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Write a short paragraph (~ 300 words) in response to assigned readings. Talk about some detail in the readings.

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)f Play I Salen 5M and Zimmerman Unit 3: Play ~ ...J Q. game play ludic activities being playful free play 22 transformative play ~ Z Z -wu. C Any earnest definition of play has to be haunted by the possibility that playful enjoinders will render it invalid.-Brian Sutton-Smith, The Ambiguity of Play N o Unit 3: PLAY M I Defining Play Introducing Play The design of meaningful play, in whatever form the play might standing games which we did not include. We don't, for exam- take, demands an understanding of how rules ramify into play. pie, look at playas an experience of learning, or at playas a The play of a game only occurs as players experience the rules kinesthetic system of movement.The schemas included offer a of the game in motion. Before a game begins, the many formal starting point for an ongoing discussion of game design and components of the game-system lie in wait: an empty footbail play, a discussion that is only just beginning. stadium; Chess pieces resting in their starting positions; a game program installed on a hard drive. Only when the players enter into the game does the system come fully to life. Athletes and fans spill into the stadium; Chess pieces sally forth one by one from their starting positions; a saved game file is loaded and the game fills the screen. Dormant relationships spring up between game elements as players inhabit, explore, and manipulate the I :I i i game's space of possible play. What Is Play? As psychologist J. Barnard Gilmore notes in Child's Play, "Certainly everyone knows what play is not even if everyone can't agree on just what play is.''l The psychological and anthropological study of play has resulted in a range of defini­ tions, from a formulation of playas "activities not consciously performed for the sake of any result beyond themselves"to a conceptualization that "play refers to those activities which are From a formal point of view, the rules of a game indeed consti­ accompanied by a state of comparative pleasure, exhilaration, tute the inner "essence" of a game. But there is a danger in lim­ power, and the feeling of self-initiative."2 Although these defi­ iting the consideration of a game solely to its formal system.The nitions may tell us something about play, we want to build a complexity of rules has an intrinsic fascination, the hypnotic more design-centric definition of the concept, one that will allure of elegant mathematics and embedded logic. However, it help us create an experience of meaningful play in our games. is crucial for game designers to recognize that the creation of rules, even those that are elegant and innovative, is never an end in itself. Rules are merely the means for creating play. If, Let us start by looking at how play is used in everyday speech. As with "game,"the word "play"is used in many and varied ways: during the process of game deSign, you find yourself attempt­ the act of creating music, such as playing the radio or play­ ing to perfect an elegant set of rules in a way that fails to ing a musical instrument impact the experience of the player, your focus has become pretending: playing at being angry, playing the fool misdirected. The experience of play represents the heart and soul of the game designer's craft, and is the focus of all of the chapters collected under the Primary Schema of PLAY_ Following this introductory chapter are a number of schemas, each one framing games from a different perspective. Within activating a process: putting something into play taking a risky action: playing fast and loose the course of events or fate: letting things play out, playing into the hand of fate PLAY, we explore games as systems of experience and pleasure; as systems of meaning and narrative play; and as systems of stalling: playing for time simulation and social play. We are aware of the near-infinite being joking or not serious: just playing around, playing variety of ways to frame games as experience and we make no tricks pretense that our set of PLAY schemas offer a complete list. There are experiential schemas that offer valid ways of under- gambling: playing the horses M o Rules of Play I Salen and Zimmerman M a subtle effect: a smile playing on the lips, the play of light "play" in English point to other understandings of the concept, on the wall which fall completely outside these two framings of"game" and the loose space between gears or cogs: the play of a car's steering wheel "play." Making a playful gesture, for example, or the play of the waves on the beach-these examples don't seem to have any­ thing at all to do with games. Or do they? Looking over all of fooling or deceiving someone: playing someone for all the ways that play manifests, we can group them into three they're worth, playing on someone's feelings, playing up to categories of "play:" someone Game Play being artful, clever, or youthfully jubilant: dressing in a This form of play is a narrow category of activity that only playful style, engaging in wordplay and, of course, applies to what we defined already as"games."Game play playing with toys or playing a game is the formalized interaction that occurs when players fol­ low the rules of a game and experience its system through Whereas we "play" games such as Metal Gear Solid, Racquetball, play. and UNO, there seem to be many other activities that fall under the category of play and playing as well. What is the connection between the terms "play" and "game"? When we defined the word game in chapter 