Help me edit three paragraphs for my essay

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I lose three paragraphs for my essay

1. visual information(there are two pictures in the article. what does it apply to audiences )

2. rhetorical strategies(Narration, explain it, give examples from the article and then explain the significant of it )

3 rhetorical appeals.(Ethos, logos, pathos explain ti, give examples form the article and then what is the significant of it)

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Tang 1 LLD 100A Final Draft Professor Chiu 03/06/2018 RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF “THE RISE OF CHINA AND THE FALL OF THE ‘FREE TRADE’ MYTH” I. Introduction The article, entitled ‘The Rise of China and the Fall of the ‘Free Trade’ Myth’ is written by Pankaj Mishra, and is published by the New York Times on Feb 7, 2018. It is an article that analyzes economic issues, with a special focus on the international trade, and the way nations are trading with each other. The ultimate purpose of the article was to try and create a comparison between the US and China, with the sporadic mentioning of other economic powerhouses such as Japan and South Korea and how they have all been able to attain economic empowerment by moving against the ideology of free trade. The article tries to dissect the concept of free trade, which has proved to be misleading according to the article. The intended audience of the article is to all people who have a keen interest in the rise of China in the economic ladder, and how this has affected the interests and influence of the US. However, there is no information to show whether the author has any prior experience or competency on the issues that are highlighted in the article. Rhetorical strategies can help the author organize information and connect facts to convey an argument or a purpose. There are three rhetorical strategies that the author used in this article. These are narration , comparison and contrast and rhetorical appeals. Also, the author provided visual information for audiences to understand his article more easily and clearly. I Tang 2 choose this article because it is related to my major Finance and help me know about what is ‘free trade’. The major idea of the author is to try and create a comparison between the US and China, with the sporadic mentioning of other economic powerhouses such as Japan and South Korea and how they have all been able to attain economic empowerment by moving against the ideology of free trade. Personally, the findings in the article came as an amusement because the idea of free trade has been the norm and the entrenchment of globalization, with most economists calling for open trade and standardization of the market approach to incorporate fair trade terms (Ferguson, 65). However, there have been some recent events such as Brexit that lend some credibility to this idea, and the action by the US to pull out of the Trans-Pacific Partnership only dampens the idea of free trade. Comparison and contrast are one of the rhetoric analysis strategies that the author incorporates into the article. The observation from the article that ‘Why shouldn’t China’s rise have happened the way it did, with state-led economic planning, industrial subsidies and little or no regard for the rules of “free trade”?’ is one that sets the tone for the article. As such, the article tries to compare between the communist idea and the free trade ideology, which juxtaposes China and the US respectively and then goes ahead to show why the two models have had mixed results. The comparison goes to show that while the US was trying to entrench capitalism, China was trying to increase the role of the government in all investments, even the private investment. The analogy was that while the US was viewing the government as the problem, China was looking for solutions by the visible arm of the government. The comparison and contrast rhetorical strategy also seek to have some perspective on the issue because it brings Tang 3 out what could have gone wrong along the way. The strategy is also able to help the author sustain the argument that he proposes to address in the introduction. The author says that ‘the economic success of East Asian countries like Japan in the 20th century had already invalidated the article of faith invoked by Trump in Davos: that nations can advance only by eliminating barriers to the free movement of goods and capital and by minimizing the role of government in the economy’ before going on to compare this to China by stating ‘and China’s — unexpected ascents have now exposed to critical scrutiny’. It is such comparison that helps in coming to the core of the article, an ideological comparison of the economic policies of the two countries. Appeals, mainly through historical description, is also another rhetorical analysis strategy that the article has used as a way of leading its audience to the position that it is seeking to promote. Perhaps, there is a need to have a philosophical inclination for this imagery, because it is more of the dichotomous analysis of the ethos, logos, and pathos that seeks to create appeal in an audience for consensus. The style is one that cannot be overlooked, from the rhetorical questions that the author includes to the syntax, the way all the words and phrases are used to appeal to the audience that free trade has just been a myth. For example, the use of historical examples such as South Korea and Singapore that worked with protectionism shows the appeal that the author is trying to show (Ferguson, 6). He is trying to discard the fallacy that all great economies have been built on the tenets of free trade. The appeals also tap on a country that was left behind; India. On the country, the article explains India’s model ‘India had an ambitious industrialization program, and its economy mixed private markets with state-owned enterprises, even if its historical experience of British rule predisposed it to suspect that free trade benefited only developed industrial economies.’ As such, the country could not match the strides that other East Asian countries were making. Tang 4 Conclusively, one comes to the position that the use of comparison and contrast, which the author successfully integrates is one that is vital in convincing the audience on some of the inclinations that the article makes. It is the best method that the author could have built on to have the required outcome for the audience. It should not be interpreted that the article fails on this front, only that the use of comparison is the essential method that helps to bring clarity to the article. While the article shows the mythical aspect of the free trade, it is largely one-sided as it does not show countries that have developed because of free trade. Tang 5 Works Cited Chang, Ha-Joon. Bad Samaritans: The myth of free trade and the secret history of capitalism. Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2010. Ferguson, Niall. Colossus: The rise and fall of the American empire. Penguin, 2005. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/07/magazine/the-rise-of-china-and-the-fall-of-the-free-trademyth.html One of the rhetorical strategies used in the article was narration. In general, narration means to tell a story and the function of narration is to convey the story in entirety. It includes many events and describes who, when, where or what happened. In the beginning of thie article, Mishra describes the decision made by President Trump at the World Economic Forum ENGL / LLD 100A Rhetorical Analysis Assignment Purpose & Audience Purposes: • • To develop your understanding of rhetoric by investigating how a writer constructed a professional document or text in your major field To practice analytical thinking and clear writing1 Audience: Your instructor, your classmates, and other faculty members on the ENGL & LLD 100A review committee. Writing Steps Step 1: Select a document to analyze Choose a piece of writing that was written by a professional in your major or a field that is closely related to your major. The text should be at least 3 pages long so that you will have enough material to analyze and write about. These writings may include, but are not limited to: • Academic and trade publications (journals, newsletters, articles) • Company web sites (Internet and Intranet) • Professional society web sites (e.g., Federal or State Bar Association, the National Association of State Foresters, Society for Technical Communication, etc.) • Internal correspondence (the audience is within the same company or organization as the writer), for example: memos, policy & procedure documents, reports such as audit reports, project status reports, proposals, lab reports, etc. • External correspondence (the audience is outside the same company or organization as the writer), for example: letters or reports to customers or vendors, sales or marketing materials, external blogs, newsletters, etc. Note: There are many sample documents available on the web. Use a Google search to find these in your discipline. You can also ask people you know who are working in your major field for a document they may have written. Ask your professors in your major courses for suggestions as well. Step 2: Analyze the paper you selected As a preliminary step, before you actually write the first draft of your paper, try to answer the following questions about the document you are analyzing: • • • • • • What do you think was the author’s purpose in producing this writing? Who was the intended audience? What genre does it represent? What style and tone did the author use? (formal, informal) What rhetorical appeals did the writer use? (ethos, pathos, and logos—these terms will be explained in class) What strategies were used to develop ideas? (description, narration, process analysis, compare and contrast, cause and effect, etc.) 1 This assignment has been adapted from a similar one developed by Julian Heather and Fiona Glade at CSU Sacramento. 1 ENGL / LLD 100A • • • Rhetorical Analysis Assignment How is the text organized, and why do you think the author chose this particular organizational pattern? Is there a particular format that is used? Why do you think the author included or omitted particular information? What kinds of evidence did the author include to support his/her point of view, and how was that evidence used? Step 3: Decide which rhetorical appeals and strategies you will focus on in your paper. A writer might use many appeals and strategies, but some are more important than others in achieving the writer’s purpose. So you need to be selective; choose those that you think are the most important (or most interesting) and write about them in your body paragraphs. Step 4: Write your first draft (see “Suggested Organization”). Step 5: Participate in Peer Review of First Draft On the day of the peer review, bring to class the following: • • • A copy of your first draft (approximately 1300 words single-spaced; see “Suggested Organization”) A copy of the document that you analyzed A copy of the peer review form Step 6: Write the Second Draft for Teacher Conference Use the feedback from your peer reviewer to guide you as you revise and create a second draft. When you come to the conference, bring the following: • • • A copy of the paper that you analyzed Your second draft (aim for 1500 words) Your peer reviewer’s comments Step 7: Write and submit the Third Draft (in most cases, this will be the Final Draft) Using the feedback you got from your instructor, revise your paper and submit a hard copy, in addition to uploading the file to Canvas. Please follow the format guidelines given below. Suggested Organization of your Paper Introduction Write an introductory paragraph with several sentences that do the following: • • • Discuss in general how/why writers use rhetorical writing to achieve their purpose. Introduce the paper you plan to analyze. Identify the author and describe the circumstances under which the paper was written. (You may have to guess based on the content and purpose.) Give the full title of the paper, when it was written and who was the intended audience. Describe what you think was the writer’s purpose: What did he/she want to achieve? What do you think the author wanted the