Medication Adherence in African American Adults

User Generated

alzcunz

Health Medical

Description

Create a PowerPoint presentation. Create notes for each slide. Address the major issues you presented in your paper. Your final paper should provide you with all the information you need to construct your PowerPoint. Use the content of your paper! You have already done the work. The PowerPoint is a shortened version of your paper and highlights the points you want your audience to learn. •Major focus or phenomena addressed •Components of the literature search •Historical evolution of the nursing literature reviewed •Identification of three conceptual or theoretical or methodological (research) issues/problems that have arisen in the evolution of your selected phenomena Summary addressing the following: ◦State of the science in reference to a theory and your phenomenon. ◦Implications for future research addressing a theory and your phenomenon. ◦Analysis and evaluation of theoretical-conceptual-empirical-methodological linkages.

Unformatted Attachment Preview

Running Head: MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS Antihypertensive Medication Adherence in African American Adults State of Knowledge Nympha Charles Florida International University NGR 1178 Scientific and Theoretical Foundation December 3, 2017 MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 1 Abstract Antihypertensive medication non-adherence is a subject of concern to all stakeholders in the management of hypertension in African American adults. Non-adherence to medication has caused often results in uncontrolled hypertension that leads to cardiovascular complications of varying severity. This paper aims to understand the challenges and assess solutions surfacing in the care of hypertensive African American adults through the critical review of the literature. Results of the study suggest that the challenges in the adherence to antihypertensive medication are socioeconomic, psychosocial, and interpersonal factors causing difficulties for both the patient and the healthcare providers. The proposed solution is to adopt a comprehensive health promotion procedure that would ensure both short-term and long-term care to patients. Thereby it will enable healthcare workers to provide holistic and rehabilitative care to patients with the pre-existing condition of hypertension while making sure those healthcare sectors to provide necessary support to institutionalize quality and accessible for all. MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 2 Introduction Hypertension is a universal health crisis that affects people of all races, ethnicities, sex, and walks of life. In the United States, it is considered as one of the major concerns in public health having about 78 million cases for 20 years old and over (Buis et al., 2015). The statistics also contribute to the concern on hypertension as it is known to be one of the leading primary or secondary causes of death in the modern age. Studies of Roger et al., (2012) and Danaei et al., (2010) suggest that cardiovascular mortality is caused predominantly by hypertension and claims to be the primary source of disparities in all-cause mortality (as cited in Young et al., 2015). One of the contributors to this disparity according to previous studies of Egan et al. (2010), Mensah et al., (2005) and Douglas et al., (2003) is the early onset, high prevalence, great severity, and high rate of inadequate treatment of the disease among African Americans (as cited in Young et al., 2015). This is consistent with the study of Wong et al., (2002) that African Americans have been observed to exhibit cardiovascular mortality; half of the cases are attributed to hypertension (as cited in Cené et al., 2012). The National Center for Health Statistics (2009) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2010) reported that African Americans, especially men, suffer hypertension at a disproportionately higher rate in comparison to any other race or ethnic groups as reported by (as cited in Cené et al., 2012). Inadequate patient education, self-efficacy, and self-management skills also significantly impact the prevalence of uncontrolled hypertension in African American (Buis et al., 2015). While antihypertensive treatments are widely available and sometimes accessible to hypertensive patients, non-adherence to medication and treatment regimens undermines the effectiveness of antihypertensive therapy in African Americans. Improving patient-care provider interaction and promoting self-efficacy in patients have been suggested to be crucial to successfully increase adherence to antihypertensive treatment and reducing hypertensionrelated mortality in African Americans. MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 3 Many studies have researched the prevalence of hypertension in African American communities to determine the driving factors behind non-adherence to antihypertensive treatment among Blacks and identify potential interventions to improve adherence to treatment and reduce the risk of complications. Several factors including cultural perception of hypertension, racial discrimination on the access or lack of health care, and the quality of care provided influences the management of hypertension in African American adults and impacts on the rate of uncontrolled hypertension in this population (Buis et al., 2015). Thus, it can suggest that the rate of prevalence of hypertension in African American adults is a multifactorial consequence that covers vast areas of health concerns from a personal health view to multi-sector provision of care. This paper reviewed existing literature including academic journals and articles on hypertension, antihypertensive medication adherence and the factors that influence these conditions in African American populations. These reviews explore the theoretical framework and health models used in the research of adherence to medication in hypertensive African Americans. It also evaluates for potential practice implication for care providers to address the problem of