7, we posited two possible relationships between games and play: Ludic Activities The word ludic means of orrelating to play and like the title of Huizinga's book Homo Ludens, it is derived from ludus, the Latin word for play. Ludic activities are play activities that include not only games, but all of the non-game Games are a subset of play: Games constitute a formal­ behaviors we also think of as "playing:" a kitten batting a ized part of everything we might consider to be play. ball of yarn, two college students tossing a Frisbee back Playing catch or playing doctor are play activities that fall and forth, children playing on a jungle gym. outside our definition of games (a contest of powers with a quantifiable outcome, etc.). However, although not all play fits the category of games, those things we define as games fit within a larger category of play activities. Being Playful The third category of play is the broadest and most inclu­ sive. It refers not only to typical play activities, but also to the idea of being in a playful state of mind, where a spirit Play is an element of games: In addition to rules and cul­ of play is injected into some other action. For instance, we ture, play is an essential component of games, a facet of are being playful with words when we create nicknames the larger phenomenon of games, and a primary schema for friends or invent rhymes to tease them. We might dress for understanding them. in a playful way or deliver a critique of a sibling in a play­ Neither one of these two relationships is more correct than the other. The first is a descriptive distinction that places the phe­ nomenon of games within a larger set of real-world play activi­ ties. The second is a conceptual distinction that frames playas an important facet of games. However, the common uses of ful tone. In each case, the spirit of play infuses otherwise ordinary actions. .r g Unit 3: PLAY Each of the three categories of play is successively more open I Defining Play components. Play is an expression of the system, one that takes and inclusive. As a category, ludic activities includes game play, and the category being playful includes both of the previous two. Game play is really just a special kind of formalized ludic activity. Similarly, ludic activities are formalized, literal ways of being playful. c structure. o As a formal way of conceptualizing play, this definition applies b to all three categories of play: tl Game Play: Playing a game such as Chutes and Ladders P tl occurs only when players set the rigid rules of the game into motion. But the game play itself is a kind of dance that occurs somewhere between the dice, pieces, board, W and the rules themselves, in and among the more rigid ri~ formal structures of the game. ur Being Playful A General Definition of Play Although these three categories bring the many expressions of play into focus, we still lack a general definition to assist us in designing experiences of meaningful play. There is, in fact, a way of defining play that does justice to all three categories: Play is free movement within a more rigid structure. Ludic Activity: Think of bouncing a ball against a wall. This pc play activity has a less formal structure than a game, but Ja l the definition of play still applies. In experiencing the play ab of the ball, the player is playing with structures such as its gravity, the material identity of the ball, the architectural an space, and his or her own physical skill in throwing and die catching. To play with the ball is to play with all of these ori, structures, testing their limits and boundaries, finding ma ways of moving around and inside them. Tra At first glance, this definition might seem a little spare and Being Playful: Even in this broad category of play the def­ the abstract for such a rich and complex topic such as play. But it is inition is relevant. USing playful slang, for example, is to whi an extremely useful way to think about the design of play. find free movement of words and phrases within the more the Where does the definition come from? Think about the use of rigid rule structures of grammar. Being playful while walk­ as a the word "play" in the sense of the "free play" of a gear or a car's ing down the street means playing with the more rigid al steering wheel. The "play" is the amount of movement that the social, anatomical, and urban structures that determine is tl­ steering wheel can move on its own within the system, the proper walking behavior. amount the steering wheel can turn before it begins to turn the tires of the car. The play itself exists only because of the more utilitarian structures of the driving-system: the drive shaft, axles, wheels, and so on. The "rules" created by these ele­ ments make the free movement of play possible. Play emerges from the relationships guiding the functioning of the system, occurring in the interstitial spaces between and among its VI Alth In every case, play exists because of more rigid ~tr~~tures, but in a also exists somehow in opposition to them. Slang is only slang whe because it departs from the grammatical norm. It is oPPositional de pi to the more staid and conservative "official" uses of language, fami and gains its identity through its difference from them. byal Similarly, bouncing a ball against a wall is at odds with more form LO Rules of Play I Salen and o Zimmerman I") utilitarian uses of the architecture. At the same time, the action game of Chess. If the play of Chess is considered purely as an conforms to certain rules afforded by the formal structure of exercise in the strategic logic of Chess, then the system (the the building,leading to a particular type of