan that included counterterrorism plan
Immediately after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .05) 36%
37%
41%
55%
41%
37%
44%
37%
Conducted community risk to terrorist attack
Immediately after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .03) 62%
44%
52%
45%
52%
41%
53%
50%
Ensured radio interoperability with other public safety agencies
13 years after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .01)
92%
92%
83%
95%
86%
94%
86%
91%
Formed or enhanced partnerships with NGOs
Immediately after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .02) 53%
34%
45%
42%
41%
46%
47%
38%
Created or participated in local ATTF
Immediately after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .01) 56%
33%
48%
27%
30%
30%
43%
32%
13 years after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .01)
66%
46%
52%
34%
37%
39%
46%
46%
Participated in U.S. Attorney’s ATTF
Immediately after 9/11 (χ² ≤ .01)
9%
5%
12%
11%
11%
11%
19%
7%
had the highest number of agencies that indicated they had implemented NIMS (83%), developed
an all-hazards plan that included counterterrorism plans (55%), and ensured radio interoperability
with other public safety agencies (83%) and within local governments (72%). These actions are not
surprising considered that the 9/11 terrorist attacks occurred in this region.
However, other regions had more agencies performing other activities. For example, the Far West
led regions in broadening the investigations function to include intelligence-gathering activities (47%),
including terrorism scenarios in disaster response exercises (76%), conducting agency (49%) and community (62%) risk assessments, forming or enhancing partnerships with NGOs (53%), and creating
or participating in a local joint anti-terrorism task force (56%). The Mideast had more agencies that
changed their mission statements to include homeland security responsibilities (14%) and linking
their RMS to other agencies (43%). The Rocky Mountains and Southeast regions had more agencies signing or updating mutual aid agreements to include homeland security responsibilities (61%)
while agencies in the Southwest had more agencies participating in the U.S. Attorney’s Office’s joint
anti-terrorism task force (19%).
Statistically significant differences were found for some activities between agencies by region immediately after 9/11 (see Table 1). Ironically, these statistically significant differences exist for activities
that the majority of agencies did not do. These activities include assigning intelligence-gather activities
to existing investigative units (32%), developing all-hazard response plans the included addressing a
terrorist threat (41%), conducting community (41%) risk assessments, having partnerships with NGOs
(43%), and participating in a local (38%) and U.S. Attorney’s (11%) joint anti-terrorism task force.
Agencies’ homeland security activities 13 years later
Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, more agencies have engaged in Stewart and Morris’ recommended
homeland security activities, which had the effect of reducing the number of regions between which
there were significant differences. Further, there were additional activities for which a majority of
agencies engaged in including developing an all-hazards plan that included a counterterrorism component (62%), implementing linked RMSs (58%), conducting agency (51%) and community (55%)
risk assessments, and forming partnerships with NGOs (59%). Only two significant findings from
agencies’ homeland security activities 13 years later are detected (see Table 1). Statistically significant
POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH
167
differences were found between regions for ensuring that radio interoperability exists between local
public safety agencies and creating or participating in a local joint anti-terrorism task force.
Discussion
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Agencies’ homeland security activities immediately after 9/11
In the immediate aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, state and local law enforcement agencies
struggled to find their roles in homeland security (Burruss et al., 2012). Therefore, it is not surprising
that a majority of law enforcement agencies did not engage in all of Stewart and Morris’ recommended
homeland security activities immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and that there were significant
differences across regions for several of these activities. The American law enforcement system is
fragmented and subject to local community priorities, thus minimizing the potential for a congruent
national homeland security approach (Stewart & Morris, 2009). Further, much confusion existed in
the attack’s aftermaths while initial government reactions were frequently characterized as knee-jerk
reactions (Bosworth-Davies, 2007; McIntyre & Hancock, 2011).
Frequently, agencies who engaged in homeland security activities did so because of their jurisdiction size, perceived risk of another attack, and additional funding for homeland security activities
(Davis et al., 2004). Consider, for example, that agencies in the Far West were most likely to broaden
the role of their investigations unit to assume intelligence-gathering activities immediately after the
9/11 terrorist attacks (see Table 1). This finding is not surprising given that 20% of the Muslims in the
United States live in California (American Muslim Council [AMC], 2015) as do a high number of
other immigrants (DHS, 2012) and the federal government has encouraged state and local agencies
to monitor Muslim (Pew Research Center, 2011) and other migrant (Rhodes et al., 2015) populations
in their communities. Further, California has several major port facilities, large crowd venues, and
multiple other facilities that can be considered potential terrorist targets.