medication non-adherence in patients. Furthermore, this paper also identified common themes emerging from the results of the reviewed to propose an evidence-based health promotion framework that can be utilized to support the needs of hypertensive African American adults. Component of the Literature Search The student employed database research through CINAHL, Google Scholar, ProQuest, and Ebsco databases. General headings on medication adherence were used for purposes of online database search using keywords such as antihypertensive, drug adherence, medication compliance, and African American patients. Specific headings include keywords such as African American hypertension, African American drug adherence to medication, and MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 4 antihypertensive drug compliance. Other headings used to qualify relevant journal articles that include keywords such as self-efficacy theory, health promotion theory, and health education efficacy. A total of 17,700 academic journals, newspaper articles, and books resulted from the initial database search. Since the focus of the critical review was on antihypertensive medication adherence, only articles cited between 2010 to 2017 considered. Excluded Books, essays, and newspaper articles from the study. There are ten articles annotated and reviewed from the online database research using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. All ten articles were empirical quantitative descriptive studies most of which utilized frameworks to guide the research process. Historical Evolution of the Theory Health Promotion is the process of supporting and empowering people to play active parts in the control and improvement of their health (WHO, 2017). Health promotion focuses on social and environmental interventions rather than individual behaviors as the primary tool for improving health and wellness in any population. O’Donnell (1987) defines it as both science and art where people are assisted towards lifestyle change to achieve optimum health functioning (as cited in Edelman, Mandle, and Kudzma, 2013, p. 11). This definition suggests that the core context of health promotion is the process that enables people to be able to take control of their health to attain optimal functioning. The U.S. Public Health Service commissioned Kreuter and Devore (1980) to formulate a more comprehensive definition of health promotion that is supporting health-related advocacies (as cited in Edelman et al., 2013, p. 11). They intended to encourage positive healthcare practices to be adopted by individuals, businesses, and government institutions towards promoting health consciousness, a norm in the society (Edelman et al., 2013, p. 11). The root of this theory covers various disciplines in social sciences such as the theory of reasoned action by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), theories of behavior by Albert Bandura (1976, 1999, 2004), the health belief model by Rosenstock (Janz MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 5 et al., 2002), Pender’s health promotion model (Pender et al., 2010), and stages of change theories by Prochaska (Prochaska et al., 2004) (as cited in Edelman, et al., 2013, p. 11). These theories support the idea that health promotion, when aimed towards behavioral change through social rather individual interventions, can result in the attainment of observable behavioral outcomes of health promotion strategies. In addition, health promotion is not limited to providing health education; it also serves as a platform for social change by determining social issues affecting health and provides actual proactive solutions to address these issues (Edelman et al., 2013, p.12). Collaboration among all participants including care workers, community leaders, and patients is crucial in promoting a holistic health care attitude in different communities. Health promotion can either be active or passive depending on how the health care providers view the patients. Passive health promotion views patients as receivers of health information while active health promotion views patients as part of the implementation of a health promotion program making them active collaborators of its goals and purposes (Edelman et al., 2013). The student opted to adopt the integration of both passive and active health promotion through the Transtheoretical model that integrates three concepts of change in health promotion. These include the conceptualization of change as a time-bound perspective that moves on a continuum from readiness to action. Decisional Balance is another concept considers the factors affecting change in behavior by reflecting the individual’s weighing of the pros and cons of changing (Peterson & Bredow, 2017, p.286). Self-efficacy defines a change regarding the intrinsic motivation of a person to change habits or actions while the process of change outlines different mental, emotional, and behavioral actions affecting change (Peterson & Bredow, 2017, p.229). The theory of self-efficacy developed by Bandura claims that expectations and outcomes associated with self-efficacy are not only influenced by the behaviors of individuals but also the expectations influenced by verbal encouragement from MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 6 others such as nurses, doctors, and family (Peterson & Bredow, 2017). The core purpose of using the Transtheoretical framework is to be able to study and provide holistic and viable means for the adherence to antihypertensive medication of African Americans. It also shifts the focus of health promotion from a solely acute, hospital-based approach to a primary and preventive, community-based care (Edelman et al., 2013, p. 15). This entails the active involvement of nurses in making sure that desired changes are achieved and sustained by the patients they serve. The goals of health promotion also require nurses to play various roles such as advocates, care managers, consultants, deliverer of services, educators, healers, and researchers (Edelman et al., 2013). The framework used