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Unit 3: Play
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game play
ludic activities
being playful
free play
22
transformative play
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Any earnest definition of play has to be haunted by the possibility that playful
enjoinders will render it invalid.-Brian Sutton-Smith, The Ambiguity of Play
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Unit 3: PLAY
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I Defining Play
Introducing Play
The design of meaningful play, in whatever form the play might
standing games which we did not include. We don't, for exam-
take, demands an understanding of how rules ramify into play.
pie, look at playas an experience of learning, or at playas a
The play of a game only occurs as players experience the rules
kinesthetic system of movement.The schemas included offer a
of the game in motion. Before a game begins, the many formal
starting point for an ongoing discussion of game design and
components of the game-system lie in wait: an empty footbail
play, a discussion that is only just beginning.
stadium; Chess pieces resting in their starting positions; a game
program installed on a hard drive. Only when the players enter
into the game does the system come fully to life. Athletes and
fans spill into the stadium; Chess pieces sally forth one by one
from their starting positions; a saved game file is loaded and the
game fills the screen. Dormant relationships spring up between
game elements as players inhabit, explore, and manipulate the
I
:I
i i
game's space of possible play.
What Is Play?
As psychologist J. Barnard Gilmore notes in Child's Play,
"Certainly everyone knows what play is not even if everyone
can't agree on just what play is.''l The psychological and
anthropological study of play has resulted in a range of defini
tions, from a formulation of playas "activities not consciously
performed for the sake of any result beyond themselves"to a
conceptualization that "play refers to those activities which are
From a formal point of view, the rules of a game indeed consti
accompanied by a state of comparative pleasure, exhilaration,
tute the inner "essence" of a game. But there is a danger in lim
power, and the feeling of self-initiative."2 Although these defi
iting the consideration of a game solely to its formal system.The
nitions may tell us something about play, we want to build a
complexity of rules has an intrinsic fascination, the hypnotic
more design-centric definition of the concept, one that will
allure of elegant mathematics and embedded logic. However, it
help us create an experience of meaningful play in our games.
is crucial for game designers to recognize that the creation of
rules, even those that are elegant and innovative, is never an
end in itself. Rules are merely the means for creating play. If,
Let us start by looking at how play is used in everyday speech.
As with "game,"the word "play"is used in many and varied ways:
during the process of game deSign, you find yourself attempt
the act of creating music, such as playing the radio or play
ing to perfect an elegant set of rules in a way that fails to
ing a musical instrument
impact the experience of the player, your focus has become
pretending: playing at being angry, playing the fool
misdirected. The experience of play represents the heart and
soul of the game designer's craft, and is the focus of all of the
chapters collected under the Primary Schema of PLAY_
Following this introductory chapter are a number of schemas,
each one framing games from a different perspective. Within
activating a process: putting something into play
taking a risky action: playing fast and loose
the course of events or fate: letting things play out, playing
into the hand of fate
PLAY, we explore games as systems of experience and pleasure;
as systems of meaning and narrative play; and as systems of
stalling: playing for time
simulation and social play. We are aware of the near-infinite
being joking or not serious: just playing around, playing
variety of ways to frame games as experience and we make no
tricks
pretense that our set of PLAY schemas offer a complete list.
There are experiential schemas that offer valid ways of under-
gambling: playing the horses
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Rules of Play I Salen and Zimmerman
M
a subtle effect: a smile playing on the lips, the play of light
"play" in English point to other understandings of the concept,
on the wall
which fall completely outside these two framings of"game" and
the loose space between gears or cogs: the play of a car's
steering wheel
"play." Making a playful gesture, for example, or the play of the
waves on the beach-these examples don't seem to have any
thing at all to do with games. Or do they? Looking over all of
fooling or deceiving someone: playing someone for all
the ways that play manifests, we can group them into three
they're worth, playing on someone's feelings, playing up to
categories of "play:"
someone
Game Play
being artful, clever, or youthfully jubilant: dressing in a
This form of play is a narrow category of activity that only
playful style, engaging in wordplay and, of course,
applies to what we defined already as"games."Game play
playing with toys or playing a game
is the formalized interaction that occurs when players fol
low the rules of a game and experience its system through
Whereas we "play" games such as Metal Gear Solid, Racquetball,
play.