interaction.The play rules) remains the same each time the game is played. of a game, as we have explored in detail, is only possible However, once human players come into the equation, trans­ because of rule s. Yet paradoxically game~ is in many_"'@)'s formative play can occur across many levels. A player's thinking the opposite of rul~~:~~,all of i ~_~~n}'5Juises, play opposes and skills might be transformed as a result of playing Chess over a pliiy resists. But it does so playfully, making use of existing struc­ long period of time. Social relationships with other players (or tures to i~vent new form~ ~p_r~~!on-:Transformative Play When play occurs, it can overflow and overwhelm the more rigid structure in which it is taking place, generating emergent, unpredictable results. Sometimes, in fact, the force of play is so ~erfulthat it can c'hange the structure itself. As philosopher James S. Hans notes, "The role of play is not to work comfort­ ably within its own structures but rather constantly to develop its structures through play."3 A playful slang term can become an idiom, for example, and may eventually be adopted into the dictionary, becoming part of the larger cultural structures it non-players) might undergo a transformation, The play of Chess might even transform the way a player perceives objects in space. (Just ask any Tetris addict!) Tran sformative play can occur in all three categories of play: Game Play: In professional Basketball, as players find new ways of playing the game, the rules are adjusted to keep the game challenging and entertaining. There are many examples of games, from Flux to 1000 Blank White Cards, where inventing and tran sforming the rules are part of the game's design . originally resisted. We call this important form of play transfor­ Ludic Activity: In informal, imaginative children's games, motive play. such as House or Cops and Robbers, the rules and possible Transformative ,~~y is a special case of play that occurs when the free movement of play alters ,the more rigid structure in behaviors are often improvised, transforming the play of the game from session to session. which it takes shape. The play doesn't just occupy and oppose Being Playful: In fields and activities outside what we nor­ theinterstlces of the system, but actually transforms the space mally think of as play and games, being playful can have a as a whole. A cyberfeminist game patch that creates transsexu­ transformative effect. In fashion design, there is a reflexive al versions of Lara Croft is an example of transformative play, as relationship between marginal forms of dress and the is the use of the Quake game engine as a movie-making tool. fashion establishment. A subcultural style of dress can Although every instance of play involves free movement with ­ in a more rigid structure, not all play is transformative. Often, whether or not we can consider playas transformative play challenge notions of taste and etiquette (think Punk), while helping to define new forms of expression within the very context it opposes, depends on the way we frame the play experience. Take the In the remaining section s of thi s chapter, we explore the three familiar example of Chess. Some aspects of play in Chess are, types of play in more detail, with an eye to discover how each byand large, not tran sformative at all. As with most games, the category intersects with our general definition of play, trans­ formal rules of Chess do not change as a result of playing a formative play, and game design. Unit 3: PLAY I Defining Play Being Playful If we examir.·e how the word "play" is used and concen­ language use in which the joke takes shape, the joke would trate on its so-called transferred meanings we find talk lose its humor and sense of play. The play exists both because of the play of light, the play of the waves, the play of the of and in opposition to the structures that give it life. components in a bearing case, the inner play of limbs, the play of forces, the play of gnats, even a play on words ... . This accords with the original meaning of the word "spiel" as "dance," which is still found in many word forms. - Brian Sutton-Smith, The Ambiguity of Play We start with the largest of the three categories: simply being Even if we use some of Sutton-Smith's more abstract examples, such as the play of light, our definition of play still applies. Imagine light reflecting from your wristwatch to make a bright spot on the wall: we say that the light is playing on the wall. From within the structures of the physics of light, perception, and architecture emerges the unusual circumstance of a float­ playful. The preceding quote from Sutton-Smith points to some ing speck of light on the wall. The light playfully calls attention of the many contexts outside of games, toys, and ludic behavior to itself, changing the relationship between your wristwatch to which we can apply our general definition of "play." Like the and the architectural space. Your instinct is to play with the "free play" of a gear, the instances of play identified by Sutton­ light,even for just a moment, to experience this new set of rela­ Smith are all moments when a system is in motion, in a kind of tionships between the movements of your body and the sur­ dance. ("Spiel," the German word for play, originally meant face of the wall.The play of the light, and your play with the play dance, as Sutton-Smith points out.) of the light, is only made possible by the ordinary sets of expe­ Take Sutton-Smith's example of a "play on words." There are riential relationships that this instance of play transforms. many kinds of wordplay, from the nonsense rhymes of Dr. Are these