Appendix B / : Understanding Leadership As A Theory

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Task: A coworker comes back from visiting a new primary care clinic that was recently built. You ask her how it went, and she replies, “I really liked it. That is really a high-quality new primary care facility.” Based on the modeling exercises presented in this chapter, construct and report a conceptual model of high quality for the primary care clinic that presents no less than three variables and two measures for each.


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Appendix B Understanding Leadership as a Theory “Opinion is that exercise of the human will which helps us to make a decision without information.” John Erskine, The Complete Life Learning Objectives • Describe why the study of theory is important in the study of leadership in health organizations. • Define and distinguish the basic elements and relationships of a theory. • Demonstrate the utility of theory in the study of leadership, leadership principles, or leadership applications. • Describe and compare two or more conceptual models and how the models relate to theory and support the discussion of leadership. Learning Objectives, cont. • Design a simple model of leadership principles or applications (from constructs and concepts in this chapter or other literature) and summarize the relationships between the model’s theoretical elements and the application of leadership principles. • Justify and defend constructs in a simple model of leadership. Why Study Theory? • Understand how leadership theories are built. • Understand the elements of theories and models. • Understand the leadership research and applications. What Is a Theory? • An advanced form of an idea or an opinion that has some base in the empirical world. • Must be capable of support by qualitative measures or quantitative data. Understanding Leadership as a Theory • “A particular feature of [social] science is that it is continually evolving as a result of the scientific method which calls for a constant testing of ideas and observations of scientific facts, theories, and models.” – http://aether.lbl.gov/www/classes/p10/theory.html. Retrieved May 4, 2009. History of Theories • Theories begin as models, developed by empirical thinking. – Qualitative information and analysis such as observation and literature review (known as theorybuilding methods) start this empirical process. – Quantitative analysis (known as theory-testing methodology) tests models as hypotheses to determine if the model represents the world better than what was known before. – This empirical hypotheses testing can be done as qualitative research alone in certain cases but also in combination with quantitative methods (called triangulation). Theory as a Conceptual Model • A conceptual model is a "conceptual description" of something abstract. Overview of Theory • A theory can be deconstructed into constructs, variables, and measures. Differentiating Between Theories and Models • A theory has undergone scientific and practical scrutiny, albeit at various levels of intensity, to determine its value, truth, and validity. • A model is a simplified abstraction of reality. – A model has not yet met a level of academic and practical scrutiny for scientific validation so its value is yet to be determined. • Both theories and models require ecological validity, that is to represent reality well (how things actually work). Theories, Models, Constructs, Variables, and Measurements • Many leadership theories include interpersonal relationships as a category within their theories. Within the category of interpersonal relationships one of the constructs is communication. – As a construct, communication is broad and has many possible variables that can be measured. As an example, conflict management style may be a variable within the construct of communication. – Conflict management style, as a variable, can be measured using a survey to determine the leader’s dominant style from the six conflict management styles. Constructs • The building blocks of theory are constructs. – By definition, a construct is a latent variable that lacks empiricism (taste, touch, see, smell, hear); elements that are empirical have tangible, physical properties. – Any physical element or property that can be described though at least one of the five senses does not technically qualify as a construct. Constructs, cont. • A construct is an organizing device that captures a topic, subject area, or smaller/specific theory/model within a larger theory or model. – Communication and quality are examples. • Constructs organize and combine multiple variables that are closely linked into one grouping or subheading. – Constructs are basic building blocks for grouping variables within a theory or model. Variables • The empirical property used to describe constructs is variables. • A variable is “a property associated with a concept that varies when measured.” – http://www.usca.edu/polisci/apls301/concepts.htm. Retrieved May 6, 2009. Variables, cont. • Variables are empirical units that are capable of identification through one of the five senses. A variable is an element that has precise meaning in the physical world. – Weight and age are examples. • Something that can be measured and the measurement can vary or change is the essence of a variable. Constants • Constants are those concepts that do not vary. Operationalization • Each variable has an operational definition and an operational process for measurement. • An operational definition is the exact description of the conceptual property, the variable, under empirical study. Measures • Derived from variables are operationalized measures. • Measures are operationalized descriptions of variables that must be capable of numerical identification. • Operationalizing is the process of quantifying a variable using appropriate, numerical, descriptive terms. Measures, cont. • Measures must be universally understood and classically categorized as: – Continuous: 1 to n with n equal to infinity – Dichotomous or binary: yes or no; on or off, etc. – Categorical: such as Caucasian, African American, Latino, etc. Measures, cont. • Measurement is vital to empirical assessment and evaluation. • Measurement must be both reliable and valid. – Reliability is the “consistency of an operationalized measure.” • This applies to both the measurement apparatus or method and the person or machine doing the measuring. – Validity deals with measuring what is intended to be measured. Measures, cont. • An unreliable measure is also invalid while an invalid measure can still be reliable; you can measure the wrong thing correctly with repetitive and consistent results. Leadership Models Theories Accepted Theories • The previously accepted theory gives an acceptable explanation of something so the new theory must give the same results. • New theory explains something that the previously accepted theory either got wrong or, more commonly, did not apply. • The new theory makes a prediction that is later verified. Leadership Models Theories Accepted Theories, cont. • The new theory is elegant, has aesthetic quality, is simple, powerful, and includes universal