and UNO, there seem to be many other activities that fall under
the category of play and playing as well. What is the connection
between the terms "play" and "game"? When we defined the
word game in chapter 7, we posited two possible relationships
between games and play:
Ludic Activities
The word ludic means of orrelating to play and like the title
of Huizinga's book Homo Ludens, it is derived from ludus,
the Latin word for play. Ludic activities are play activities
that include not only games, but all of the non-game
Games are a subset of play: Games constitute a formal
behaviors we also think of as "playing:" a kitten batting a
ized part of everything we might consider to be play.
ball of yarn, two college students tossing a Frisbee back
Playing catch or playing doctor are play activities that fall
and forth, children playing on a jungle gym.
outside our definition of games (a contest of powers with
a quantifiable outcome, etc.). However, although not all
play fits the category of games, those things we define as
games fit within a larger category of play activities.
Being Playful
The third category of play is the broadest and most inclu
sive. It refers not only to typical play activities, but also to
the idea of being in a playful state of mind, where a spirit
Play is an element of games: In addition to rules and cul
of play is injected into some other action. For instance, we
ture, play is an essential component of games, a facet of
are being playful with words when we create nicknames
the larger phenomenon of games, and a primary schema
for friends or invent rhymes to tease them. We might dress
for understanding them.
in a playful way or deliver a critique of a sibling in a play
Neither one of these two relationships is more correct than the
other. The first is a descriptive distinction that places the phe
nomenon of games within a larger set of real-world play activi
ties. The second is a conceptual distinction that frames playas
an important facet of games. However, the common uses of
ful tone. In each case, the spirit of play infuses otherwise
ordinary actions.
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Unit 3: PLAY
Each of the three categories of play is successively more open
I Defining
Play
components. Play is an expression of the system, one that takes
and inclusive. As a category, ludic activities includes game play,
and the category being playful includes both of the previous
two. Game play is really just a special kind of formalized ludic
activity. Similarly, ludic activities are formalized, literal ways of
being playful.
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structure.
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As a formal way of conceptualizing play, this definition applies
b
to all three categories of play:
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Game Play: Playing a game such as Chutes and Ladders
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occurs only when players set the rigid rules of the game
into motion. But the game play itself is a kind of dance
that occurs somewhere between the dice, pieces, board,
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and the rules themselves, in and among the more rigid
ri~
formal structures of the game.
ur
Being Playful
A General Definition of Play
Although these three categories bring the many expressions
of play into focus, we still lack a general definition to assist us
in designing experiences of meaningful play. There is, in fact, a
way of defining play that does justice to all three categories:
Play is free movement within a more rigid structure.
Ludic Activity: Think of bouncing a ball against a wall. This
pc
play activity has a less formal structure than a game, but
Ja l
the definition of play still applies. In experiencing the play
ab
of the ball, the player is playing with structures such as
its
gravity, the material identity of the ball, the architectural
an
space, and his or her own physical skill in throwing and
die
catching. To play with the ball is to play with all of these
ori,
structures, testing their limits and boundaries, finding
ma
ways of moving around and inside them.
