Quick Reference The recommendations in this guide are based on the 6th edition (2009) of the APA Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. For more in-depth explanation of formatting and preparing works cited lists, please consult the 6th edition of the APA Publication Manual. Title Page Layout (APA 41) Unless you receive other instruction, the first page of your paper is a title page. The following are included on the title page: • • • • • • Running head Page number Title Author’s name • First name, middle initial, last name • Multiple authors • Each name should appear on a separate line Institutional affiliation Course title and number followed by date the paper is submitted The APA Manual does not give explicit instruction for the title page of a class paper. The contents and placement of items on the sample title page are adapted from APA instructions for the title page of a paper submitted for publication. (APA, 41). APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library 1 6 Formatting th EXAMPLE TITLE PAGE 1 The words “Running head” only appear on title page. Page Number 1 ! NOTE Running head: CLINICAL DECISION-MAKING 1 1 1 Clinical Decision-Making: Determining Severity of Child Language Impairment Jane Q. Public Cardinal Stritch University Course Title 362 April 1, 2010 Font & Spacing Times New Roman 12 Point Font ONLY. Lines are Double Spaced. See APA page 41 for further information APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library 2 6 Formatting th First Page Layout (APA 42-48) EXAMPLE: First page of a research paper Page Number 1 Shortened version of title appearing on every page. 1 Running head 1 2 CLINICAL DECISION-MAKING 1 1/2” Indent Clinical Decision-Making: Determining Severity of 1 Child Language Impairment A diagnosis of language impairment in a child is 1/2” indent begins each paragraph. frequently followed by another integral component of the Font & Spacing assessment process, the determination of severity. Severity Times New Roman 12 Point Font ONLY. Lines are Double Spaced. designations are often based on the magnitude of the linguistic deficit present. In addition, clinicians’ severity determinations are typically categorical in nature, with children classified as exhibiting mild, moderate or severe language impairment. See APA pages 42-48 for further information In-text Citations References to sources are included in the paper using parenthetical in-text citations. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library ! NOTE xt E Te PL In AM EX ! NOTE Examples of parenthetical references are contained in green boxes. 3 6 Formatting th Reference Page Layout (APA 49) EXAMPLE: Reference page References start on a new page. 1 1 ! NOTE 26 CLINICAL DECISION-MAKING 1 1 References 1/2” Indent 1 Ballantyne, A., Spilkin, A., & Trauner, D. (2007). The revision decision: Is change always good? A comparison of CELF-R and CELF-3 test scores in children with language impairment, focal brain damage, and typical development. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38(3), 182-189. ! NOnceTs aEre ordeyred Refere habetically b e. alp ’s surnam author Millitant, D. (2006). Read aloud versus shared reading: The effects on vocabulary acquisition, comprehension, and fluency (Unpublished master’s thesis). Kean University. (ED491543). Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library ! NOTE Periods DO NOT follow URLs at the end of references. 4 6 th Formatting Italicizing Titles Knowing when to italicize a title within your reference page can be confusing, especially when two titles are present within the same citation, for instance, an article title and a journal title. A simple technique for remembering which element to italicize is to think of the titles as being in a “parent – child” relationship, one title (the parent) is over the other title (the child). The “parent” title is italicized; the “child” title is not. For example, an article (child) appears within a journal (parent); the article is a part of a larger entity. Therefore, the journal title is italicized, but the article title is not. CHILD (No Italics) PARENT (Italics) No child present Work title Book chapter title Book title Article title Journal title Journal issue number Journal volume number Web page title Web site title The same method applies if a work is a part of a series or compilation, with the work (child) being secondary to the series (parent). If a work is not a part of a series or compilation, italicize the work title. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library 5 6 Books th Depending on the format of the reference source, there are variations in how the reference is listed. It is often best to model your citation after an example. This guide is organized by format (i.e. “Books”) and then medium of the format (i.e. Electronic). Identify the kind of source that you have used (book, periodical, chapter, web site, etc.) and find a similar example below. Mirror the example with your specific information. Additional examples can be found on these sites: APA Style Blog: http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/ UW-Madison’s Writing Center: http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/DocAPAReferences.html Purdue OWL: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ Book Citation - General Format Author(s). (Date of Publication). Title of book. Location of Publisher: Publisher. ! NOTE Location of the Publisher Location of the Publisher Give the city and state or, if the location is outside of the United States, the city and name of the country should be included. Do not abbreviate the name of the country. For U.S. cities, the two letter postal abbreviation for the state should be used. Book - Single Author APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM EX “With ice in my heart, I watched him prepare to defend me” (Meyer, 2007, p.1). EX The third book in the series starts out where the second left off. Bella states, N IO LE AT P IT M C A Meyer, S. (2007). Eclipse. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company. 6 6 Books th Book - Two Authors N IO LE AT P IT M A vocabulary instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. EX C Marzano, R. J., & Marzano, J. S. (1988). A cluster approach to elementary Note: The in-text citation uses the word “and” between the authors’ names when used as part of the sentence. In the reference list an ampersand is used between the next-to-last and last authors’ names within a citation. xt E Te PL In AM elementary classrooms. EX Marzano and Marzano (1988) began their study of vocabulary instruction in three When the source is noted in text, within parentheses at the end of a sentence, the ampersand is used, in the same way as the citation on a reference page. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM vocabulary instruction (Marzano & Marzano, 1988). EX Three different elementary classrooms were targeted as part of the initial study on 7 6 Books th Book - Multiple Authors List authors’ names in the order listed on the title page. A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Gagliano, A., Zielke, A. L., Wagner, E., & Kerr, D. J. (2009). How to build an elevator. Chicago, IL: Construction Press. A & Campbell, D. R. (2004). Doing research in the university library. Chicago, IL: Corbin Press. N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Sander, M. R., Downer, J. L., Quist, A. L., Platmann, L., Lucas, C. L., Cline, J. K., Three to five authors, first time the source is cited: xt E Te PL In AM technician begin the building process (Gagliano, Zielke, Wagner, & Kerr, 2009). EX Very explicit instructions with accompanying photos help the inexperienced For three to five authors, in subsequent citations, use only the first author’s name followed by “et al.” in the phrase or in parentheses. xt E Te PL In AM steps in the process, including testing hardware for durability. EX As advised by Gagliano et al. (2009), special attention should be taken to do all For six or more authors, for first and subsequent citations, use the first author’s name followed by “et al.”: in various ways to the chosen topic (Sander et al., 2004). APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM EX The research process begins with a very broad overview of material that relates 8 6 Books th Book, Corporate Author N IO LE AT P IT M A Washington, DC: Author. EX C American Psychological Association. (2010). Concise rules of APA style (6th ed.). Book, No Author or Editor When there is no author or editor listed for the publication, the title of the book or article moves into the author position. Do not use Anonymous as the author, unless Anonymous is specifically listed as the author. A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Basic history of immigration. (2009). San Francisco: Migration Press. In a parenthetical reference, the full title (if brief) or a shortened version precedes the year and page number. When abbreviating the title, begin with the word by which it is alphabetized. (Basic history, 2009). APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM followed in the19th century tell a complex story steeped in the fear of the unknown EX The development of nativist sentiment and the restrictive immigration laws that 9 6 Books th Edited Book - No Author Edited books are usually collections of essays or chapters written by a variety of authors. The editor is responsible for collecting and arranging the contents of the book and might also contribute to the book’s content. N IO LE AT P IT M A Press. EX C Hunnicutt, S. (Ed.). (2009). Corporate social responsibility. Detroit: Greenhaven Edited Book - Article or Chapter in N IO LE AT P IT M A education (pp.23-34). San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass. EX structures and strategies. In C. M. Wehlburg (Ed.), Integrated general C Hawthorne, J., Kelsch, A., & Steen, T. (2010). Making general education matter: Book Edition - 2nd or Later Edition N IO LE AT P IT M Assessment and teaching strategies (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. A EX C Jennings, J. H., Caldwell, J. S., & Lerner, J. W. (2010). Reading problems: Book Edition - Revised Edition Oxford University Press. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library EX constructive approach to critical thinking (Rev. ed.). Don Mills, Ontario: N IO LE AT P IT M C A Groarke, L. A., & Tindale, C. W. (2008). Good reasoning matters! : A 10 6 Books th Book Translation A (Original work published 1943). N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Hitler, A. (2001). Mein Kampf (R. Manheim, Trans.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Introduction, Preface, Foreword, Afterword N IO LE AT P IT M A guide to young adult ministry (pp. ix-x). Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. EX C Gregory, W. D. (2001). Foreword. In J. C. Cusick & K. F. DeVries, The basic Multivolume Work, Single Volume N IO LE AT P IT M A NY: Longman. EX C Pearson, P. D. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3). New York, Multivolume Work, All Volumes APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M New York, NY: Longman. A EX C Pearson, P. D. (Ed.). (1984-2000). Handbook of reading research (Vols. 1-3). 11 6 Books th Encyclopedia Article, signed N IO LE AT P IT M York, NY: P. F. Collier, Inc. A L. A. Bloomfield (Eds.), Collier’s encyclopedia (Vol. 22, pp. 416-439). New EX C Grossman, W. L. (1996). History of transportation. In L. S. Bahr, B. Johnston, & Encyclopedia Article, unsigned N IO LE AT P IT M A Collier’s encyclopedia (Vol. 22, p. 285). New York, NY: P. F. Collier, Inc. EX C Gulf of Thessaloniki. (1996). In L. S. Bahr, B. Johnston, & L. A. Bloomfield (Eds.), Secondary Sources A secondary source is a book chapter, article or other document that refers to or relates to information that was previously presented in another document. For example, author Phelps refers to research done by Hambleton and Slatter and uses their findings to support his research. The book authored by Phelps is considered a secondary source. The secondary source, not the primary source, is included on the Reference page because that is the source that was viewed. EX Erlbaum Assoc. N IO LE AT P IT M C A Phelps, R. P. (2005). Defending standardized testing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence In text, the original work is named and citation given is for the secondary source. that educators made fundamental mistakes when interpreting test results. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM EX Research completed by Hambleton and Slatter (as cited in Phelps, 2005) found 12 6 th Books Major Classical Works (APA 179) Reference list entries are not required for major classical works, such as ancient Greek and Roman works or classical religious works. The first time a citation is used in text, identify the version of the work that you are using. For subsequent citations, the version is not required. Classical works are usually divided or sectioned similarly in all editions; rather than page numbers, use these numbers to identify specific parts of your source. (APA p. 179, #6.18) his flocks. Specific guidelines are outlined for physical preparation for prayer (Qur’an 5:5). APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM EX Psalm 23 (New Revised Standard Edition) portrays God as a shepherd caring for 13 6 th Books - Electronic Book from the World Wide Web N IO LE AT P IT M A http://fulltextarchive.com/pages/The-Holy-War.php EX C Bunyan, J. (1907). The Holy War [Full text archive version]. Retrieved from E-book or Electronic Version of a Printed Book N IO LE AT P IT M A corporate social responsibility. Retrieved from http://www.ashgate.com EX C Crowther, D., & Capaldi, N. (Eds.). (2008). Ashgate research companion to A ! N IO LE AT P IT M vocabulary and comprehension. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com EX C Willis, J. (2008). Teaching the brain to read: Strategies for improving fluency, “Retrieved from” Statement The “Retrieved from” statement refers to the source of the electronic “Retrieved from” version of the book. In this case, the e-version is provided by a company Statement called ebrary; use the homepage URL for the company in the statement. NOTE APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library 14 6 Periodicals th Article Citation - General Format Author, A. A., Author, B. B. & Author C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume(issue), pp-pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxx For more information on Digital Object Identifiers (DOI) see: http://blog.apastyle.org/files/doi-and-url-flowchart-8.pdf Article with DOI (Digital Object Identifier), print or online N IO LE AT P IT M A Science Quarterly, 22(2), 116-119. doi:10.1177/0894318409332569 EX C Milton, C. L. (2009). Leadership and ethics in nurse-nurse relationships. Nursing Article without DOI (Digital Object Identifier), print N IO LE AT P IT M A freshmen. College & Research Libraries News, 71(8), 424-425. EX C Daniels, E. (2010). Welcome to the classroom: Ten tips for teaching college Article, multiple authors, three to seven APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library A http://www.hbr.org N IO LE AT P IT M Toyota’s success. Harvard Business Review, 86(6), 96-104. Retrieved from EX C Takeuchi, H., Osono, E., & Shimizu, N. (2008). The contradictions that drive 15 6 Periodicals th Three to five authors, first time the source is cited (Takeuchi, Osono, & Shimizu, 2008). xt E Te PL In AM experience, can view a problem from different points and offer creative solutions EX Toyota employees are seen as knowledge workers; workers who accumulate For three to five authors, in subsequent citations, use only the first author’s name followed by “et al.” in the phrase or in parentheses. xt E Te PL In AM all steps in the process, including the design phase. EX As advised by Takeuchi et al. (2008), special attention should be taken to review In-text citation for six or more authors -- for first and subsequent citations use the first author’s name followed by “et al.” (Booth et al., 2010, p. 45). xt E Te PL In AM straw, gives the finished product a more rustic look and is relatively easy to do” EX “Using natural materials in the weaving process, such as grape vine or braided Article, more than seven authors Utilizing natural materials. Just Patterns Magazine, 5(2), 42-47. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M Benke, J. M., . . . Platman, L. A. (2010). Introduction to basket weaving: A EX C Booth, B. J., Jones, C., Alexander, S. K., Stanford, A., Brown, D. S., 16 6 th Periodicals - Electronic Article from a Database with DOI (Digital Object Identifier) A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Swartwout, M. D., Cirino, P. T., Hampson, A. W., Fletcher, J. M., Brandt, M. E., & Dennis, M. (2008). Sustained attention in children with two etiologies of early hydrocephalus. Neuropsychology, 22(6), 765-775. doi:10.1037/a0013373 Article from a Database without DOI (Digital Object Identifier) If there is no DOI, include the words “Retrieved from” and the URL for the home page of the journal. Do not give the URL for the database. You may have to search the web to find the publisher’s home page. N IO LE AT P IT M http://secure.pdcnet.org/beq A ethics research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 19(4), 587-616. Retrieved from EX C Wasieleski, D. M., & Hayibor, S. (2009). Evolutionary psychology and business Newspaper Article from a Database APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library A http://www.stltoday.com/ N IO LE AT P IT M two-wheel getaway. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved from EX C Eisenhauer, L. (2010, September 19). Check out the colors of autumn on a 17 6 th Dissertations / Theses Doctoral Dissertation Abstracted in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI) N IO LE AT P IT M Humanities and Social Sciences, 68(04), 1328. A children of divorce. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A. EX C Nousse, V. E. (2007). An educational forgiveness intervention with young adult Unpublished Master’s Thesis A APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. EX C Caballero, S. (2004). How to teach first graders (Unpublished master’s thesis). 18 6 th Dissertations / Theses - Electronic Doctoral Dissertation, from a Commerical Database A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Hayes, R. S. (2011). The study of literacy coaching observations and interviews with elementary teachers (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (Document ID 2071058211). Master’s Thesis, from an Institutional Database A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Henningsen, M. R. (1969). Analysis of reading skills and abilities needed to qualify for employment in the United States Postal Service (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from http://library.stritch.edu/repository/TRR.html Master’s Thesis, from a Commerical Database (Document ID 2065640281). APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library A (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Eleftheriades, G. (2010). A midsummer night’s dream: A pedagogical perspective 19 6 th Meetings / Reports When using group names as authors, for example, corporations, government agencies, etc., they are usually spelled out each time they appear in a text citation. If the name is long and the abbreviation is familiar and understandable, you may abbreviate the name in the second and subsequent citations. Additional information is available in the APA Manual, p. 176-177. Annual report xt E Te PL In AM EX revenue for the year. xt E Te PL In AM EX The increase in sales was attributed to the new marketing campaign (Vermont A Vermont Teddy Bear Company (2004) reported a substantial increase in sales N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Vermont Teddy Bear Company. (2004). 2004 annual report. Shelburne, VT: Author. Teddy Bear Co., 2004). Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting EX students. Poster session presented at the meeting of Wisconsin Association of Academic Librarians, Manitowoc, WI. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M C A Buchmann, R. (2008, April). Informal information seeking as done by college 20 6 th Meetings / Reports - Electronic Annual Report - Online A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Proctor & Gample Company. (2010). P & G 2010 annual report. Retrieved from http://www.pg.com/annualreport2010/index.shtml Company Profiles A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Johnson & Johnson (2012, August). Marketline Company Profiles. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database. A from Business Source Premier database. N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Johnson Controls, Inc. (2012, February 17). Marketline Company Profiles. Retrieved Insights: Essentials database. (Document No. 574865) N IO LE AT P IT M A EX C Kashi Company. (n.d.). Marketline Company Profiles. Retrieved from Gale Business SWOT Analysis or other section of a Datamonitor Report A APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M http://www.datamonitor.com/ EX C NIKE, Inc. [SWOT analysis]. (2009, March). Retrieved from 21 6 Media th Film / Motion Picture N IO LE AT P IT M xt E Te PL In AM was well portrayed by the actors (Ho & George, 2004). EX The authenticity of fear that the residents of the hotel experienced during the siege A [Motion picture]. Los Angeles, CA: MGM Studios, Inc. EX C Ho, A. K. (Producer) & George, T. (Director). (2004). Hotel Rwanda Music Recording APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M together well to provide a fresh interpretation of George Harrison’s original work. xt E Te PL In AM EX In “Here Comes the Sun” (Ma & Taylor, 2008, track 4), the cello and guitar mesh A Sony Music. EX C Ma, Y. (Performer). (2008). Songs of peace and joy [CD]. New York, NY: 22 6 Media th Television Broadcast A episode]. In M. Sullivan (Executive producer), Frontline. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM disease (Palfreman, 2010). EX Availability and access of the vaccine affects the success in curbing the spread of N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Palfreman, J. (Writer & Director). (2010). The vaccine war [Television series 23 6 th Personal Communications Unpublished interviews do not need a reference page entry because APA considers them “personal communications”. They do not contain “recoverable data.” Other forms of personal communication include private letters, phone conversations, memos, e-mail or messages from non-archived discussion groups, etc. Because the content cannot be recovered, there is no need to include them in the reference list. Give the initials and surname of the individual and provide a date when the interchange took place. Personal Communications ! NOTE Personal Communications Personal Communications are NOT included in the Reference list. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM within the company (P. M. Nuellen, personal communication, April 8, 2009). EX The first draft of the budget was based on information supplied by all boards xt E Te PL In AM of having a process for completing projects on a timeline. EX J. R. Smith (personal communication, September 20, 2010) listed the advantages 24 6 th Electronic Resources Website A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Green, D. (2010). Gardening tips – perennials. Retrieved from http://www.gardening-tips-perennials.com/index.html Website - Corporate Author A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Harley-Davidson, Inc. (2010). Harley-Davidson USA. Retrieved from http://www.harley-davidson.com/en_US/Content/Pages/home.html Website - Section or Page of, No Author A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Work, welfare and child well-being. (2010). MDRC: Families and children. Retrieved from http://www.mdrc.org/subarea_index_8.html xt E Te PL In AM EX “Its syntheses of results across studies have shown that the effects of welfare and work policies on children differ substantially depending upon the age of the child and whether total household income rises as mothers enter the workforce” (Work, Welfare, 2010, para.1). ! NOTE No Author Give the title or the first few words of a long title in place of an author’s name in the in-text citation. APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library 25 6 th Electronic Resources ERIC Document A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Militante, D. (2006). Read aloud versus shared reading: The effects on vocabulary acquisition, comprehension, and fluency (Unpublished master’s thesis). Kean University. (ED491543). Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Blog Post A N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Engle, G. (2010, October 7). Thinking outside the ban [Web blog post]. Retrieved from http://theinnovativeeducator.blogspot.com/ Blog Comment A Retrieved from http://theinnovativeeducator.blogspot.com/2010/10/thinkingoutside-ban.html#comments APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library xt E Te PL In AM EX Buys (2010) briefly touches on what can happen when technologies are banned. N IO LE AT P IT M EX C Buys. (2010, October 7). When these technologies are banned [Web log comment]. 26 6 th Electronic Resources Online Encyclopedia N IO LE AT P IT M A http://www.britannica.com EX C Denzer, L. (2010). Rwanda. In Britannica Book of the Year, 2010. Retrieved from Online Newsletter N IO LE AT P IT M A 30 years. Life with Diabetes: Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation EX C Kaufman, F. (2009, September). The dramatic changes in diabetes care over the last International, 2-3. Retrieved from http://www.jdrf.org/files/General_Files/Life_ with_Diabetes/2009/LWD_Sept09.pdf Software A APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library N IO LE AT P IT M Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation. EX C Flesch Readability Scale (Microsoft Office 2003) [Computer software]. 27 6 th afterword, 11 annual reports, 20 anonymous author, 9 articles, periodical authors multiple authors, 15-16 citation format, 15 DOI (Digital Object Identifier), 15,17 electronic article from a database with DOI, 17 article from database without DOI, 17 newspaper article from a database, 17 authors books corporate author, 9 edited book, no author, 10 encyclopedia articles, 12 multiple authors, 8 single author, 6 two authors, 7 dissertations and theses doctoral dissertation, 18 electronic, 19 master’s theses, unpublished, 18 double-spacing, 3 periodical articles multiple authors , 15-16 websites, 25 heading and title, formatting, 2-3 blog comments, 26 posts, 26 books afterword, 11 authors corporate author , 9 multiple authors, 8 no author or editor, 9 single author, 6 two authors , 7 citation format, 6 classical works, 13 e-books (electronic books), 14 edited book article or chapter in, 10 no author, 10 editions second or later edition, 10 revised edition , 10 electronic book (e-book), 14 encyclopedia articles , 12 foreword , 11 introduction, 11 multivolume works, 11 preface, 11 secondary sources , 12 translations, 11 world wide web, books from, 14 classical works, 13 company profiles, 21 Index electronic resources blog comments, 26 blog posts, 26 ERIC documents, 26 online encyclopedias, 27 online newsletters, 27 software, 27 websites , 25 encyclopedia articles, 27 ERIC documents, 26 film/motion pictures, 22 first page layout, 3 foreword, 11 indentions, 3-4, introductions, 11 italicizing of titles of works , 5 magazine articles, (see articles, periodical) margins, formatting, 2-3 media film/motion pictures, 22 music recordings, 22 newsletters, online 27 television broadcasts, 23 websites, 25 meetings/reports , 20 electronic, 21 unpublished papers presented at a meeting, 20 music recordings, 22 newsletters, online, 27 page numbers, formatting, 2-4 papers, unpublished, 20 periodicals, electronic (see articles, periodical) personal communications, 24 preface, 11 publisher, location of, 6 reference page, formatting, 4 research papers, first page example, 3 retrieved from statement, 14 running head, 2-3 scholarly journal articles, (see articles, periodical) secondary sources, 12 software, 27 SWOT analysis, 21 television broadcasts, 23 text formatting , 3 title page layout, 1 - 2 translated works, 11 websites 25 APA 6th Ed. Guide v.3 - © 2013 Cardinal Stritch University Library 28 Running head: INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 1 Effect of Infant’s Perceived Gender on Adolescents’ Ratings of the Infant Douglas Degelman, Veronika Dvorak, and Julie Ann Homutoff Vanguard University of Southern California Author Note Douglas Degelman, Department of Psychology, Vanguard University of Southern California; Veronika Dvorak, Department of Psychology, Vanguard University of Southern California; Julie Ann Homutoff, Department of Psychology, Vanguard University of Southern California. An original research proposal by Julie Ann Homutoff has been edited and adapted by Douglas Degelman to illustrate basic elements of a research proposal. Correspondence concerning this proposal should be addressed to Douglas Degelman, Department of Psychology, Vanguard University of Southern California, Costa Mesa, CA 92626. E-mail: ddegelman@vanguard.edu INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 2 Abstract The role of the perceived gender of an infant and the gender of adolescents on ratings of the infant will be explored. Thirty-six junior high students (18 boys and 18 girls) will view a photo of a 3-month-old infant. Students will be told the infant’s name is either “Larry,” “Laurie,” or they will not be told the infant’s name. Each student will rate the infant on 6 bipolar adjective scales (firm/soft, big/little, strong/weak, hardy/delicate, well coordinated/awkward, and beautiful/plain). It is predicted that both the name assigned to the infant and the students’ gender will affect ratings. Implications of the results for parenting and for future research will be discussed. INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 3 Effect of Infant’s Perceived Gender on Adolescents’ Ratings of the Infant Many researchers agree that gender role socialization begins at the time of an infant’s birth (Haugh, Hoffman, & Cowan, 1980; Honig, 1983). Most parents are extremely interested in learning whether their newborn infant is a boy or a girl, and intentionally or not, this knowledge elicits in them a set of expectations about sex role appropriate traits (Rubin, Provenzano, & Luria, 1974). Empirical research suggests that these initial expectations, which form the basis of gender schemas (Leone & Robertson, 1989), can have a powerful impact on parents’ perceptions of and behavior toward infants (Fagot, 1978; Lewis, 1972). Gender contributes to the initial context within which adults respond to an infant and may become an influential agent in the socializing process and the development of the child’s sense of self (Berndt & Heller, 1986). Stereotyped expectations may influence gender role socialization and the acquisition of sex-typed behavior through a self-fulfilling prophecy process (Darley & Fazio, 1980). Preconceived gender-based expectations may cause the parent to elicit expected behavior from the infant and to reinforce expected behavior when it occurs; this would confirm the parents’ initial expectations. Several studies (Condry & Condry, 1976; Culp, Cook, & Housley, 1983; Delk, Madden, Livingston, & Ryan, 1986; Rubin et al., 1974) have explored the effects of infant gender on adult assignment of sex-typed labels and have demonstrated that adults sex-type infants. These studies have examined a variety of subject populations and included infants of varying ages. Parents in one study, for example, were asked to rate and describe their newborns shortly after birth when the primary source of information about the baby was his or her gender (Rubin et al., 1974). Although the infants did not differ on any objective measures, girls were rated as smaller, softer, more fine-featured, and more inattentive than boys. Other studies have revealed that parents INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 4 treat male and female infants differently. Culp et al. (1983) found that both male and female parents behave differently toward unfamiliar infants on the basis of perceived sex. This study suggests that adults are inclined to perceive traits in an infant that are consistent with an infants’ gender label. Also, Fagot (1978) observed that parents of toddlers reacted differently to boys’ and girls’ behavior. Parents responded more positively to girls than boys when the toddlers played with dolls, and more critically to girls than boys when the toddlers engaged in large motor activity. As a group, these studies suggest that adult responses coincide with culturally specified sex stereotypes associated with the gender label assigned to an infant and independent of actual infant gender differences. These studies have addressed how both perceptions and behaviors might be affected by expectations associated with the gender label assigned to the infant. Although many studies have examined sex stereotyping of infants by adults, particularly parents, very few studies have examined children’s or adolescents’ sex-typing of infants (Haugh et al., 1980; Vogel, Lake, Evans, & Karraker, 1991). Stern and Karraker (1989) reviewed available studies of sex-biased perceptions of infants who were labeled either male or female, and concluded that adults’ perceptions often are not influenced by knowledge of an infant’s sex; however, young children were found to rate infants in a sex-stereotyped fashion much more frequently than were adults. None of the studies included in the review examined sex stereotyping of infants by older children and adolescents. One question motivating this study, therefore, was how sex-stereotyped perceptions of infants change during the early adolescent period, particularly junior high (middle school) age. Although few studies have investigated adolescents’ sex-stereotyped perception of infants, a number of studies have examined adolescents’ sex stereotyping of older individuals. Many of INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 5 these studies, using varied methods, have found that sex stereotyping increases with age between 3 and 14 years (Berndt & Heller, 1986; Martin, 1987; Scanzoni & Fox, 1980; Skrypnek & Snyder, 1982). Some studies have found a curvilinear relationship between age and sex stereotyping, with younger subjects and adolescents using sex stereotypes less than other children (Stern & Karraker, 1989). However, most of these studies suggest a consistent increase in sex stereotyping from preschool through middle childhood, a plateau, and then a decrease through adolescence. The purpose of this present study is to systematically examine the effects of gender of adolescents and infants’ perceived gender, and their interaction, on adolescents’ ratings toward the infant. Several studies suggest that differences in the ratings of a perceived male or perceived female infant are a function of the actual gender of the observer (Condry & Condry, 1976; Vogel et al., 1991). Girls tend to rate infants as more beautiful than boys do, when there is a choice between the adjectives of plain and beautiful. Also, older women, particularly mothers, tend to give more positive ratings than other subjects (Bell & Carver, 1980). Participants for the present study will be selected to represent the adolescent age period (12-14 -year-olds). Consistent with the findings of Haugh et al. (1980) and the studies reviewed here, it is expected that the act of labeling infants with gender-typed first names will elicit responses of learned attributes associated with gender-category labels. Any stimulus that elicits the gender category, such as a “genderized” first name or designation as “male” or “female” will elicit a potentially broad set of associated attributes. The prediction is that if adolescents are given minimal information about an infant, adolescents will use sex-related cues (i.e., name of infant) to make evaluations about the infant. The second hypothesis is that males and females will rate the perceived infant differently regardless of the name assigned to the infant. The last INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 6 hypothesis is that the effect of the infants’ perceived gender will depend on the adolescents’ gender (an interaction effect). Method Participants Thirty-six junior high students (12-14-year-olds) attending a public school in West Covina, California will be used as