symmetries that are simple, easy-to-remember or apply, and/or are expressed as some symmetry of nature, and/or are powerful enough to be used in many applications. • The new theory provides a deeper insight or link to another branch of knowledge. − http://aether.lbl.gov/www/classes/p10/theory.html. Retrieved May 4, 2009. A Conceptual Model of a Leadership Theory on Motivation • This theory can be divided into constructs, concepts, and variables; try to list or draw out the elements of this theory (next slide has more information). Goal-Setting Theory • Goal-setting theory was first introduced by Edwin A. Locke in 1968 where he published the classic "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives" in Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. Goal-Setting Theory, cont. • Seven steps to using the goal-setting theory: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Specify objectives or tasks to be done. Specify how performance will be measured. Specify the standard to be reached. Specify the time frame involved. Prioritize goals. Rate goals as to difficulty and importance. Determine the coordination requirements. Goal-Setting Theory, cont. • Goal-setting theory integrates with other motivational theories as well. Although goal setting is a principle attribute of many motivational and performance theories, recent research focuses on locus of control theory influences and expectancy theory relationships. • To illustrate the connection of goal-setting theory to expectancy theory, see the next slide as a summary. • Can you see how the constructs relate? Expectancy Theory • Expectancy theory integrates with goal-setting theory in that goal setting is negatively related to valence (setting low goals did not satisfy individuals as well as high-level goals) and instrumentality is positively related to goal setting (difficult goals give the individual a greater sense of achievement, self-efficacy, and skill improvement than easy goals). Expectancy Theory, cont. • Expectancy theory introduced by Victor Vroom in 1964 combines motivation and leadership/management. Subordinate behavior and action are results of conscious choices among alternatives. Motivation • Motivation = Valence X Expectancy (Instrumentality) – This theory is connected to social exchange theory and the transactional leadership model. – Expectancy is the subordinate’s expectations, confidence, knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform a task or action. – Leaders should remove barriers and enhance resources appropriately. Motivation, cont. • Motivation = Valence X Expectancy (Instrumentality) (cont.) ― Valence concerns the affective/emotional orientations subordinates have regarding rewards based on outcomes. ― The amount to which the subordinate has extrinsic (see Herzberg’s two-factor theory; extrinsic motivation refers to money, promotion, time off, etc.) or intrinsic motivation (satisfaction, self-esteem, selfefficacy, etc.) wants or needs. ― Leaders must understand what motivates, through reward, the subordinate. Motivation, cont. • Motivation = Valence X Expectancy (Instrumentality) (cont.) ― Instrumentality is the perception by the subordinate as to receiving the reward for the task or action performed and the resulting outcome. ― Leaders should fulfill promises of reward for performance outcomes. Understanding Leadership as a Theory • How do goal-setting, expectancy, and planned behavior theories relate? • Do any constructs contradict each other? • Can you synthesize these three theories into a useful whole? Discussion Questions • Why is the study of theory important in the study of leadership in health organizations? • What examples can you use in health or leadership to define and distinguish the basic elements and relationships of a theory that can be applied? • How would you apply goal-setting theory constructs and variables in an organizational setting; apply operational variables to your answer? How about expectancy theory? Discussion Questions, cont. • Distinguish conceptual models from theory. • How could you design a simple model of leadership principles or applications; summarize the relationships between the model’s theoretical elements and the application of leadership principles. • Critique social science’s use of theory within the context of leadership as a discipline. Exercises • Review goal-setting theory and expectancy theory in this chapter and list the theories, constructs, and variables of those two theories. • Summarize the social science hierarchy of a theory or model and explain this hierarchy in terms of hypothesis testing. • Modify, using the health industry as a context, goal-setting theory by incorporating an additional construct with at least two variables, operationally define the variables, and show how you would measure the variables including type of number taxonomy. Exercises, cont. • Break down, diagram, and label your modified goal-setting model and write a paragraph explaining how your model differentiates from the original theory by Locke and Latham. Exercises, cont. • Select two of the articles listed below, or those provided by your instructor, and categorize each construct and variable studied and/or discussed, then reorganize the constructs and variables into one model and operationally define each variable and how it is to be measured. – Calhoun, J. G.; Dollett, L.; Sinioris, M E.; et al. (2008 Nov/Dec). Development of an interprofessional competency model for healthcare leadership. Journal of Healthcare Management, 53(6), pgs. 375–389. (cont.) Exercises, cont. • Select two of the articles listed below (cont.): – Church, A. H., & Waclawski, J. (1998). The relationship between individual personality orientation and executive leadership behavior. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 71(2), pg. 99–125. – Chambers, H. (1999). The agencies of leadership. Executive Excellence, 16(8), p. 12. – Dering, N. (1998). Leadership in quality organizations. Journal of Quality and Participation, 21(1), pgs. 32–35. – Kent, T.; Johnson, J. A.; & Graber, D. A. (1996). Leadership in the formation of new health care environments. Health Care Supervisor, 15(2), pgs. 27–34. Exercises, cont. • Appraise, conclude, and justify how variables in your model from item 5 above will vary, and hypothesize what will cause the variables to vary or change.
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Conceptual Model of High Quality
In assessing the quality of primary healthcare provided by the new clinic as described by the
nurse, the structure that can best fit the situation is the structure-process-outcome model. The
three variables identified above make quality assessment possible. The model assumes that the
structure of the clinic (eg, human resources and organizational structure) will influence the
process which will eventually affect the outcome. In the clinical situation, there is the need to
consider all the activities that will influence the primary care clinic. The processes that will be
involved must be in line with providing quality care that will result in better outcome. The
structure of the clinic may be at its best but if the processes inv...


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