Tra
At first glance, this definition might seem a little spare and
Being Playful: Even in this broad category of play the def
the
abstract for such a rich and complex topic such as play. But it is
inition is relevant. USing playful slang, for example, is to
whi
an extremely useful way to think about the design of play.
find free movement of words and phrases within the more
the
Where does the definition come from? Think about the use of
rigid rule structures of grammar. Being playful while walk
as a
the word "play" in the sense of the "free play" of a gear or a car's
ing down the street means playing with the more rigid
al
steering wheel. The "play" is the amount of movement that the
social, anatomical, and urban structures that determine
is tl
steering wheel can move on its own within the system, the
proper walking behavior.
amount the steering wheel can turn before it begins to turn
the tires of the car. The play itself exists only because of the
more utilitarian structures of the driving-system: the drive
shaft, axles, wheels, and so on. The "rules" created by these ele
ments make the free movement of play possible. Play emerges
from the relationships guiding the functioning of the system,
occurring in the interstitial spaces between and among its
VI
Alth
In every case, play exists because of more rigid ~tr~~tures, but
in a
also exists somehow in opposition to them. Slang is only slang
whe
because it departs from the grammatical norm. It is oPPositional
de pi
to the more staid and conservative "official" uses of language,
fami
and gains its identity through its difference from them.
byal
Similarly, bouncing a ball against a wall is at odds with more
form
LO
Rules of Play
I Salen and
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Zimmerman
I")
utilitarian uses of the architecture. At the same time, the action
game of Chess. If the play of Chess is considered purely as an
conforms to certain rules afforded by the formal structure of
exercise in the strategic logic of Chess, then the system (the
the building,leading to a particular type of interaction.The play
rules) remains the same each time the game is played.
of a game, as we have explored in detail, is only possible
However, once human players come into the equation, trans
because of rule s. Yet paradoxically game~ is in many_"'@)'s
formative play can occur across many levels. A player's thinking
the opposite of rul~~:~~,all of i ~_~~n}'5Juises, play opposes and
skills might be transformed as a result of playing Chess over a
pliiy resists. But it does so playfully, making use of existing struc
long period of time. Social relationships with other players (or
tures to
i~vent new form~ ~p_r~~!on-:Transformative Play
When play occurs, it can overflow and overwhelm the more
rigid structure in which it is taking place, generating emergent,
unpredictable results. Sometimes, in fact, the force of play is so
~erfulthat it can c'hange the structure itself. As philosopher
James S. Hans notes, "The role of play is not to work comfort
ably within its own structures but rather constantly to develop
its structures through play."3 A playful slang term can become
an idiom, for example, and may eventually be adopted into the
dictionary, becoming part of the larger cultural structures it
non-players) might undergo a transformation, The play of
Chess might even transform the way a player perceives objects
in space. (Just ask any Tetris addict!)
Tran sformative play can occur in all three categories of play:
Game Play: In professional Basketball, as players find new
ways of playing the game, the rules are adjusted to keep
the game challenging and entertaining. There are many
examples of games, from Flux to 1000 Blank White Cards,
where inventing and tran sforming the rules are part of the
game's design .
originally resisted. We call this important form of play transfor
Ludic Activity: In informal, imaginative children's games,
motive play.
such as House or Cops and Robbers, the rules and possible
Transformative ,~~y is a special case of play that occurs when
the free movement of play alters ,the more rigid structure in
behaviors are often improvised, transforming the play of
the game from session to session.
which it takes shape. The play doesn't just occupy and oppose
Being Playful: In fields and activities outside what we nor
theinterstlces of the system, but actually transforms the space
mally think of as play and games, being playful can have a
as a whole. A cyberfeminist game patch that creates transsexu
transformative effect. In fashion design, there is a reflexive
al versions of Lara Croft is an example of transformative play, as
relationship between marginal forms of dress and the
is the use of the Quake game engine as a movie-making tool.
fashion establishment. A subcultural style of dress can
Although every instance of play involves free movement with
in a more rigid structure, not all play is transformative. Often,
whether or not we can consider playas transformative play
challenge notions of taste and etiquette (think Punk),
while helping to define new forms of expression within
the very context it opposes,
depends on the way we frame the play experience. Take the
In the remaining section s of thi s chapter, we explore the three
familiar example of Chess. Some aspects of play in Chess are,
types of play in more detail, with an eye to discover how each
byand large, not tran sformative at all. As with most games, the
category intersects with our general definition of play, trans
formal rules of Chess do not change as a result of playing a
formative play, and game design.