participants. The students are a part of a leadership class. The school is located in a predominantly middle-lower class neighborhood. Informed consent will be obtained from parents or legal guardians, and an incentive will be used so that students will be motivated to get their informed consent papers signed. Design This study can be considered a 2 (gender of the adolescent) X 3 (infant name condition) between-subjects factorial design, because there are two independent variables. The gender of the adolescents has two levels, male or female, and the infant name condition has three levels: Laurie, Larry, and the control condition. The dependent measures are the adolescents’ ratings of the infant on each of the six bipolar adjectives. Materials A color image (see Figure 1) of a 3-month-old infant will be used for all the conditions. The infant’s image will be photocopied on 21.6 X 27.9 cm paper. Several sex-typed adjectives (see Figure 1) will appear on the paper with the infant’s pictures. Six bipolar adjective pairs (firm/soft, big/little, strong/weak, hardy/delicate, well coordinated/awkward, and beautiful/plain) were chosen for this study based on previous studies that used similar adjectives (Haugh et al., 1980; Rubin et al., 1974; Stern & Karraker, 1989; Vogel et al., 1991). All materials are exactly the same except for in each condition, the first name of the infant changes. In one condition the INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 7 infant will be assigned a gender-typed first name of Laurie, in another condition the infant will be assigned a gender-typed first name of Larry, and in the control condition the infant will not be assigned a first name. The phrase “this infant” will be used instead of a name. Procedure Twelve adolescents in the leadership class will be randomly assigned to each of the three infant gender-typed name conditions. The gender of the students will be balanced in the conditions. Students will be tested in groups on three consecutive days. Students and parents will be told that the studies purpose is to see how an infant’s traits can be detected from their physical appearance. Each group will be tested on a separate day. On that day, students will be told of the importance of not telling other potential subjects about the details of the study. They will also told that they will be given the results and the purpose of the study when all the research has been collected. All students will be tested in the same classroom using study carrels, to block their views from one another. They will be asked to not make noise or distract each other in anyway. The materials will be passed out to each student. The directions will be read out loud in a neutral tone. The same directions will be given to every group. Students will be told that there are no right or wrong answers and that answers should be based on their opinions. Any questions will be answered before the students begin rating the materials. After each student is finished and the materials are collected, the student will be thanked for participating in the research. Results The six pairs of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the adolescents in each condition of the independent variable. The resulting possible range of values is 1-5. For example, students have INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 8 to rate an infant on the bipolar adjective pair “firm” and “soft,” “1” meaning more firm and “5” meaning more soft. Scores on each of the bipolar adjectives will be analyzed. The mean and standard deviation for each condition of the independent variable will be obtained. These are the descriptive statistics. The inferential statistical procedures that will be performed are the two-way, betweensubjects ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD, to see which groups are significantly different. Discussion The results of this study will be restated and evaluated in light of the initial hypotheses. If the results are as predicted, the generality of sex-stereotyped perceptions of infants will be extended to the population of adolescents. How the results relate to previous research and to the theoretical issues discussed in the introduction will also be discussed. Practical implications of the results for parenting will also be considered. Limitations of the current research will be identified, along with suggestions for how future research can build upon the findings of the current study. One limitation to the generalizability of the findings is the use of only one photograph of one infant of a particular age. Future research could utilize photographs of infants of a variety of ages to establish the robustness of the results of the present study. Finally, the results and importance of this study will be summarized. INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 9 References Bell, N. J., & Carver, W. (1980). A reevaluation of gender label effects: Expectant mothers’ responses to infants. Child Development, 51, 925-927. doi:10.2307/1129489 Berndt, T. J., & Heller, K. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 889-898. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.889 Condry, J., & Condry, S. (1976). Sex differences: A study of the eye of the beholder. Child Development, 47, 812-819. Culp, R. E., Cook, A. S., & Housley, P. C. (1983). A comparison of observed and reported adultinfant interactions: Effects of perceived sex. Sex Roles, 9, 475-479. doi:10.1007/BF00289787 Darley, J. M., & Fazio, R. H. (1980). Expectancy confirmation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist, 35, 867-881. doi:10.1037/0003066X.35.10.867 Delk, J. L., Madden, R. B., Livingston, M., & Ryan, T. T. (1986). Adult perceptions of the infant as a function of gender labeling and observer gender. Sex Roles, 15, 527-534. doi:10.1007/BF00288229 Fagot, B. I. (1978). The influences of sex of child on parental reactions to toddler children. Child Development, 49, 459-465. doi:10.2307/1128711 Haugh, S. S., Hoffman, C. D., & Cowan, G. (1980). The eye of the very young beholder: Sex typing of infants by young children. Child Development, 51, 598-600. doi:10.2307/1129302 Honig, A. S. (1983). Sex role socialization in early childhood. Young Children, 38, 57-70. Leone, C., & Robertson, K. (1989). Some effects of sex-linked clothing and gender schema on INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS the stereotyping of infants. The Journal of Social Psychology, 129, 609-619. Lewis, M. (1972). State as an infant-environment interaction: An analysis of mother-infant interaction as a function of sex. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 18, 95-121. Martin, C. L. (1987). A ratio measure of sex stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 489-499. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.489 Rubin, J. Z., Provenzano, F. J., & Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parents’ views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44, 512-519. Scanzoni, J., & Fox, G. L. (1980). Sex roles, family and society: The seventies and beyond. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 42, 743-756. doi:10.2307/351822 Skrypnek, B. J., & Snyder, M. (1982). On the self-perpetuating nature of stereotypes about women and men. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 277-291. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(82)90054-3 Stern, M., & Karraker, K. H. (1989). Sex stereotyping of infants: A review of gender labeling studies. Sex Roles, 20, 501-522. doi:10.1007/BF00288198 Vogel, D. A., Lake, M. A., Evans, S., & Karraker, K. H. (1991). Children’s and adults’ sexstereotyped perception of infants. Sex Roles, 24, 605-616. doi:10.1007/BF00288417 10 INFANT’S PERCEIVED GENDER AND ADOLESCENTS’ RATINGS 11 Please rate the infant [Laurie, Larry, no name] on each of the following items, placing a mark in the space nearest the adjective you feel best describes the infant. firm:__:__:__:__:__:soft big:__:__:__:__:__:little strong:__:__:__:__:__:weak hardy:__:__:__:__:__:delicate well-coordinated:__:__:__:__:__:awkward beautiful:__:__:__:__:__:plain Figure 1. JPEG image of infant and bipolar adjectives rating scale. Research Writing and APA Style CONTENTS Research Writing and APA Style Effective Research Writing Grammar Syntax Diction Punctuation Rhetoric Mechanics of APA Style Page Setup Headers and Headings Numbers Statistical Tables, Figures, and Symbols APA Referencing Citing References in the Text Quotations The References and Bibliography Lists APA Reference Examples Periodicals Books Proceedings, Theses, and Dissertations Electronic Sources This concise summary of APA style should help you to: 1. Identify the APA sections of a research proposal and completed research paper that are written in the past, present, and future tense. 2. Know how to correctly use a comma with a conjunction and know when to use commas at the beginning, middle, and end of a sentence. 3. Know the recommended average length of sentences and paragraphs and the minimum and maximum paragraph length, and understand how to develop a paragraph. 4. Know when to use the word “and” versus the ampersand (&), and understand the rules of alphabetical order by author. 1 2 Research Writing and APA Style 5. Know when and when not to use et al. 6. Understand the differences between in-text and block quotations. 7. Know what is italicized in the reference section. 8. Know when to use uppercase versus lowercase letters to begin words in the reference section. 9. Know when to use volume and issue numbers in the references section. These items appear within this material in a slightly different format (boxed as Conceptual Objectives in the form of a question for you to answer, testing your knowledge of the material you have just read). SKILL DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES The exercises that apply to particular skill development objectives are indicated directly beneath each individual objective. Boxed instructions tell you when to stop reading and direct you to the end of this material to complete one or more skill development exercises. After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1. Correct research writing errors of grammar, sentence structure, diction, punctuation, and style Exercises 1 through 27 2. Correct APA errors in references and bibliographies Exercise 28 This material focuses on the Introduction and Review of Literature sections of your research proposal or actual study by helping you learn how to write in APA research style. Research Writing and APA Style After reading some journal articles, you should realize that research writing style is different from the style of most other types of writing. For example, I wrote this book using a different style than I do when I write research journal articles in APA style. When editors refer to style, they mean the rules or guidelines a publisher uses to ensure consistent presentation in its publications, including scholarly journals, conference proceedings, and books. The research proposal and completed study must be written in the appropriate research-writing style of the organization for which it is prepared. Organizations usually supply a copy of their style to authors. Your college or university many have a style publication of some kind. Style refers to the rules or guidelines of the organization for which the research study is prepared. For scholarly publication, APA (American Psychological Association) style is commonly used by journals of professional association journals and conference proceedings. Many journals, colleges, and universities follow APA style. This material is based on the sixth edition of Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010). Different styles are used for applied business research, and most businesses don’t have a style manual. However, one of the important things to remember is to be consistent with the style you do select to use. Even if your college doesn’t use strict APA style, you can benefit from knowing a consistent research writing style such as APA, and the next section focuses on research writing. Research Writing and APA Style 3 Many organizations claim to follow APA style, but they change some of the rules. Look at the