to explain, understand, and respond to the issues involving the adherence to the antihypertensive medication of African American adults is valuable in the proposing a process that results in possible actions. In turn, would enable healthcare providers and related sectors to develop, implement, and evaluate different protocols to address the increasing prevalence hypertension not only in the African Americans but also to the general population of the country. Conceptual, Theoretical, Methodological Issues Six stages highlight the current conceptual issues that influence medication adherence and non-adherence in hypertensive African Americans. The concept of Transtheoretical model as a basis for health promotion is based on the six stages of change: pre-contemplative stage (where individuals are not considering change); contemplative (where individuals are aware of the problems but not considering change soon); preparation stage (where individuals are planning to act soon); action (where individuals are beginning to show signs of recent behavioral change); maintenance (where individuals are observed to continue exhibiting favorable behavior that can be sustained for long term); and relapse (where individuals revert MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS to old behavior) (Peterson & Bredow, 2017). 7 These stages are used to describe the phenomenon of antihypertensive medications adherence in African American. The key to the effective treatment and management of hypertension is the integration of different care models and interventions to achieve maximum effectiveness. Some of the interventions utilized in the management of hypertension in African Americans include lifestyle modifications such as improved physical activity, dietary regimens, and controlled smoking and alcohol intake. Martin et al., (2010) purports that hypertension is a cardiovascular risk factor that is most commonly modifiable. Hypertension can be regulated to make sure it does not progress into cardiovascular complications such as stroke or cardiovascular accidents. The literature surrounding the antihypertensive adherence of the African American adults talked about various issues and contexts, which were valuable in explaining how people in this demography struggle to be adherent to the directives of taking their respective medications. It also raises valuable concerns in the healthcare promotion and healthcare provision of the different healthcare sectors and providers. Thus, in the review of the literature, the student reported three issues discussed in the literature selected. The first issue identified is the factors that contribute to the non-adherence to antihypertensive medication of the African Americans. The pre-contemplative, contemplative and event to some extent the planning stage where various factors explain the readiness of specific population to change toward medication adherence. The second issue is the proposed solutions of the different researchers towards reducing non-adherence to antihypertensive medications in African American adults. This section falls on the preparation, action and maintenance phase of health promotion as it utilizes the available responses of Black American and recommendation to address solutions to medication adherence. The third issue discusses the theoretical frameworks used in the research of antihypertensive medication adherence in African American adults and their limitations that may offer valuable insight for future studies. MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 8 Factors of Medication Non-Adherence for Hypertensive Patients Studies suggest that non-adherence to medication is one of the contributing factors to elevated blood pressure among African Americans, (Young et al., 2015; Schoenthaler et al., 2017; Cené et al., 2012). This may be attributed to three particular issues: socio-economic factors (Young et al., 2015, Richardson et al., 2014), psychosocial status (Schoenthaler et al., 2017; Schoenthaler et al., 2016; Abel & Efird, 2013; Cuffee et al., 2013; Cenè et al., 2012, and Warren-Findlow et al., (2011), and health care provider factors (Schoenthaler et al., 2017; Schoenthaler et al., 2016; Buis et al., 2015; Richardson et al., 2014; Abel & Efird, 2013; Warren-Findlow et al., 2012; and Martin et al., 2010). These factors predispose African American adults to complications of hypertension caused by high and uncontrolled arterial blood pressure. Socio-economic Factors One of the most consistent findings of the literature studies is the prevalence of antihypertensive medication non-adherence in African American adults who belong to lowincome families. The reason for their non-adherence to medication is caused by their relatively weak access to medication and low self-efficacy. The failure of their health care insurance coverages to sustain their access to antihypertensive medications is also a contributing factor (Young et al., 2015). Thus, patients who need and want medications are forced to skip dosages or entirely miss their medications as often recorded before admission to hospitals. In the study of Martin et al., 2010, 60% of the adult participants reported being non-adherent to medications due to limited access to free medications. Factors that influenced this phenomenon also include inadequate patient-provider engagement and communication, forgetting to take medications, and running out of antihypertensive medications. The findings indicated that more individuallevel intention is required to remedy the rates of non-adherence that occur mainly due to individual factors such as negligence. MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 9 Psychosocial Factors The psychosocial factor that contributes to medication non-adherence was comprehensively studied in the research by Schoenthaler et al. (2016). Specifically, the study centers on self-efficacy and depression as a key component of medication adherence among hypertensive patients. Warren-Findlow et al. (2011) describe self-efficacy as a psychosocial concept related to the ability of a person to manage