Agencies’ homeland security activities 13 years later
In the years since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, as the role of state and local agencies in homeland security
has been more clearly defined, there has been increased participation in all homeland security activities
by state and local agencies resulting in less regions between which there were statistically significant
differences. The influence exerted by the federal government over state and local law enforcement
agencies has helped to provide guidance for these agencies and incentives in the form of homeland
security grants, federal disaster aid that is tied to homeland security activities, free training, and sharing
of military-surplus equipment that has ushered in the era of homeland security policing (Oliver, 2005,
2006). Indeed, 56% of the agencies surveyed indicated they directly received at least one homeland
security grant while 9% indicated they partnered with another agency for a homeland security grant.
Waxman (2008) indicates that the decentralized nature of American law enforcement requires coordination mechanisms to serve as a catalyst to motivate state and local agencies to engage in these activities
and the federal government through the DHS provided many of these coordinating mechanisms.
The two areas for which statistically significant differences are found in current practices, radio
interoperability with other public safety agencies that many agencies ensure exists and participation
in a local joint terrorism task force, are activities for which a majority of the agencies did not perform.
Far West agencies participated in local joint terrorism task forces at a higher level than agencies in
other regions. In addition to the Far West states having large populations of Muslims and immigrants and many potential terrorist targets, the Far West states also have the largest region (17%)
by population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014) with California having three cities with over 1,000,000
population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Further, the Far West states have the second largest number
of ports of entry (U.S. Customs & Border Protection, 2015) with the largest number of immigrants
(45%) passing through these ports (DHS, 2013), which suggests that this area is highly vulnerable to
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T. C. JOHNSON AND R. D. HUNTER
terrorist infiltration. These issues serve as a catalyst for agencies engaging in intelligence-gathering
and participating in task forces.
Although there has been an increase in the number of agencies that engage in homeland security
operations, many agencies still do not. Given the many small agencies in the U.S., it appears that many
agencies do not have the resources to perform traditional crime-related duties and homeland security
duties. Further, small agencies serve small communities, and it may be that these agency administrators do not believe that their communities will be terrorist targets or locations of terrorist activities.
Indeed, some data collected suggests that some agency administrators’ perceptions of homeland
security may no longer be as strong as they were immediately following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Since
state and local law enforcement administrators generally rely upon community and political feedback to
guide them in directing their agency’s activities, agency administrators were asked to indicate whether
their community (X̄ = 3.34, SD = .80) and political leaders (X̄ = 3.04, SD = .91) strongly supported
their homeland security efforts. These data suggest that many agency administrators did not agree or
disagree with these statements that they were strongly supported in their homeland security efforts.
These results contrast with studies done within a few years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks that suggested
there was strong community and political support for law enforcement agencies’ homeland security
activities (National Center for Disaster Preparedness, 2004; Oliver, 2006; Morreale & Lambert, 2009).
Qualitative data gathered in this study also suggests that there may be a waning of support for homeland security activities. One police chief indicated that small agencies in his area were ‘ill-equipped,
untrained, and unfunded to deal with homeland security threats.’ Another police chief indicated that
he had never been afforded any staff increases to address homeland security activities in addition to
crime-related duties. There was even some animosity towards DHS. One chief indicated that DHS
should focus on border security and stay out of law enforcement. A police chief for an airport police
department expressed his frustration with DHS and what he referred to as ‘unfunded federal mandates.’
Undoubtedly, state and local law enforcement agencies face many challenges in continuing with
a homeland security philosophy as their agency’s predominant guiding force. Homeland security
initiatives are expensive (Galati, 2011) and may put an agency at odds with its minority community
(Lee, 2010). Consider that high profile protests against local law enforcement agencies in Ferguson,
MO, Baltimore, MD, and Charlotte, NC suggest that at least some agencies have relationship issues
with their communities and repairing these relationships may be a higher priority than homeland
security. Future research may wish to focus on whether state and local law enforcement agencies can
continue to sustain homeland security activities, particularly among agencies that face staffing and
budget challenges. It may be prudent for agencies to focus more on a community policing philosophy
rather than homeland security. Indeed, it has been argued that a community policing philosophy may
be more effective at ensuring homeland security (Docobo, 2005; Morreale, 2004; Page, 2011) and this
approach may provide future opportunities for investigation.
An investigation into agencies’ homeland security practices would not be complete without
acknowledging the dynamics related to these activities. This investigation focused on whether agencies participated in these activities immediately after the 9/11 attacks and 13 years later; however, it
did not investigate the extent to which they participated in these activities. For example, an agency
may report that it is NIMS compliant because some, but not all of its employees, have received NIMs
training. Further, the agency may indicate in its policy that it will use NIMS for major events; however,
it has never used NIMS or even conducted agency-wide training exercises on it. Similarly, agencies
may want to engage in homeland security activities; however, budget or political considerations may
prevent agencies from engaging in these activities or at least to the extent that they would like to. A
suggestion for future research is to determine the extent that agencies participate in homeland security
activities or the extent to which they would like to participate in homeland security activities but are
prohibited from doing so.