citations within articles and the reference sections at the end of articles you have from your literature review; is the style the same? Although this material is provided to familiarize you with APA style, your college or university many have some different rules, as do many journals and conferences. Therefore, you may have to make some style changes, as I do regularly when I send articles to different journals. Effective Research Writing This section is designed to help you write research effectively. The topics in this section include grammar, syntax, diction, punctuation, and rhetoric with applications to research writing style. Grammar Grammar refers to the rules for use of eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Since grammar is the foundation of writing skills, the eight parts of speech are discussed below. Nouns. This part of speech includes people, places, things, organizations, and events. Proper nouns are capitalized. Use initial capitals in titles when used with the names of people, but not to indicate their titles (e.g., Professor [or Dr.] Coughlin teaches research, Robert Lussier is a professor of management). Nouns often answer the “what” question in a sentence. (What study? The Sullivan (2009) study.) Avoid using possessives and contractions whenever possible. Although possessives and contractions are grammatically correct in informal writing, they are not found in research writing. Possessives should not be used when giving ownership to a noun (e.g., the participant’s head versus the head of the participant). However, possessives are correct in some instances when referring to a proper noun (e.g., Alice’s Restaurant versus the Restaurant of Alice). Avoid contractions in formal research writing, and remember to cite any attributed material to a source. More examples of how to avoid using possessives and contractions appear below. WRONG: CORRECT: Smith’s findings were . . . Smith (2008) found . . . WRONG: CORRECT: Doyle’s study explored . . . Doyle studied/investigated . . . WRONG: CORRECT: Smith didn’t/couldn’t/wouldn’t . . . Smith (2008) did not/could not/would not . . . Pronouns. This part of speech replaces nouns. Examples include he, she, you, it, we, and they. Use pronouns within a sentence to avoid repeating the noun elsewhere in the sentence. Do not begin sentences with pronouns. In particular, do not start sentences with: it, this, or there. However, avoid sexist language. Using “he or she” pronouns is nonsexist but is considered awkward. The use of neutral-gender third-person plural pronouns (they, them, people) is preferable. Following are examples of ways to avoid using pronouns. 4 Research Writing and APA Style WRONG: It was found that . . . This is a serious illness. There were three findings. CORRECT: Smith (2007) found . . . AIDS is a serious illness. Important findings included . . . Do not refer to authors with pronouns. Use the name of the authors. Although using appropriate substitutions such as “these researchers” or “investigators” is acceptable to avoid repeating the names too often in one paragraph, do not overdo it. Below are examples of how to avoid referring to authors by pronouns. WRONG: She investigated . . . She found . . . They concluded . . . CORRECT: Smith (2007) investigated . . . This researcher found . . . Smith and Jones (2009) concluded . . . Who vs. that or which. Use who to refer to human beings and that or which for nonhuman animals and for things (e.g., The students who participated were rewarded, not the students that/which participated). Noun and pronoun agreement—singular or plural? Be sure that nouns and pronouns within the same sentence are both either singular or plural. Avoid sexist language, but avoid using “him or her” and “he and she” by using plural pronouns. The middle option in the box below is considered as just OK because it is awkward to use both genders together. WRONG: The participant first entered their score . . . Neither the high nor low scorers doubted their performance. OK: The participant first entered his or her score . . . Neither the high nor low scorer doubted his or her performance BETTER: Participants first entered their scores . . . None of the participants doubted their performance. Two important research words you need to understand are: analysis (singular) vs. analyses (plural) and hypothesis (singular) vs. hypotheses (plural). Verbs. This part of speech is a forceful direct communicator. Verbs make a statement, ask a question, or give direction. Verbs commonly show action, but they can also show equality and help other verbs (auxiliary verbs). Verbs have the following qualities: person, voice, tense, and number. Person. Also called “point of view,” person defines from which grammatical perspective the written material is perceived. In APA style, use of the first person (I will develop) is preferred, rather than third person (This researcher will develop), although use of the third person is not considered incorrect. When using first person, don’t over use the word “I.” Your college may have a preference that you should use when writing your research. Research Writing and APA Style 5 Voice. Whether active or passive, voice refers to how we use verbs. In the active voice, which we use most of the time, the object receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, which is used less often, the subject receives the action of the verb. The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. The active voice is preferred in research writing; see the examples below. WRONG (PASSIVE): The research was conducted by Jones (2008). CORRECT (ACTIVE): Jones (2008) conducted the research. Notice that with the active voice the “doer” is at the beginning of the sentence. Write in the active voice whenever possible. However, when writing a literature review in the past tense, it is often difficult to avoid the passive voice. Tense. Tense can be past (Joel “was” here; we “were” there), present (Joel “is” here; we “are” present; I “have” the ball), or future (Joel “will be” here; we “shall be” present; I “will have” the ball). Since the studies in the literature have already been conducted, write in the past tense when referring to the literature in the introduction section of your paper (Appendix B) and when writing the abstract. When writing your proposal’s research methods sections and Appendix A, write in the future tense. After conducting your research, change your research methods and Appendix A to past tense; write in the present tense for the results and discussion sections. See the summary below. Past tense is used when referring to prior articles (proposal introduction, Appendix B). Use in the completed research paper introduction, method section, and Appendix B sections. CORRECT: Smith (2000) conducted a . . . study. Smith (2000) stated/found/concluded . . . Present tense is generally not used in the research proposal. Use in the completed research paper results and discussion sections when referring to your own research, but not when comparing your work to prior studies. WRONG: Smith (2009) is conducting a . . . study. Smith (2009) states/finds/concludes . . . Future tense is used in the proposal method section and Appendix A. Use in the completed research paper in the discussion section when referring to implications of how the results can be used and in the need for further research. CORRECT: (in Appendix A) I will investigate/examine the . . . CONCEPTUAL OBJECTIVE 1 Identify the APA sections of a research proposal that are written in the past, present, and future tense. Number and noun-verb agreement. Look at the following sentences: Some of the bread is gone. Some of the rolls are gone. In the first sentence the subject, bread, is singular, so the verb (is) is singular as well. In the second sentence, the subject, rolls, is plural, so the verb (are) is plural too. The word data is always plural; data are collected. The word none is always singular. The number in the sample is 100. A number of participants are selected for the sample. See below for more examples. 6 Research Writing and APA Style WRONG: The participants were males and females, and he and she are employed. CORRECT: Participants were males and females, and they were employed. BETTER: Participants were employed males and females. Adjectives. This part of speech modifies (qualifies, quantifies, or limits) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives often answer the “which” question in a sentence. (Which ball? The blue ball.) The adjective or adverb, word or phrase, must clearly refer to the word it modifies. Adverbs. Words that modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb are called adverbs. Adverbs often answer the “why,” “how,” and “where” questions in a sentence. Use adverbial phrases carefully and beware of “dangling” modifiers (e.g., Running for the bus, my book fell in the mud. Did the book run for the bus?). Adverbs can be used as introductory or transitional words. Use them sparingly as introductions; use them appropriately when needed for transition. Transitional words and phrases are commonly used to help maintain the flow of thought. Here are some examples: Time links: then, next, after, while, since Cause-and-effect links: therefore, thus, consequently, hence, as a result Additional links: in addition, also, moreover, furthermore, similarly, for example Contrast links: conversely, nevertheless, however, although, but Prepositions. To show time and space relationships connecting the noun with another part of the sentence, we use prepositions. Many prepositions are used frequently (e.g., to, from of, for, at, by, on, under, over). Do not end sentences with a preposition, and avoid using more than three prepositions in a sentence. The longer a sentence is, the more likely it is to contain more than three prepositions. If there are more than three, split the sentence. Conjunctions. Words used to link single words, phrases, and clauses are called conjunctions. A comma often precedes conjunctions. Some major coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet. A conjunction commonly connects two closely related ideas into one sentence rather than two, so conjunctions are generally not used to start a sentence. (Or I shouldn’t have started this sentence with or.) Interjections. Words used to attract attention or express feelings (ha! ouch!) are called interjections. Avoid using them in research writing. Summary. When you read “The first three are the necessary parts of a sentence,” you’ll quickly notice that it’s not clear what “the first three” means. Instead, write “Nouns, pronouns, and verbs are the necessary parts of a sentence.” Modifying adjectives and adverbs are not necessary to complete a sentence; their function is to provide details. Prepositions and conjunctions are often used but not needed to complete a sentence; they are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. Research Writing and APA Style 7 STOP READING and scroll to the end of this material to complete exercises 1 through 4. Syntax Syntax is the grammatical functioning of words, phrases, and clauses that form sentence structure. To simplify grammar, focus on the subject, predicate, modifiers, and connectives when writing. A subject is a noun or pronoun about which something is said or asked. A predicate expresses what is said about the subject; it includes a verb. Modifiers include both adjectives and adverbs. Connectives include both prepositions and conjunctions. A sentence contains a subject and a predicate, and it often contains modifiers and connectives to convey meaning. Phrases and clauses. A phrase is a group of words without a subject and predicate, whereas a clause has a subject and a predicate. In other words, a phrase is not a complete sentence; a clause is a complete sentence. A clause can either be a stand-alone sentence (independent or main clause) or be connected to another clause to form one sentence. Phrases are connected to clauses with punctuation to form sentences (e.g., Smith (2000) conducted the . . . study [clause], which took three years [phrase]). Sentence errors. Be sure to write complete sentences that express only one idea. A group of words without a subject and predicate is not a sentence; it is a fragment. A comma splice occurs when a comma is incorrectly used without a conjunction to connect two independent clauses/sentences. A run-on (or fused) sentence has two independent clauses connected without punctuation. See examples of the three sentence errors below. Fragment WRONG: Participants were between the ages of 21 and 31. Which is a good age group. CORRECT: Participants were between the ages of 21 and 31, which is a good age group. Comma Splice WRONG: Participants were between the ages of 21 and 31, they were male and female. CORRECT: Participants were between the ages of 21 and 31, and they were male and female. Run-on Sentence WRONG: Participants were between the ages of 21 and 31 they lived in Israel. CORRECT: Participants were between the ages of 21-31; they lived in Israel. STOP READING and scroll to the end of this material to complete exercises 5 through 7. 