a chronic disease. This self-management practice according to Schoenthaler et al. (2016), has been applied and associated with the adoption of and adherence towards specific health behaviors including consistent intake of medication as a practice for patients with chronic illness. In addition, self-efficacy is also a predictor towards self-management especially with adherence to medication. People who tend to have high self-efficacy are inclined to exhibit confidence, especially in assigned tasks as they tend to exert more effort in accomplishing responsibilities, take up challenging endeavors, and are proven to persist longer in difficulties and obstacles (Schoenthaler et al., 2016). A higher level of self-efficacy is directly found to influence an improvement in medication adherence. The study of Richardson et al., (2014), proposed measuring self-efficacy towards adherence to medication using a 26-item scale known as the Medication Adherence SelfEfficacy Scale with potential scores ranging from 0 to 78. On the contrary, Richardson et al. (2014) claim that low self-efficacy is resulting from experiences of discrimination regarding race or ethnicity and mental status results to adverse effects in medication adherence. Depression is another psychosocial factor that is related to medication adherence (Warren-Findlow et al., 2011). According to Howard et al. (2006), hypertensive patients are associated to have poor adherence to medication, case in point is a study conducted by Bosworth et al., (2008) among hypertensive African Americans with depression symptoms were found out to have difficulty adhering to medications due to low self-efficacy (as cited in Warren-Findlow et al., 2011). The claims of the role of depression to MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 10 non-adherence to medication support the idea that the psychological state of the person affects health-related tasks such as regular intake of medicine. Thus, it can be reasoned that low selfefficacy is directly relational to depression and non-adherence to medications. Measuring depression symptoms in patients who have medication adherence problems can be a challenge. The study of Cené et al., (2012) suggest an instrument to be used to measure depression symptoms through the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CESD) scale, which is a 20-item questionnaire using a 4-point Likert response format aiming to measure the symptoms of depression pre-existing for one week. Interpersonal Factors Interpersonal factors were also part of the discourse whether it is affecting patient adherence to medication. The relationship between the healthcare provider and the patient is crucial in the delivery of care and communication of medication instructions. Schoenthaler et al., (2017) conducted research that illustrated the importance of communication between care providers and hypertensive patient. The patient-provider communication is hypothesized as the mediating factor that influences antihypertensive medication adherence and plays an active role in the management of hypertension in both African American and Caucasian hypertensive patients. The study focused on the aspect of medication adherence and the factors that drive it in the effective management of hypertension. Using a cohort research method, the researchers’ sampled 92 hypertensive patients (the majority of whom were African Americans) and 27 care providers in three selected primary care centers for three months. During the research period, every interaction between care providers and receivers were audiotaped and coded to form a baseline data for the assessment of medication adherence in patients. Electronic monitoring devices were used to connect medication adherence data in the participants all through the period of the study. Findings of the study showed that more than half of the participants presented with poor medication adherence levels at the conclusion of the study due to different MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 11 kinds of patient-provider interactions with varying degrees of patient-centeredness. One of the key strengths of the study is that it objectively measured the influence of patient-provider communication on medication adherence using empirical data. Another factor in this interpersonal aspect of medication adherence is the trust value as a significant element in the relationship between patient and health care provider as it generates positive outcomes (Abel & Efird, 2013). Trust develops through extensive patient-provider engagement and communication, promotion of patient education, honesty in patients, and adherence to medications and treatment regimes. This concept was thoroughly discussed in the quantitative cross-sectional study conducted by Abel & Efird, (2013). The study was conducted with a sample population of African American women of the Piedmont, North Carolina region who have been diagnosed with hypertension as participants. Demographic and clinical inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to screen the participants including age, language ability, and current medication. Standardized instruments including the Trust in Physician Scale and Hill-Bone Compliance to High Blood Pressure Therapy Scale were used to collect research data from the participants. Data collected included demographic and socioeconomic data such as education, income, and medical history as well as anthropometric measurements such as blood pressure and weight. Three variables that predicted medication adherence in the patients including age, the quantity of medication, and trust in care provider were measured and analyzed. The study found that patients with a smaller amount of medications tend to be more adherent to their treatment regimen compared to others who had to take more. The study also found that patients who had the most trust in their care providers were also the most adherent to their medication and treatment regimen. Both the studies of Schoenthaler et al. (2017) and Abel & Efird (2013) suggest the need for health care providers to