Unit 3: PLAY
I Defining
Play
Being Playful
If we examir.·e how the word "play" is used and concen
language use in which the joke takes shape, the joke would
trate on its so-called transferred meanings we find talk
lose its humor and sense of play. The play exists both because
of the play of light, the play of the waves, the play of the
of and in opposition to the structures that give it life.
components in a bearing case, the inner play of limbs,
the play of forces, the play of gnats, even a play on
words ... . This accords with the original meaning of the
word "spiel" as "dance," which is still found in many word
forms. - Brian Sutton-Smith, The Ambiguity of Play
We start with the largest of the three categories: simply being
Even if we use some of Sutton-Smith's more abstract examples,
such as the play of light, our definition of play still applies.
Imagine light reflecting from your wristwatch to make a bright
spot on the wall: we say that the light is playing on the wall.
From within the structures of the physics of light, perception,
and architecture emerges the unusual circumstance of a float
playful. The preceding quote from Sutton-Smith points to some
ing speck of light on the wall. The light playfully calls attention
of the many contexts outside of games, toys, and ludic behavior
to itself, changing the relationship between your wristwatch
to which we can apply our general definition of "play." Like the
and the architectural space. Your instinct is to play with the
"free play" of a gear, the instances of play identified by Sutton
light,even for just a moment, to experience this new set of rela
Smith are all moments when a system is in motion, in a kind of
tionships between the movements of your body and the sur
dance. ("Spiel," the German word for play, originally meant
face of the wall.The play of the light, and your play with the play
dance, as Sutton-Smith points out.)
of the light, is only made possible by the ordinary sets of expe
Take Sutton-Smith's example of a "play on words." There are
riential relationships that this instance of play transforms.
many kinds of wordplay, from the nonsense rhymes of Dr.
Are these examples of "being playful" transformative as well?
Seuss, to the rhythmic intricacies of freestyle rap, to the seman
Possibly. Maybe the play of the light transforms your behavior:
tic doubling of a children's riddle. In every case, the wordplay
perhaps you make a habit of sitting in the same room at the
embodies free movement within a more rigid structure. If you
same time the next day to enjoy the possibilities of the play. Or
will pardon the cheesy humor, consider the following joke:
maybe telling the "seven ate nine" joke at dinner leads to an
Q:Why is six afraid of seven?
A: Because seven ate nine.
entire evening of math jokes that wouldn't otherwise have
occurred. Every instance of play carries with it the seeds of
transformative play.
The "play" of this particular joke rests in the fact that "ate" and
How is this general understanding of being playful relevant to
"eight" are homonyms. Saying "seven eight nine" is merely
game design? When you are designing a game, you should
counting, whereas "seven ate nine" becomes a genuine cause
maximize meaningful play for your participants at every possi
of alarm for our personified numerals. What is happening in
ble moment. Often, this means thinking about how you can
this instance of play? Within the more rigid and fixed sets of lin
inject the proper spirit of playfulness into an otherwise ordi
guistic meanings, the joke has managed to carve out a space of
nary behavior. You Don't Know Jack, for example, took the nor
play, a movement in which unexpected characters come to life
mally chore-like routine of entering in player names, loading
and express double meanings usually repressed within more
game data, and outlining game rules and turned it into an
utilitarian communication.Thejoke"plays" on our expectations
entertainingly playful series of events that even experienced
of language. But without the larger context of conventional
players of the game continue to enjoy. Could you make an
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Rules of Play
I Salen
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...--
entire game out of an experience that is typically ordinary or
Here are some of Caillois' thoughts about each fundamental
tedious? How about a game designed to be played while wait
category:
ing in line? Or watching the news? Or driving a car? Once you
understand that play is latent in any human activity, you can
find inspiration for play behaviors and contexts anywhere.
Ludic Activities
The second category of play, ludic activities, brings us closer to
the play of games. Games represent one type of ludic activity,
a particularly formalized variety of play. But there are many less
formal versions of playas well, from two dogs chasing each
other in a park to an infant playing peek-a-boo with his father.