Finally, this study would not be complete without acknowledging the fluid nature of terrorism. A
terrorist event can occur anywhere at any time and the repercussions result in a rapid change from
an agency’s previous practices. The data collected for this study represents a snapshot of the agency’s
POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH
169
practices at the time data were collected. Future studies may wish to continue assessing local agencies’
homeland security practices to ascertain the effect of future terrorist events upon these practices.
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Conclusion
This study investigated the differences in state and local law enforcement agencies’ participation in
homeland security activities immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and 13 years later and whether
there were regional differences. Data suggest that, immediately after the attacks, participation in all of
Stewart and Morris’ recommended homeland security activities was not high and statistically significant differences existed across several regions for several of these activities. The level of participation
and differences across regions may be due to a lack of understanding of these activities, the limited
resources that existed for agencies immediately after the attacks, and concerns whether an agency’s
community was vulnerable to an attack.
However, over the years, the number of agencies participating in homeland security activities
increased and the number of regions between which there were statistically significant differences
have decreased. This finding suggests that law enforcement agencies nationally are more congruent
in their approaches to homeland security practices. The increase in agency participation may be due
to the federal government enacting homeland security policies and laws, providing homeland security grants, tying federal disaster aid to homeland security activities, providing training, and sharing
military surplus equipment. For the few activities where statistically significant differences between
regions are found, agencies in the Far West have emerged as having the highest level of participation.
The reasons for this finding may be due to the large population that is found in the Far West region
including large Muslim and migrant populations. Further, the many ports that may allow for terrorist
infiltration along with the existence of high-profile targets may offer further explanation.
Data suggest that there may be a waning of support for law enforcement agencies to participate in
homeland security activities. Quantitative data indicate that law enforcement administrators generally neither agree nor disagree that they receive strong support from their communities and political
leaders to engage in homeland security activities, thus suggesting that there is not strong support for
law enforcement agencies engaging in homeland security activities. Qualitative data suggest that some
law enforcement administrators feel that homeland security may be an unsustainable burden upon
agencies, particularly smaller ones, given their limited resources and issues of community relationships.
This may be an area for future investigation.
Similarly, there has been greater scrutiny by local officials and communities of law enforcement
agencies’ acquisition of surplus military equipment. The Ferguson (MO) Police Department’s response
to the civil disturbances in their community that was broadcasted on social media and major news
networks left many individuals questioning what is perceived as the militarization of America’s police.
President Obama responded to this concern by ordering a review of the transfer of military-style
equipment to local agencies. Reviewers concluded that the vast majority of transfers of military-style
equipment strengthened local policing even after the Ferguson Police Department was criticized for its
use of military vehicles and weapons to quell protests. Reviewers also concluded that the vast majority
of equipment transferred to local agencies did not include weapons or tactical vehicles, but general
use equipment such as office furniture, clothing, and medical supplies. President Obama responded to
this review by stating that local authorities needed common standards in the types of hardware they
requested and better training in how to use it. Therefore, future research may also focus on military
surplus equipment training and use standards.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
170
T. C. JOHNSON AND R. D. HUNTER
Notes on contributors
Thomas C. Johnson holds the rank of assistant professor within the Criminology and Criminal Justice Department at
Western Carolina University. He received his PhD in Instructional Systems, Leadership, and Workforce Development
from Mississippi State University. He has completed graduate criminal justice studies at Fayetteville State University and
graduate emergency management studies at Eastern Kentucky University and University of North Carolina – Pembroke.
Before entering academia, Dr Johnson was a career law enforcement officer in Florida, West Virginia, Mississippi, and
North Carolina and retired as a police chief. His research interests are in the area of law enforcement professional
standards, homeland security, and technology use in emergency management.
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Ronald D. Hunter holds the rank of professor within the criminal justice/criminology program at Georgia Gwinnett
College. He received his PhD in Criminology from Florida State University. Before entering academia, Dr Hunter was
a sergeant with the Tallahassee Police Department. He also served seven years as a part-time municipal judge in Cave
Spring, GA. Dr Hunter is a past president of the Southern Criminal Justice Association and of the Academy of Criminal
Justice Sciences. His research interests are primarily in the areas of crime prevention and law enforcement.
ORCID
Thomas C. Johnson
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4544-8816
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