assist, communicate with, and educate their patients in the necessary details of their medication regimen. Social support is another aspect of healthcare MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 12 provision which has been identified to have a direct effect on adherence to medication. Studies have identified that social support has positive effects on patient satisfaction to the care provided (Schoenthaler et al., 2016). Social support impacts the adherence of patients to medication as it fosters patient satisfaction encourages self-efficacy and alleviates depression. Solutions to Adherence to Medication Keenan and Rosendorf (2011) reported that hypertension affects about 40% of adults between ages 45 to 64 and 70% of adults over 65 years old respectively (as cited in WarrenFindlow et al., 2011). This indicates the alarming prevalence of the disease in the aged population, which requires intensive planning for intervention. There is a need for both shortterm and long-term interventions to efficiently improve antihypertensive medication adherence in African American adults. Health promotion has been the better option for health care providers to consistently manage the condition and the lapses of the patients towards behavioral change. One short-term solution is the recommendation of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC7) instituting the practice of health care activities that will enable people with hypertension to live healthy lives. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2004) advocates the following JNC7 practices: adherence to health care medications and regimen, maintenance or losing weight, nutrition regulation through low-salt diet, alcohol intake regulation, regular physical activity, and elimination of tobacco use (as cited in Warren-Findlow et al., 2011). These activities can be taught by health care providers to communities to encourage them to change their respective lifestyles to alleviate hypertensive conditions. Another aspect that can be part of the health promotion is through Counseling African Americans to Control Hypertension (CAATCH), which includes patient intervention such as interactive patient education, regular monitoring of blood pressure at home and monthly lifestyle coaching sessions on diet, exercise, and MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 13 adherence to treatment; physician intervention, on the other hand, includes medical education of patients with hypertension and feedback sessions/consultations regarding blood pressure records at home and audit of patient charts (Warren-Findlow et al., 2011). These solutions may have a relative impact to the commitment of the patient and his/her ability to comply, but most importantly, the communication between the patient and healthcare provider must be maintained for this remedy to be satisfactory. To institutionalize health care benefits and health care utilization of African American patients with hypertension, a health reform agenda is needed to engage government officials and respective healthcare organizations to enable management and maximization of medication and insurance coverage and copays (Young et al., 2015). This will be a very complicated debate and might take a long time for changes to occur, but it would have a significant impact towards residents with low-income resources. Measurement and Validity of Adherence One apparent limitation in most of the literature reviewed is the fact that the studies utilized low-income population as target subjects. In so doing, it poses a significant challenge to the studies, as the results cannot reasonably be applied to other income populations. This in itself poses a research bias that may have actual or potential effect on the results and interpretation of the study. Another issue is the self-reporting measures utilized in the collection of research data pose a few problems. As Young et al. (2015) noted, is inherent for self-reported adherence to medication data to be imperfect. Warren-Findlow et al. (2011) also noted that there is a high probability for researchers to incorrectly or inconsistently classify the responses and behaviors reported by the patients. The most glaring weakness is the risk of social desirability bias where participants overestimate or underestimate specific variables and significantly impacting findings of studies in the process. Future researchers may want to take into consideration using other forms of instruments to gather data to minimize errors and bias. MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 14 Studies who applied the instruments of previous studies may experience the same limitations that limit the outcome and clinical implication of their studies. Another gap in the reviewed studies is the failure to offer long-term monitoring of the adherence of patient to medications. The studies explained the dynamics of the adherence and proposed solutions but were unable to validate if the implemented solutions were feasible also for the long-term practice of medication adherence to hypertensive patients. This may also highlight limitations of the study that may offer, “relapse” to non-adherence of patients to medication. Summary of the State of Science A review of current literature on the prevalence of hypertension, its treatment and management, and adherence to medication in African Americans provide valuable insights in the different factors that affect the medication adherence in these groups and how it influences patient outcomes. The theoretical frameworks used in the studies reviewed were mostly based on the findings of other studies or general data. Three studies used the selfefficacy theory while others used the health promotion theory. Both studies are quantitative studies that evaluated hypertension treatment in African American adults and the influence of medication adherence on patient outcomes and hypertension mortality. A thorough analysis and reflection, the transtheoretical model for health promotion, integrate self-efficacy theory together with the stages of change, decisional