8 Research Writing and APA Style Diction Diction refers to the use of correct words to convey meaning. A few common errors in selecting words include: Affect (a verb meaning to influence) Compared with (similar) Between (used with two variables) Farther (distance) Then (time sequence) In (within) Imply (when you write) Effect (a verb or noun meaning to achieve or bring about results) Compared to (dissimilar) Among (three or more variables) Further (additional research) Than (comparison) Into (motion or direction) Infer (when you read something) Personification. Personification is the attribution of exclusively human characteristics to the nonhuman things (e.g., objects, studies, findings, conclusions, companies, organizations). Although personification is used with informal writing, it is not appropriate in formal research writing. WRONG: Results of the study implied research found . . . CORRECT: Smith (2009) inferred that researchers found . . . (Smith & Jones, 2008) or I found [no reference] . . . WRONG: The results show/indicate . . . CORRECT: We show/indicate that . . . Others terms to avoid. The following terms should not be used in research writing. • Proved. Researchers never prove anything—they support or refute hypotheses through statistical testing with a stated probability of having made an error in the results/findings. For example, first they proved that margarine was better for you than butter. Then they proved that they were equal. Later they proved that butter is better for you than margarine. So which proof is the real proof? • Believed. Researchers do not believe—they hypothesize/support/find/conclude. • Felt. Researchers do not feel—they state/indicate/find/conclude. • Looked at. Researchers do not look at—they study/examine/investigate. STOP READING and scroll to the end of this material to complete exercises 8 through 11. Punctuation The use of special marks to group words, phrases, and clauses is called punctuation. Punctuation in a sentence usually denotes a pause in thought; different kinds of punctuation indicate different kinds and lengths of pauses. The comma, semicolon, and colon tell Research Writing and APA Style 9 us when to pause; the period and question mark tell us when to stop; and the dash, parentheses, and brackets tell us to take a detour. Let’s discuss them in this order. (Quotation marks, discussed later, and the slash, discussed at the end of this subsection, are also punctuation marks.) . Period The period is most often used to end a sentence, but it is also used with abbreviations and in other specialized contexts. ? Question mark Question marks are, obviously, used to ask a question (e.g., Do you like research and statistics?). The research question of your study should end with a question mark. In contrast to the period and question mark, which ask the reader to stop, the comma, semicolon, and colon ask the reader to pause. , Commas Pauses and variation in voice pitch help to convey the meaning of spoken sentences. In this same way, commas help to clarify the meaning of written sentences. To indicate a pause required by the structure of the sentence, use a comma. People often use sound to guide them in their use of the comma, but sound can lead to inappropriate comma use. Below are four major principles to follow when using commas. 1. Commas separate items in a series. A series needing commas has three or more consecutive words, phrases, or clauses in one sentence (e.g., Doctors Coughlin, Jensen, and Winter teach research methods.). Do not use a comma with a series of two. With a series of one-word items or a short phrase, you can omit the last comma in informal writing; however, APA style includes all commas. APA style also includes seriation to prevent misreading or to clarify the sequence or relationship between elements, as when paragraphs are numbered (illustrated by the three principles of using commas that you’re reading now). However, within a paragraph or sentence, lowercase letters separate the series. 2. Commas precede conjunctions that join clauses/connect sentences. Conjunctions put closely related ideas together. In essence, you are combining two sentences into one. Conjunctions help to avoid several short, choppy sentences. Some common conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, so, and yet. • To test whether a comma with a conjunction is used correctly, replace the conjunction with a period. If you have two complete sentences, the comma is used correctly. If you do not have two sentences, omit the comma; the conjunction is most likely connecting words or phrases rather than clauses. Conjunctions that commonly connect items in a series of two do not require a comma, as illustrated below. WRONG: Smith (2000) controlled for the age of participants, and the length of time they were in the nursing home. CORRECT: Smith (2000) controlled for the age of participants and the length of time they were in the nursing home. WRONG: Smith (2000) controlled for age, but not for length. CORRECT: Smith (2000) controlled for age but not for length. (continued) 10 Research Writing and APA Style WRONG: Smith (2000) controlled for age however length of stay was not controlled. CORRECT: Smith (2000) controlled for age; however, length of stay was not controlled. 3. Commas set off nonrestrictive/nonessential words and phrases at the beginning, middle, and ending of the sentence. Another way of thinking about commas is that they separate less important information (nonrestrictive) from more important information (restrictive). The comma is used to separate the nonrestrictive modifying words and phrases that provide details (and can be eliminated from the sentence) from the restrictive clause (that cannot be eliminated). If you eliminate nonrestrictive words and phrases, you will still have a complete sentence. The word which is nonrestrictive; thus, it commonly has a comma before it. The word that is restrictive; thus, it does not have a comma. • Beginning. To test whether you have a nonrestrictive introductory word or phrase, replace the comma with a period. If you do not have two complete sentences (i.e., one part is a word or phrase and the other is a clause), the comma is correctly used. If you have two complete sentences, either replace the comma with a semicolon or a period or use a conjunction. Most sentences that begin with a preposition (to, if, by, in, when, before, after, etc.) include introductory phrases. The technical rule is that if you have four or more words as an introductory phrase, you need a comma. If you have less than three words in the phrase, you don’t need a comma, but it is never wrong to use it. So it is easier to just always use the comma (and APA likes commas, such as after each word in a series). • Middle. To test whether you have a nonrestrictive word or phrase in the middle of a sentence (parenthetical element), delete the information between commas. If you still have a sentence, the commas are correct. • Ending. To test if you have an ending phrase, delete the phrase at the end of the sentence. If you still have a sentence, the comma is correct. The most common word used in an ending phase is which. WRONG: In addition Smith (2009) controlled for the age of participants. CORRECT: In addition, Smith (2009) controlled for the age of participants. WRONG: Smith (2009) controlled for age to make the study more robust but not for length. CORRECT: Smith (2009) controlled for age, to make the study more robust, but not for length. WRONG: Smith (2009) controlled for age which makes the study more robust. CORRECT: Smith (2009) controlled for age, which makes the study more robust. WRONG: Smith (2009) controlled for age making the study more robust. CORRECT: Smith (2009) controlled for age, making the study more robust. Research Writing and APA Style 11 CONCEPTUAL OBJECTIVE 2 Explain how to test whether a comma with a conjunction is used correctly and whether commas are used correctly at the beginning, middle, and end of a sentence. 4. APA set of year in-text citation in parentheses (e.g., Identifying success variables is an important finding [Smith, 2009; Willis, Jones, & Rogers, 2008].). However, style can vary; the comma is not always used. ; Semicolons To connect two closely related clauses, a semicolon is used to create a pause. The semicolon is weaker than the period but is a much stronger connector than the comma with a conjunction. However, it is not as commonly used as the comma. The two major uses of semicolons follows. Semicolons are used to connect two closely related clauses. The semicolon can be used rather than the comma with a conjunction to connect two sentences. Use a semicolon when the clauses are closely related but a conjunction does not seem appropriate, or when conjunctions make the sentence seem to ramble or to be choppy. To test whether you used a semicolon correctly, make sure you have a complete sentence on both sides of the semicolon. If the semicolon does not connect two complete sentences; it is used incorrectly. (You should have realized that the semicolon was incorrectly used in the preceding sentence!) The first part of the sentence (If the semicolon . . . ;) is not a clause; it is an introductory phrase. Semicolons also are used when items in a series themselves contain internal punctuation. If you use only commas to separate the series, the sentence will be confusing. See the examples below. WRONG: Coughlin (1993), Jensen, Sullivan and Lussier (2004), and Smith (1992) support . . . CORRECT: Coughlin (1993); Jensen, Sullivan, and Lussier (2004); and Smith (2009) supported . . . WRONG: Hopi women own the land (Coughlin, 1993, Jensen, 2004, and Smith, 1992). CORRECT: Hopi women own the land (Coughlin, 1993; Jensen, 2004; Smith, 1992). : Colons To pause, point forward, and indicate that the following material is closely related to the preceding material (or that it illustrates, extends or amplifies it), we use a colon. Colons are commonly used to introduce a series. (Three teachers qualified for tenure: Coughlin, Jensen, and Smith.) Like the semicolon, the colon can connect two sentences; but when doing so you capitalize the word after the colon. (There is only one solution: Edit the paper carefully.) • To test whether you used the colon correctly, make sure you have a complete sentence before the colon; if not, you don’t need a colon. • To test whether you need a capital after the colon, check to see if you have a phrase or a clause after the colon. If you have a phrase, you are not connecting two complete sentences, so don’t use a capital. If you have two sentences, you need a capital. 