examples of "being playful" transformative as well? Seuss, to the rhythmic intricacies of freestyle rap, to the seman­ Possibly. Maybe the play of the light transforms your behavior: tic doubling of a children's riddle. In every case, the wordplay perhaps you make a habit of sitting in the same room at the embodies free movement within a more rigid structure. If you same time the next day to enjoy the possibilities of the play. Or will pardon the cheesy humor, consider the following joke: maybe telling the "seven ate nine" joke at dinner leads to an Q:Why is six afraid of seven? A: Because seven ate nine. entire evening of math jokes that wouldn't otherwise have occurred. Every instance of play carries with it the seeds of transformative play. The "play" of this particular joke rests in the fact that "ate" and How is this general understanding of being playful relevant to "eight" are homonyms. Saying "seven eight nine" is merely game design? When you are designing a game, you should counting, whereas "seven ate nine" becomes a genuine cause maximize meaningful play for your participants at every possi­ of alarm for our personified numerals. What is happening in ble moment. Often, this means thinking about how you can this instance of play? Within the more rigid and fixed sets of lin­ inject the proper spirit of playfulness into an otherwise ordi­ guistic meanings, the joke has managed to carve out a space of nary behavior. You Don't Know Jack, for example, took the nor­ play, a movement in which unexpected characters come to life mally chore-like routine of entering in player names, loading and express double meanings usually repressed within more game data, and outlining game rules and turned it into an utilitarian communication.Thejoke"plays" on our expectations entertainingly playful series of events that even experienced of language. But without the larger context of conventional players of the game continue to enjoy. Could you make an r-­ Rules of Play I Salen o and Zimmerman M ...--­ entire game out of an experience that is typically ordinary or Here are some of Caillois' thoughts about each fundamental tedious? How about a game designed to be played while wait­ category: ing in line? Or watching the news? Or driving a car? Once you understand that play is latent in any human activity, you can find inspiration for play behaviors and contexts anywhere. Ludic Activities The second category of play, ludic activities, brings us closer to the play of games. Games represent one type of ludic activity, a particularly formalized variety of play. But there are many less formal versions of playas well, from two dogs chasing each other in a park to an infant playing peek-a-boo with his father. What most often distinguishes games from these other forms of play is the fact that games have a goal and a quantifiable outcome. Generally speaking, non-game forms of ludic activi­ Agon. A whole group of games wou ld seem to be competitive, that is to say, like a combat in which equality of chances is artificially cre­ ated, in order that adversaries should confront each other under ideal conditions, susceptible of giving preCise and incontestable value to the winner's triumph 5 A/ea. This is the Latin name for the game of dice. I have borrowed it to designate, in contrast to ag6n, all ga mes that are based on a decision independent of the player, an outcome over which he has no control, and in which winning is the result of fate rather than triumphing over an adversary. iVlore properly, destiny is the sole artisan of victory, and whe re there is rivalry, what is meant is that the winner has been more favored by fortune than the loser6 ties do not. Mimicry. Play can consist not only of deploying actions or submit­ Even though ludic activities constitute a type of play phenom­ ena more narrow than simply being playful, there is still a rela­ tively wide range of activities contained within this category. How might these activities be organized and understood within the larger rubric of play? Anthropologist Roger Caillois sug­ gests a useful model for organizing various forms of play. In his book Man, Play, and Games, he provides a powerful framework ting to one's fate in an imaginary milieu, but of becoming an illu­ sory character oneself. and of so behaving.One is thus confronted with a diverse series of manifestations, the com mon element of which is that the subject makes believe or make s o thers believe that he is someo ne other than himself He forgets, disguises, or temporarily shed s hi s personality in order to feign another? for classifying play activities. Caillois' model is one of the most /Jinx. The last kind of game includes those which are based on the theoretically ambitious attempts to organize the many forms pursuit of vertigo and which consist of an attempt to momentarily of play. destroy the stability of perception and inAict a kind of voluptuous panic upon an otherwise lucid mind .. . Eve ry child very well Caillois'model begins with four "fundamental categories" of play:4 Agon: Competitive play, as in Chess, sports, and other contests A/ea: Cha nce-based play, based in games of probability Mimicry: Role-playing and make-believe play, including theater and other exercises of the imagination knows that by whirling rapidly he reaches a centrifugal state of Aight from wh ich he regains bodily stability and clarity of percep­ tion only with difficulty.8 Caillois' categories cover a wide range of play activities, Some of them, such as the game contests of agon and the chance-based games of alea, resemble many of the games we have already discussed. Other activities he mentions, such as the make­ /linx: Playing with the