balance, and the process of change (Edelman et al., 2013). It is important to note as well that the result of the studies was similar regarding the impact of self-efficacy, health promotion, engagement, communication, and trust between patients and care providers on medication adherence and patient outcomes in African American adults. This confirms that medication adherence is a multifactorial and multi-dimensional concept. To understand the dynamics of the phenomenon, one must understand that non- MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 15 adherence or adherence to medication occurs as an interconnected process that drives the holistic performance and well-being of the person. Conclusion Medication adherence is a multifactorial and multidimensional phenomenon that is of great concern to caregivers and hypertension patients in African American communities. The socio-economic factors, psychosocial factors such as patient-provider engagement and interpersonal factors of communication, patient education, and self-care behaviors play crucial roles in medication adherence and patient outcomes in African American adults with hypertension. However, there is a common weakness that undermines the strength of the findings. The self-reporting measures utilized in the collection of research data pose a few problems. The most apparent weakness is the risk of social desirability bias, where participants overestimate or underestimate specific variables and significantly impacting findings of studies in the process. Additional research and review of the current literature are needed to establish a more precise theoretical framework in the context of health promotion through the transtheoretical model for the study of medication adherence in hypertensive African American adults to improve on existing knowledge and develop new hypertension treatment and management measures that will reduce non-adherence in hypertensive patients. MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 16 References Abel, W., & Efird, J. (2013). The association between trust in health-care providers and medication adherence among Black Women with hypertension. Frontiers in Public Health, 1(66), 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2013.00066 Buis, L., Artinian, N., Schwiebert, L., Yarandi, H., & Levy, P. (2015). Text messaging to improve hypertension medication adherence in African Americans: BPMED intervention development and study protocol. JMIR Research Protocols, 4(1), e1. http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/resprot.4040 Cené, C., Dennison, C., Powell Hammond, W., Levine, D., Bone, L., & Hill, M. (2012). Antihypertensive medication non-adherence in Black men: Direct and mediating effects of depressive symptoms, psychosocial stressors, and substance use. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 15(3), 201-209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jch.12056 Edelman, C. L., Mandle, C. L., & Kudzma, E. C. (2013). Health promotion throughout the lifespan. Canada: Elsevier Health Sciences. Harman, J., Walker, E., Charbonneau, V., Akylbekova, E., Nelson, C., & Wyatt, S. (2013). Treatment of hypertension among African Americans: The Jackson heart study. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 15(6), 367-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jch.12088 Martin, M., Kohler, C., Kim, Y., Kratt, P., Schoenberger, Y., & Litaker, M. et al. (2010). Taking less than prescribed: Medication nonadherence and provider-patient relationships in lower-income, rural minority adults with hypertension. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 12(9), 706-713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.17517176.2010.00321.x Peterson, S. J., & Bredow, T. S. (2017). Middle range theories: application to nursing research and practice (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer. Richardson, M. P., Waring, M. E., Wang, M. L., Nobel, L., Cuffee, Y., Person, S. D., Hullett, MEDICATION ADHERENCE IN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADULTS 17 S., Kiefe, C. I., & Allison, J. J. (2014). Weight-based discrimination and medication adherence among low-income African Americans with hypertension: How much of the association is mediated by self-efficacy? Ethnicity & Disease, 24(2), 162-168. Schoenthaler, A., Butler, M., Chaplin, W., Tobin, J., & Ogedegbe, G. (2016). Predictors of changes in medication adherence in Blacks with hypertension: Moving beyond crosssectional data. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 50(5), 642-652. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9791-y Schoenthaler, A., Knafl, G., Fiscella, K., & Ogedegbe, G. (2017). Addressing the social needs of hypertensive patients. Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, 10(9), e003659. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/circoutcomes.117.003659 Warren-Findlow, J., Seymour, R., & Brunner Huber, L. (2011). The association between self-efficacy and hypertension self-care activities among African American adults. Journal of Community Health, 37(1), 15-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-0119410-6 Young, J., Ng, D., Ibe, C., Weeks, K., Brotman, D., & Dy, S. et al. (2015). Access to care, treatment ambivalence, medication nonadherence, and long-term mortality among severely hypertensive African Americans: A prospective cohort study. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 17(8), 614-621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jch.12562
Purchase answer to see full attachment
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Explanation & Answer

Attached.

OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
BODY
REFERENCE










Hypertension.
primary or secondary causes of death
African American men suffer more.
Inadequate patient education, self-efficacy,
and self-management skills.
evaluating potential practice implication








employed database research
Specific h...


Anonymous
Awesome! Perfect study aid.

Studypool
4.7
Trustpilot
4.5
Sitejabber
4.4

Similar Content

Related Tags