12 Research Writing and APA Style WRONG: The formula is: two parts to three. CORRECT: The formula is two parts to three. WRONG: Smith (2008) studied two elements wind and water. CORRECT: Smith (2008) studied two elements: wind and water. WRONG: They agreed on the outcome: men and women are equal. CORRECT: They agreed on the outcome: Men and women are equal. To summarize what we’ve covered, the period and question mark ask the reader to stop; the comma, semicolon, and colon ask the reader to pause. Now let’s discuss parentheses, brackets, and dashes, all of which ask the reader to take a detour. ( ) Parentheses To set off illustrative matter and to enclose figures or letters, use parentheses. The use of parentheses with references in APA style has been shown multiple times in this book. Parentheses are also used to indicate probability values (p < .05) and sample size (N = 50). In general writing, parentheses are commonly used like the comma to separate nonrestrictive words and phrases. However, when writing research, avoid confusing the reader by using commas rather than parentheses. Abbreviations. Parentheses are also used to introduce an abbreviation, such as master of business administration (MBA). The actual title should be written out the first time it is presented, and then you can use the abbreviation without the parentheses (MBA, PhD). Note that APA does not use periods between letters in abbreviations (e.g., A.P.A., M.B.A., or Ph.D.). Series. Parentheses also enclose the numbers or letters used to separate a series. APA uses both numbers and letters—for example, the study variables were (a) cultural interaction, (b) ethnic groups, and (c) bicultural adaptation. (Note that APA does not use periods, such as 1. 2. 3. or a. b. c.) The way in which parentheses indicate a detour occurs when you are directed elsewhere. When you see the author and/or year in parentheses, for example you know you can go to the reference list and see the publication details about that citation. As another example, when you read, “The patterns were statistically significant (see Table 2),” you can go to the table. [ ] Brackets Brackets are used to set off corrections, comments, or interpretations in quoted material, and to replace parentheses within parentheses. Never use parentheses within parentheses; instead use brackets (e.g., The results [N = 35] are presented in Table 2.). Brackets are also used in a quotation to insert material by some person other than the original author—for example, “When [his own and others’] behaviors were studied” (Smith, 2009, p. 24). Brackets are not commonly used as a special APA style. — Dashes Dashes are used to mark a sudden break in thought, before a summary statement to set it off, and after an introductory list. Dashes are sometimes used in place of commas or parentheses. Since dashes are not commonly used in APA, use commas and parentheses instead. Research Writing and APA Style 13 / Slashes A slash is used to separate a numerator from denominator (X/Y), to cite a republished work (Freud 1923/1961), and to separate similar terms (DV/Y, IV/X). - Hyphenation Although hyphenation is used with spelling rather than as a punctuation mark, we discuss it here. Hyphenation is used to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun (e.g., a six-month study versus a study that lasted six months). The hyphen is generally used with such prefixes as ex-, self-, all- and great-; between a prefix and a proper name; and with the suffix -elect. Examples include ex-judge, self-concept, all-purpose, great-aunt, pro-French, and mayor-elect. The hyphen is also used with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions (two-thirds). STOP READING and scroll to the end of this material to complete exercises 12 through 20. Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of using language to communicate clearly. It refers to effective writing of sentences, paragraphs, and entire papers. This section discusses sentences, paragraphs, and the transition and parallelism between them. Also covered is how to avoid generalities by using proper references and comparing research. Sentence and paragraph guidelines. A sentence contains a subject and a predicate that form one complete idea; a paragraph is a group of related sentences developing one complete idea. A paragraph is poorly written when it contains sentences that are not related to the one main point of the paragraph. As a guide for business writing, follow the 1-5-15-3-¾ writing rule. The 1-5-15-3-¾ writing guide suggests having one idea in a paragraph, with an average of five sentences with 15 words to a sentence; the paragraph should have a minimum of three sentences and not exceed three-quarters of a double-spaced page. Within this “average” guide, vary the length of sentences and paragraphs to help readers maintain interest and comprehension. Developing paragraphs (TBS). Before you start to write a paragraph, clearly state to yourself the one idea you will present. Craft paragraphs using a pattern to develop ideas such as cause–effect, comparison–contrast, example–illustration, and so on. Follow the TBS (topic sentence [T], body sentences [B], summary sentence [S]) paragraph format: • Topic. Start paragraphs with a topic sentence that explains the one main idea, listing the points to be covered in the paragraph; it tells the reader what is coming. • Body. Two to five sentences or more give the details to develop the complete idea. The body sentences develop the one idea so that the reader understands the topic of the paragraph and is not left with vague impressions and unanswered questions. • Summary. With long paragraphs, use a summary or concluding sentence to end the paragraph. 14 Research Writing and APA Style Sentence length editing. Short sentences are choppy. When you have too many short sentences in a paragraph, combine some of them with coordinating conjunctions. On the other hand, excessively long sentences are difficult to read. If you have too many long sentences, break some of them into more than one sentence. Direct, declarative sentences with simple, common words are usually best. Place the subject at the beginning of the sentence and important words at the beginning or end of the sentence. Paragraph length editing. Paragraphs provide a pause, a chance to assimilate one step at a time. Short paragraphs are too abrupt, except as an introduction; if a paragraph contains less than three sentences, add sentences that provide detail. Paragraphs that are too long tend to lose the reader’s attention; if a paragraph is a page long, split it to create two paragraphs. Break paragraphs at shifts in emphasis and time, whenever you start a new idea. Scholarly work and APA. Although the 1-5-15-3-¾ writing guide makes it easier to read a research study, it is not always used for scholarly work. Scholarly authors commonly want to make their work high level, so they tend to write longer sentences and longer paragraphs than are commonly used in applied business research. Although APA style attempts to make it easier for the reader, scholars often stray. APA style states that a paragraph should be more than one sentence and should not exceed one double-spaced page. CONCEPTUAL OBJECTIVE 3 State the recommended average length of sentences and paragraphs and the minimum and maximum paragraph length, and explain how to develop a paragraph. Transition and introductory paragraphs. Transition is the process of connecting ideas together so that they are clearly and logically presented. We discussed grammatical transition within and between sentences; here we focus on paragraphs and sections of the research paper. Make it as easy as possible for the reader to understand and follow your paragraphs (your train of thought). Every new section, unless it is very short, should begin with an introductory paragraph. A new section is presented under a new heading. We will talk more about headings and APA style later. Sections. The introductory paragraph of a section typically lists the subheading and/ or briefly states what will be presented so that the reader knows what is coming. Subsections (1. 2. 3. or a, b, c). When you have a list of points to cover in separate paragraphs you can make them subheadings (second-level headings). Subheadings, as well as any group of sequential paragraphs can be numbered 1. 2. 3., and within sentences and paragraphs you can letter them (a) (b) (c) for transition, APA style. You can also refer directly to a point made in the previous paragraph. Go back and read the introductory paragraph of the subsection, second-level heading, Grammar, for an example. On your way back here, read the introductory paragraphs for Syntax, Diction, Punctuation, and Rhetoric for more examples. Research Writing and APA Style 15 Parallelism. Balancing structure to aid coherence is called parallelism. Headings and series should match. For example, the headings “Boating,” “Ski,” and “Dive” are not grammatically parallel; use “Boating,” “Skiing,” and “Diving.” Also, there must be at least two headings of the same level within a section. In other words, a single second- or third-level heading within a section is not parallel with any other heading; it only complicates the structure of the section unnecessarily. Incorporate the material under the single heading into the surrounding text or add another same-level heading to create a parallel subheading structure within the section. A single hypothesis (or table, figure, and so on) within a section does not require numbering. Avoid generalities by using proper references. Any time you incorporate information from another source into your writing, you must cite the reference. The Introduction section and Appendix B, Literature Review, should document the reference source in APA style. Almost every paragraph should have at least one reference, as the purpose of these sections is to present what other researchers have studied. Generalities occur when several researchers are referred to without listing at least three sources, opinions are given without references, and sources are not re-cited. • Do not write “several (some/many/most) researchers” without at least three sources to support that generalization. You should avoid generalities, but if you do use them you must support them. • Do not give your opinion without a reference. No matter how experienced you are, you are not a proper source to reference unless you have published what you are writing. If so, you must reference your published work. The way to give your opinion is to find a source that states your opinion and reference that source, not your own opinion. • When you start a new paragraph and continue to write about a source, you must re-cite it. The reader cannot assume that you are continuing to write about the same source as in the previous paragraph(s). Re-citing ensures that you will not have any paragraphs without a reference. WRONG: Research has concluded that . . . CORRECT: Researchers have concluded that . . . (Bailey, 2007; Smith, 1998; Weston, 2009). WRONG: AIDS is an important topic because . . . CORRECT: AIDS is an important topic because . . . (Smith, 2009). WRONG: There is a need for farther research to . . . CORRECT: Jones (2008) stated that there is a need for further research to . . . Comparing research. When similarities and differences of several researchers take place in one paragraph, research comparisons are made. Again, several researchers means at least three. A common error of novice researchers is to simply write about one study in a paragraph followed by a different study in a separate paragraph. When writing paragraphs to develop the review of the literature, be sure to compare (identify similarities and differences) methods/results-find- 16 Research Writing and APA Style ings/conclusions of several researchers whenever possible. Use similarities in methods to support your use of these same methods. When there are contrasts, make differences clear to the reader in order to justify the need for your research. Below is a portion of a sample introduction to a research proposal or completed research paper in APA style. Substitute information on your topic for the ellipses. . . . is important today because . . . (Adams, 2009; Coughlin, 2009; William, 2008). Some researchers have studied . . . (Bailey, 2008; Conan, 2007; Smith, 2002; Watson, 2003; Williams, 2008). However, results have been mixed. Williams (2008) and Conan (2007) found . . . ,whereas Bailey (2008) and Watson (2003) found . . . Conversely, Smith (2002) concluded that there is . . . . Adams (2009) stated that there is a need for further research on . . . to determine . . . 