physical sensation of vertigo, as when a child spinsand spins until he falls down believe play of mimicry and ilinx activities like leapfrog and IX) ...,o Unit 3: PLAY waltzing, clearly fall outside the boundaries of games. Although Paida many games include elements of mimicry and ilinx, these cate­ gories go beyond a description of games-but they do outline a model for understanding many kinds of ludic activities. Caillois doesn't limit his classification system to these four cat­ egories. He enriches his taxonomy by adding the pair of concepts paida and ludus. Paida represents wild, free-form, improvisa­ tional play, whereas ludus represents rule-bound, regulated, formalized play. Caillois writes: " Such a primary power of im-provisation and joy, which I call paida, is allied to the taste I Defining Play Ludus Agon (Competition) Unregulated athletics (foot racing, wrestling) Boxing, Billiards, Fencing, Checkers, Football, Chess Alea (Chance) Counting-out rhymes Betting, Roulette, Lotteries Mimicry (Simulation) Children's initiations, masks, disguises Theater, spectacles in general IIinx (Vertigo) Children "whirling," Horseback riding, Waltzing Skiing, Mountain climbing, Tightrope walking Examples taken from Man, Play, and Games for gratuitous difficulty that I propose to call ludus, in order to v encompass the various games to which, without exaggeration, a a civilizing quality can be attributed."9 Caillois crosses his four How does Caillois'model fit into our definition of play? A look at fu ndamental categories of play with the concepts of paida and the four fundamental categories of play shows that each fr ludus, resulting in a grid on which he charts a wide variety of embodies free movement within a more rigid structure: d ludic activities. A rule-bound game of chance such as Roulette falls into the alea/ludus section of his model. Unstructured make-believe play like wearing a mask would fall under mim­ icry Ipaida. Terminological Aside:"Play" and "Games" in French v Agon and alea are categories that generally contain C games. As a result, play emerges from the players' move­ fc ment through the rigid rule-structures of the game. In a rc competitive game, players do their best to win by playing b~ within the behavioral boundaries set by the system of yc rules. In a game of chance, players set the game in motion pi Man, Play, and Games was written in French, Caillois' native tongue. Many through their participation, hoping the system plays out in gr languages do not have separate words for "game" and "play." In French, a fortuitous manner. M for example, game is "jeu," and play is "jouer,"the verb form of the same word. The original title of his book is Les Jeux et les Hommes (Games/Play The free of play of mimicry is the play of representation. If and Man); the English translation of the title as Man, Play, and Games you wiggle your index finger and say "heilo," pretending does an admirable job of expressing the broad array of play forms that your finger is a little person that can talk, you are play­ Caillois investigates. It is important to note the difference between the French and English titles of Caillois' book because although the English translation generally ing with the fixed representational categories of finger and person, finding free movement within these more Play in ilinx emerges as the play within physical and sensual fact, studying play. Some of the phenomena listed by Caillois are bona structures. The spinning player abandons more typically our narrow definition of game. They are all, however, ludic activities. pn typically rigid sign systems through imaginative play. uses "game"to describe what Caillois is studying, for our purposes he is, in fide games and sports. Others, like theater and public festivals, do not fit wi ba tame behavior to find new sensation in the interplay between bodily movement and perceptual input. Th, ac' bei Iud 0> ~ Play :ing, hess teries Rules of Play I Salen o and Zimmerman M Furthermore, the categories of ludus and paida directly address Delimitation of our project a structural understanding of games, a continuum of relation­ Although the number of writings on game design is somewhat limited, in ships between structure and play. As play edges closer to the the past few decades, there has been a tremendous amount of study on ludus end of the spectrum, for example, the rules become the nature and function of play. Scholarship comes from a wide variety of tighter and more influential. Located on the other end of the spectrum, paida-based play eschews rigid formal structures in exchange for more freewheeling play. In both cases, Caillois fields: animal behaviorists studying the adaptive advantages of play, developmental psychologists studying the cognitive and social skills that children learn through play, sociologists studying the way play fits into larger social needs. defines play by virtue of its structural identity. bing, By and large, these studies of play focus on identifying the function or There is a good deal of correspondence between Caillois' model purpose of play. The implicit assumption is that play serves a larger pur­ and our own. However, the two models do not offer identical pose for the individual psyche, the social unit, the classroom, the species, ways of conceptualizing play. For example, our distinction and so on. In Child's Play, Frank A. Beach indexes some of the functions among game play, ludic activities, and being playful is not rele­ that are typically associated with play across many fields: at vant to Caillois' organization of play activities. Although we can ch frame his categories under the rubric of our "free movement" a release of surplus