What most often distinguishes games from these other forms
of play is the fact that games have a goal and a quantifiable
outcome. Generally speaking, non-game forms of ludic activi
Agon. A whole group of games wou ld seem to be competitive, that
is to say, like a combat in which equality of chances is artificially cre
ated, in order that adversaries should confront each other under
ideal conditions, susceptible of giving preCise and incontestable
value to the winner's triumph 5
A/ea. This is the Latin name for the game of dice. I have borrowed
it to designate, in contrast to ag6n, all ga mes that are based on a
decision independent of the player, an outcome over which he
has no control, and in which winning is the result of fate rather
than triumphing over an adversary. iVlore properly, destiny is the
sole artisan of victory, and whe re there is rivalry, what is meant is
that the winner has been more favored by fortune than the loser6
ties do not.
Mimicry. Play can consist not only of deploying actions or submit
Even though ludic activities constitute a type of play phenom
ena more narrow than simply being playful, there is still a rela
tively wide range of activities contained within this category.
How might these activities be organized and understood within
the larger rubric of play? Anthropologist Roger Caillois sug
gests a useful model for organizing various forms of play. In his
book Man, Play, and Games, he provides a powerful framework
ting to one's fate in an imaginary milieu, but of becoming an illu
sory character oneself. and of so behaving.One is thus confronted
with a diverse series of manifestations, the com mon element of
which is that the subject makes believe or make s o thers believe
that he is someo ne other than himself He forgets, disguises, or
temporarily shed s hi s personality in order to feign another?
for classifying play activities. Caillois' model is one of the most
/Jinx. The last kind of game includes those which are based on the
theoretically ambitious attempts to organize the many forms
pursuit of vertigo and which consist of an attempt to momentarily
of play.
destroy the stability of perception and inAict a kind of voluptuous
panic upon an otherwise lucid mind .. . Eve ry child very well
Caillois'model begins with four "fundamental categories" of
play:4
Agon: Competitive play, as in Chess, sports, and other contests
A/ea: Cha nce-based play, based in games of probability
Mimicry: Role-playing and make-believe play, including theater
and other exercises of the imagination
knows that by whirling rapidly he reaches a centrifugal state of
Aight from wh ich he regains bodily stability and clarity of percep
tion only with difficulty.8
Caillois' categories cover a wide range of play activities, Some of
them, such as the game contests of agon and the chance-based
games of alea, resemble many of the games we have already
discussed. Other activities he mentions, such as the make
/linx: Playing with the physical sensation of vertigo, as when a child
spinsand spins until he falls down
believe play of mimicry and ilinx activities like leapfrog and
IX)
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Unit 3: PLAY
waltzing, clearly fall outside the boundaries of games. Although
Paida
many games include elements of mimicry and ilinx, these cate
gories go beyond a description of games-but they do outline
a model for understanding many kinds of ludic activities.
Caillois doesn't limit his classification system to these four cat
egories. He enriches his taxonomy by adding the pair of concepts
paida and ludus. Paida represents wild, free-form, improvisa
tional play, whereas ludus represents rule-bound, regulated,
formalized play. Caillois writes: " Such a primary power of
im-provisation and joy, which I call paida, is allied to the taste
I Defining Play
Ludus
Agon
(Competition)
Unregulated athletics (foot
racing, wrestling)
Boxing, Billiards, Fencing,
Checkers, Football, Chess
Alea
(Chance)
Counting-out rhymes
Betting, Roulette, Lotteries
Mimicry
(Simulation)
Children's initiations, masks,
disguises
Theater, spectacles in
general
IIinx
(Vertigo)
Children "whirling,"
Horseback riding, Waltzing
Skiing, Mountain climbing,
Tightrope walking
Examples taken from Man, Play, and Games
for gratuitous difficulty that I propose to call ludus, in order to
v
encompass the various games to which, without exaggeration,
a
a civilizing quality can be attributed."9 Caillois crosses his four
How does Caillois'model fit into our definition of play? A look at
fu ndamental categories of play with the concepts of paida and
the four fundamental categories of play shows that each
fr
ludus, resulting in a grid on which he charts a wide variety of
embodies free movement within a more rigid structure:
d
ludic activities. A rule-bound game of chance such as Roulette
falls into the alea/ludus section of his model. Unstructured
make-believe play like wearing a mask would fall under mim
icry Ipaida.