3.3 Mechanics of APA Style It may be helpful to think of APA style as the rules of a game. If you do not follow the APA rules, your grade is penalized. A sample completed research proposal is included in the digital appendices on this CD. Refer to this example when reading this section of the chapter and when completing your proposal, if you do one. Some of the major APA style requirements are discussed below. Page Setup Margins. Set your margins to at least one inch for the top, right, left, and bottom. Align page left. Your paper should have the lines on the right of pages of different lengths. Book are not aligned left; they are justified to provide the blocked rather than left-aligned, jiggered margins. Font. The preferred APA font is Times New Roman with a 12-point type size. Other seriftype fonts are also acceptable. The Courier New font in 12-point type is good to use in tables with numbers because it makes them all the same size; notice that all the letters, and these numbers 1, 4, 7, 9 are all the same size. In contrast, Times New Roman gives less space to some letters and to numbers 1, 4, 7, and 9 and variable space between them. Research Writing and APA Style 17 Indent paragraphs half an inch. Paragraphs are indented five Courier New characters, which is half an inch. Set the default paragraph indent in the paragraph format dialog menu under page format, or use the ruler in your word processor. Double-space between lines, and allow no space between paragraphs and headings. Spacing should be the same between every line on a page. Set the spacing between lines to double-space throughout. Do not allow extra space between paragraphs or after headings. However, you can single-space in tables and figures. Single space between words, punctuation, and sentences. Hit the space bar just once between words, and after punctuation and sentences, throughout the entire proposal and completed study. Emphasis. Headings are typed in bold, as illustrated below in the headings section. Italics are used to indicate publication sources in the reference list. Italics are also used for the introduction of new, technical, or key terms or labels (but only the first time) and for anchors of a rating scale such as the one below. 1 2 3 4 5 Not motivated 6 7 Highly motivated Paper. Print hard copies on only one side of 8 ½ × 11 paper. Headers and Headings Running head. Running heads are a maximum of 50 characters of the title and run throughout the entire paper. The 50 characters include letters, punctuation, and spaces between words. The running head can be the exact title, if it is less than 50 characters, but it is often a shorter version of the title, which should be no more than 12 words. The running head often includes the first few words of the exact title of the proposal or completed research. Running-head format. The running head is formatted in word processing to appear at the top of all pages. The title page is page 1, the abstract is on page 2, and the actual paper starts on page 3 of a completed study, so the running head would begin on that page. A research proposal doesn’t have an abstract, so the paper starts on page 2. In addition to the running head, the SHORT PAPER TITLE is typed in CAPS. Both are aligned left, but the page number is near the right. It also is set in Times New Roman 12-point font, as shown below: SUCCESS VS. FAILURE IN SMALL BUSINESS 4 18 Research Writing and APA Style Heading levels. Heading levels include (1) centered, (2) align left, (3) paragraph indented ½ inch ending with a period. All three levels are bold. Typing of level (1) and (2) is in upper and lower case (Capitalize Each Word), and level (3) is typed like a sentence. You can also go to level (4), which is also a paragraph, like (3), but it is italic instead of bold. Employee Turnover Consequences of Employee Turnover Negative organizational consequences. Negative organizational . . . Lower productivity. One of the negative consequences . . . The actual title of the paper is not a heading. Thus, it is not typed in bold in the title page. The title is also typed at the top of the page that begins the paper. However, again the title is not in bold letters. Appendixes. The Appendixes have standard titles that are not considered heading levels. Like a first-level heading, the word Appendix is centered, but it is italicized. Below it, also centered, is the title of the appendix, as shown below. But like a paper title, it is not bold because it is not a first-level heading. You can then write an introductory paragraph presenting your research topic, followed by using the standard first-level headings. You may also have level 2 and 3 headings. After your heading, start the appendix without indenting the paragraph, but do so for every paragraph there after. Appendix A Research Design Numbers Here are some APA guidelines for when to use words to represent numbers (two) and when to use numerals (3). As in general guide, write out the numbers one to nine, and for 10 and above use numerals. Here are some other guidelines as to when to use words and numerals, even for numbers 1 to 9. Let’s start with words. Words as numbers. One to nine. Again, write out the numbers when they are one to nine (e.g., The three authors conducted the study.). Sentence starters. Do not start a sentence with a numeral. Start with a word, or write out the number. Seventy-three participants were in the sample. To avoid starting with a written number, change the sequence (e.g., The sample included 73 participants.). Common fractions. Write one fifth of the class, two-thirds majority. Numerals. Here is when you use numerals even when the number is 1–9. Statistics and math. Use numerals for numbers that represent statistical or math function, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles and quartiles. Research Writing and APA Style 19 Multiply by 4, 3 times as many, more than 2%, 2:1 ratio, 5th percentile, 2-year-old, score of 8 on a 9-point scale Tables and figures. They generally report statistics, so use numerals. Also, use numerals for the title, Table 1 and Figure 2. Series. As discussed with transition, when listing numbers to set off a series in APA style use—1. 2. 3. for different paragraphs, and (a) (b) (c) within a paragraphs and sentences. When using inclusive numbers in the reference section, use the full beginning and ending numbers—125–129, not 125–29. The same is true of inclusive dates—1992–1997, not 1992–97. Be sure to include page numbers with quotations. The abbreviation for one page is p. and pp. is used for multiple pages (p. 28) (pp. 39–42). Combining words and numerals. When you have two sets of numbers you may want to mix figures and words to increase the clarity and readability. For example, three 2-inch nails and seven 3-inch nails were use to test strength; 2 two-way interactions, ten 7-point scales. Decimal fractions. Use the number zero (0) before a fraction only when the statistic can be greater than 1 (SD 0.62). However, do not use 0 before fractions that cannot be greater than 1 (r = .456, p = .078). Round off fractions to two or three decimal places (t = 49.27, p < .05, p = .024). Statistical Tables and Figures and Symbols After you run your statistics to answer your research question, you have to present your results. Here are some guidelines. Presenting statistical results. One of your decisions regarding the presentation of the results of statistical testing your research question is: In which format should I present my statistics? Three alternatives are (a) within the text sentences, (b) tables, and (c) figures. All three are commonly used to present results. Here is a general guide in deciding. • Three or fewer numbers. Consider text sentences. • Four to 20 numbers. Consider a table. • More than 20 numbers. Consider a figure—chart, graph. You have read text and seen figures, like organization charts. You most likely have seen pie and bar charts, and they are presented in Chapter 9. See Table 1 below for a sample APA table of descriptive statistics. Notice that APA doesn’t use grid lines between roles and col- Table 1 Proportion of Errors in Groups 1 and 2 Group 1 Difficulty level n M (SD) 95% CI Low 22 5 (8) [2, 11] Medium 25 5 (7) [2, 10] High 26 9 (8) [7, 17] n 28 22 24 Group 2 M (SD) 95% CI 14 (15) [8, 22] 17 (15) [8, 28] 26 (21) [12, 33] 20 Research Writing and APA Style umns, nor does it use vertical lines. The title, like the title of the paper, should be relatively short and give a good explanation of what is included. Text discussion with tables and figures. Even though you use the very common table to present results, you discuss the results in the text of the paper. But you only discuss the highlights of the table in the text and refer the reader to the table for more details that are not discussed. If you write about every item of the table in the text, the table is not necessary. Placement of tables and figures. APA style suggests putting all the tables and figures at the end of the paper, after the references but before any appendixes. Put only one table or figure on a single page, regardless of its size. Statistical abbreviations and symbols. As you can see in Table 1, there are some abbreviations you may not be familiar with, so Table 2 lists common abbreviations and symbols used with statistics. You must have seen some of these in the empirical articles from your literature review. In chapters 9–14 you will learn about them all. APA Referencing Citing References in the Text You must cite prior work, so what method should you use? APA and other scholarly styles use the author date system. They all tend to agree on listing the author and year of publication in the paper and in the reference list, but the style of doing so does vary. Applied research for an organization commonly has no specified style, and the common footnote system may be acceptable. Again, the important thing is to be consistent with your style, and you can use the author date system, and APA, if the organization does not specify a style. Scholarly researchers tend to cite all relevant references, whereas applied researchers tend to included only the most important sources. You want to know the standard. Whatever reference system you use, the two important things you want to do is give credit for the ideas you use, and you want others to be able to find the source to check your accuracy or to find the source for their use. Every time you write about ideas from any source, the most common being journal articles, you must cite the reference. If you do not, you plagiarize. Plagiarism is failing to cite the source of information of others. It includes using words, ideas, and concepts of others without citing them as the source. (Would you like someone to steal your work without giving you any credit?) Plagiarism is commonly grounds for a failing grade. Again, re-cite in every paragraph and cite all sources. Remember that the idea of conducting your research is to base it on prior research, so using lots of references is part of the process. Two common approaches to citing references are (a) to start with and (b) end with the authors, outside and inside of parentheses. Citing authors within sentence text—and. Beginning with the name of the author(s) of major studies related to your research in the sentence text is common. Notice that within the sentence the word “and” is used, rather than an ampersand sign (&). Citing authors within (parentheses)—ampersand (&). It is common to cite only minor studies at the end of the sentence—like the numbered footnote system. It is also common to cite multiple studies at the end of the sentence. Research Writing and APA Style Table 2 21 Statistical Abbreviations and Symbols Abbreviations/Symbols Definitions ANOVA Analysis of variance (statistical test often defined as one-way or twoway ANOVA) CI Confidence intervals, probability that the true score lies between the two values df Degrees of freedom ƒ Frequency, number of respondents that had the same answer to the same question Ho Null hypotheses stating that there is not a relationship between variables H1 or Ha Alternative hypotheses showing that there is a stated relationship between variables LL Lower limit (as of a CI [confidence interval]) M Mean, arithmetic average MANOVA Multivariate analysis of variance (statistical test) Mdn Median, mid-point of data scores N Total sample size n Subsample of total sample p Probability value r Correlation coefficient, measuring strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables...
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