energy definition, he never explicitly constructs play in this way. an expression of general exuberance. or joie-de-vivre in Caillois is a tremendously important game scholar. His system expression of sex drive, aggression, or anxiety e­ a for classifying forms of play is one of the most inclusive and youthful "practice" for adult life sk ills 9 )f robust we have encountered. Furthermore, Caillois' model can be very useful for understanding the kinds of play experiences your game is and is not providing. Although Caillois tends to n place an entire game or play activity into a single section of his 1 grid, most games have elements from several of his categories. Maybe your hardcore agon strategy game could be leavened with a bit more alea. Or perhaps you could enrich your mimicry­ based role-playing game by considering the kinds of ilinx sen­ sations your players might experience at key dramatic moments. Any model that helps you to frame your design problems in a new way can be a valuable game design tool. Game Play The third and final category of play is game play. Just as ludic activities constitute a special subset of the larger category of being playful, game play is a special subset of the category of ludic activities. Game play only occurs within games. It is the necessary context for exploration and experimentation a mean s of socialization tool for self-expression and diversion 12 Studying the function and purpose of play is important and fascinating work, but we will not address it in this book. The schemas we present for understanding play and other aspects of games focus on the challenges of creating meaningful play, rather than on investigating the social or psychological purpose of games. There is a tremendous amount of liter­ ature available on the function of play and we have included many of these references in our bibliography, as it should be a part of the way that game designers understand games. o Pi Unit 3: PLAY I Defining Play experience of a game set into motion through the participation Most or all of the "facets" Reider lists are ways of understanding of players. The other two categories of play, being playful and the operation of play in a game. The psychology of play, the ludic activities, contain a vast and diverse array of play forms. Yet expression of love and aggression, the way that the game facil­ even though game play is the smallest category of the three, the itates individual styles of play, are part of the play experience play of games takes on a multitude of forms as well: the strate­ of Chess. Understanding the experiential qualities of play, gic competitive play of Settlers of Catan; the performative social engendered by rules and given life through game play, is the play of Charades; the physical sporting play of Cricket; the lush precise focus of the rest of this Primary Schema. Are you ready narrative play of Final Fantasy X-all are examples of game play. to play? Notes Game play clearly embodies the idea of playas free movement within a more rigid structure. The particular flavor of a game's 1. 1. Barnard Gilmore, "Play: A Special Behavior." In play is a direct result ofthe game's rules. The rules of Charades, these rules provide the rigid structure within which the play Play, edited by 1971),p.311. written out as text on paper, could not be more different from the exuberant, free-wheeling activity of the game itself. Yet Child~ R.E. Herron and Brian Sutton-Smith (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2. Ibid. 3. James S. Hans, The Play of the World (Boston: University of Ma ssachu­ setts Press, 19B1), p. 5. resides, the rules that guide and shape the game play experi­ ence. As Caillois himself states, within a game a player is "free within the limits set by the rules."10 Because play involves human participation, it is an endlessly rich and complex locus for study. Even within a single game, 4. Roger Caillois, Man, Play, and Games (London: Thames and Hudson. 1962), p. 12. 5. Ibid. p. 14. 6. Ibid. p. 17. 7. Ibid.p.19. B. Ibid. p. 23 . there are innumerable ways to delineate its play. In the follow­ ing excerpt, taken from The Study of Games, Norman Reider begins an in-depth study of Chess by touching on many of its characteristics: The fasc in ation and the extent of the addic tion to the game; the psychological fac tors involved in its historica l deve lopment; its soc ial and therape uti c va lue; its legal involvements; its relation to 9. Ibid. p. 27. 10. Ibid. p. 8. 11. Norman Reider,"Chess, Oedipus, and the Mater Dolorosa." In The Study of Games, edited by Elliott Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1971), p. 440. 12. Frank A. Beach, "Current Concepts of Play in Animals." In Child's Play, edited by R.E. Herron and Brian Sutton-Smith (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1971), p. 311. p. 204-208. love and agg ression; the problem of genius in chess; the charac­ terolog ica l problem of its players and their style of play; and ego functions as manifested in play, espec ially the distinctions between the psycholog ica l meanings of the game, its pieces and rules, and th e psychology of the playe rs. I I Rules of Play I Salen and Zimmerman > a:
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Game design concepts
According to Salen and Zimmerman, there is distinct difference between play and game
(72). Although many languages disregard the difference between these two terms, the English
definition puts it that both terms can be a subset of the other depending on how they are used.
The best example to depict the game versus play difference is a scenario where two t...


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