Terminological Aside:"Play" and "Games" in French
v
Agon and alea are categories that generally contain
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games. As a result, play emerges from the players' move
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ment through the rigid rule-structures of the game. In a
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competitive game, players do their best to win by playing
b~
within the behavioral boundaries set by the system of
yc
rules. In a game of chance, players set the game in motion
pi
Man, Play, and Games was written in French, Caillois' native tongue. Many
through their participation, hoping the system plays out in
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languages do not have separate words for "game" and "play." In French,
a fortuitous manner.
M
for example, game is "jeu," and play is "jouer,"the verb form of the same
word. The original title of his book is Les Jeux et les Hommes (Games/Play
The free of play of mimicry is the play of representation. If
and Man); the English translation of the title as Man, Play, and Games
you wiggle your index finger and say "heilo," pretending
does an admirable job of expressing the broad array of play forms
that your finger is a little person that can talk, you are play
Caillois investigates.
It is important to note the difference between the French and English
titles of Caillois' book because although the English translation generally
ing with the fixed representational categories of finger
and person, finding free movement within these more
Play in ilinx emerges as the play within physical and sensual
fact, studying play. Some of the phenomena listed by Caillois are bona
structures. The spinning player abandons more typically
our narrow definition of game. They are all, however, ludic activities.
pn
typically rigid sign systems through imaginative play.
uses "game"to describe what Caillois is studying, for our purposes he is, in
fide games and sports. Others, like theater and public festivals, do not fit
wi
ba
tame behavior to find new sensation in the interplay
between bodily movement and perceptual input.
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Rules of Play
I Salen
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Furthermore, the categories of ludus and paida directly address
Delimitation of our project
a structural understanding of games, a continuum of relation
Although the number of writings on game design is somewhat limited, in
ships between structure and play. As play edges closer to the
the past few decades, there has been a tremendous amount of study on
ludus end of the spectrum, for example, the rules become
the nature and function of play. Scholarship comes from a wide variety of
tighter and more influential. Located on the other end of the
spectrum, paida-based play eschews rigid formal structures in
exchange for more freewheeling play. In both cases, Caillois
fields: animal behaviorists studying the adaptive advantages of play,
developmental psychologists studying the cognitive and social skills that
children learn through play, sociologists studying the way play fits into
larger social needs.
defines play by virtue of its structural identity.
bing,
By and large, these studies of play focus on identifying the function or
There is a good deal of correspondence between Caillois' model
purpose of play. The implicit assumption is that play serves a larger pur
and our own. However, the two models do not offer identical
pose for the individual psyche, the social unit, the classroom, the species,
ways of conceptualizing play. For example, our distinction
and so on. In Child's Play, Frank A. Beach indexes some of the functions
among game play, ludic activities, and being playful is not rele
that are typically associated with play across many fields:
at
vant to Caillois' organization of play activities. Although we can
ch
frame his categories under the rubric of our "free movement"
a release of surplus energy
definition, he never explicitly constructs play in this way.
an expression of general exuberance. or joie-de-vivre
in
Caillois is a tremendously important game scholar. His system
expression of sex drive, aggression, or anxiety
e
a
for classifying forms of play is one of the most inclusive and
youthful "practice" for adult life sk ills
9
)f
robust we have encountered. Furthermore, Caillois' model can
be very useful for understanding the kinds of play experiences
your game is and is not providing. Although Caillois tends to
n
place an entire game or play activity into a single section of his
1
grid, most games have elements from several of his categories.
Maybe your hardcore agon strategy game could be leavened
with a bit more alea. Or perhaps you could enrich your mimicry
based role-playing game by considering the kinds of ilinx sen
sations your players might experience at key dramatic
moments. Any model that helps you to frame your design
problems in a new way can be a valuable game design tool.
Game Play
The third and final category of play is game play. Just as ludic
activities constitute a special subset of the larger category of
being playful, game play is a special subset of the category of
ludic activities. Game play only occurs within games. It is the
necessary context for exploration and experimentation
a mean s of socialization
tool for self-expression and diversion 12
Studying the function and purpose of play is important and fascinating
work, but we will not address it in this book. The schemas we present for
understanding play and other aspects of games focus on the challenges
of creating meaningful play, rather than on investigating the social or
psychological purpose of games. There is a tremendous amount of liter
ature available on the function of play and we have included many of
these references in our bibliography, as it should be a part of the way
that game designers understand games.
o
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Unit 3: PLAY
I Defining Play
experience of a game set into motion through the participation
Most or all of the "facets" Reider lists are ways of understanding
of players. The other two categories of play, being playful and
the operation of play in a game. The psychology of play, the
ludic activities, contain a vast and diverse array of play forms. Yet
expression of love and aggression, the way that the game facil
even though game play is the smallest category of the three, the
itates individual styles of play, are part of the play experience
play of games takes on a multitude of forms as well: the strate
of Chess. Understanding the experiential qualities of play,
gic competitive play of Settlers of Catan; the performative social
engendered by rules and given life through game play, is the
play of Charades; the physical sporting play of Cricket; the lush
precise focus of the rest of this Primary Schema. Are you ready
narrative play of Final Fantasy X-all are examples of game play.
to play?
Notes
Game play clearly embodies the idea of playas free movement
within a more rigid structure. The particular flavor of a game's
1. 1. Barnard Gilmore, "Play: A Special Behavior." In
play is a direct result ofthe game's rules. The rules of Charades,
these rules provide the rigid structure within which the play
Play, edited by
1971),p.311.
written out as text on paper, could not be more different from
the exuberant, free-wheeling activity of the game itself. Yet
Child~
R.E. Herron and Brian Sutton-Smith (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
2. Ibid.
3. James S. Hans, The Play of the World (Boston: University of Ma ssachu
setts Press, 19B1), p. 5.
resides, the rules that guide and shape the game play experi
ence. As Caillois himself states, within a game a player is "free
within the limits set by the rules."10
Because play involves human participation, it is an endlessly
rich and complex locus for study. Even within a single game,
4. Roger Caillois, Man, Play, and Games (London: Thames and Hudson.
1962), p. 12.
5.
Ibid. p. 14.
6. Ibid. p. 17.
7.
Ibid.p.19.
B. Ibid. p. 23 .
there are innumerable ways to delineate its play. In the follow
ing excerpt, taken from The Study of Games, Norman Reider
begins an in-depth study of Chess by touching on many of its
characteristics:
The fasc in ation and the extent of the addic tion to the game; the
psychological fac tors involved in its historica l deve lopment; its
soc ial and therape uti c va lue; its legal involvements; its relation to
9.
Ibid. p. 27.
10. Ibid. p. 8.
11. Norman Reider,"Chess, Oedipus, and the Mater Dolorosa." In The Study
of Games, edited by Elliott Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith (New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1971), p. 440.
12. Frank A. Beach, "Current Concepts of Play in Animals." In Child's Play,
edited by R.E. Herron and Brian Sutton-Smith (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1971), p. 311. p. 204-208.
love and agg ression; the problem of genius in chess; the charac
terolog ica l problem of its players and their style of play; and ego
functions as manifested in play, espec ially the distinctions between
the psycholog ica l meanings of the game, its pieces and rules, and
th e psychology of the playe rs. I I
Rules of Play
I Salen
and Zimmerman
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