reader to think or do after reading this paper? Identify the rhetorical appeals and strategies used by the author, and identify those that you plan to discuss in your analysis (preview statement). Note that you do not have to discuss in depth all of the strategies the author uses. 2 ENGL / LLD 100A Rhetorical Analysis Assignment Analysis Each paragraph in the body should have its own topic sentence and a unified focus. For this analysis, you could write one paragraph on each of the rhetorical appeals/strategies you mentioned in the introduction. In each of these body paragraphs, it is useful to: • • • Define the rhetorical appeal/strategy you are going to write about (you may quote or paraphrase from your course readings) Quote or paraphrase 2-3 examples from the paper that illustrate the use of that appeal/strategy Explain how or why the example illustrates the appeal/strategy and how the appeal/strategy contributed to author’s purpose Conclusion The purpose of the conclusion is to (a) summarize briefly the main points of your analysis and (b) explain the significance of your analysis by considering the following questions: • • • What conclusions can you draw about the role in general of rhetorical appeals and strategies in producing clear communication through writing? Was the author successful in using the various rhetorical appeals and strategies for the intended audience and purpose? Give examples. What changes might you recommend to the author to better achieve his/her purpose? Format Guidelines • Your final draft should be approximately 1500 words, with 1-inch margins and 12 point font, single spaced, Times Roman font. Double space between paragraphs; use headings and subheadings for the sections to guide the reader. Please number your pages. • The final draft of the report is to be uploaded to Canvas, in addition to a hard copy. Things to Keep For Your Portfolio • • • • • A copy of this assignment sheet A copy of the document that you chose to analyze. All drafts produced for this assignment. A copy of instructor comments and peer reviews on your earlier drafts. A clean (unmarked) copy of your final draft Important Dates First draft due (1300 words min) -- mandatory peer review Conference with instructor and bring a 2nd draft based on peer review (1400 words min) Final draft (hard copy) due in class and uploaded to Canvas (1500 words) 3 RHETORICAL STRATEGIES & ORGANIZATION PATTERNS: common, accepted English methods and structures of explaining, developing and organizing ideas BASIC TERMS & CONCEPTS: definitions & explanations Rhetoric: The art of writing or speaking effectively in order to persuade an audience to accept an idea. Rhetorical Strategies/Modes/Techniques: Refers to how a paragraph and/or essay is organized and the methods used to support and explain the main idea or thesis; in other words, the pattern of development used to make a point. Support: Refers to the use of sufficient relevant evidence and explanation in an essay or paragraph to support the thesis and/or topic sentence—specifically, the inclusion of necessary information and explanations, consideration of opposing views and perspectives, interpretation and explanation of evidence, and connecting support directly to the main point. Development: Refers to the process of adding informative and illustrative examples and details and using an appropriate pattern of organization to support the main idea in a paragraph or essay. RHETORICAL STRATEGIES: definitions & explanations Illustration/Exemplification: This strategy focuses on using specific examples—brief, specific examples (exemplification) and/or specific examples that are explained in great detail (illustrations)—to support a main idea. Narration: This strategy focuses on the use of stories about you, people you know, people you’ve heard about, and/or hypothetical (imagined) that are relevant to a main idea and explain/demonstrate the point(s) you want to make. Description: This strategy is often used with one or more of the previous two. Using description means focusing on the use of concrete, sensory diction (words) to describe a location, person, event, object, memory, etc. that explains or illuminates your main point and/or specific words rather than general or abstract words. “Concrete, sensory words” are words that can be perceived by our senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and feel (such as red, bright, rotten, pleasant, bitter, sweet, rough, soft, etc.) and “specific words” refer to words that name or refer to precise people, places, and events (such as Leah Keys Stahl, Toronto, the 2010 FIFA world championship game as opposed to general words like girl or woman, big city, and soccer game). Cause & Effect: These terms refer to reasons (causes) and results or consequences (effects). A writer may focus on just causes, just effects, or both by both presenting and evaluating the causes or reasons for something; the effects, results, or consequences of something; or both to explain a main idea. Compare & Contrast: Writers use this strategy to show the similarities (comparison), differences (contrasting), or both among two or more things by first presenting the items of comparison and criteria or qualities being compared/contrasted, and then—depending on the type of organization pattern chosen—analyzing and/or explaining these in relation to a main idea. Process (Analysis): This strategy focuses on giving instructions or giving the sequence of steps or stages of some kind of progressive action, concept, event, etc. For example, a process paper may explain or describe how to do, build, and/ or accomplish something. Process paragraphs and essays present each step/stage separately in order from first to last. Sometimes analysis of each step/stage is necessary, which is why this strategy is sometimes called “process analysis.” Classification: This strategy is used to divide, group, or categorize information according to specified topics, which are the explained in detail one by one and organized in a way that best represents and supports a main idea. (Extended) Definition: Writers use extended definition when the use and understanding of a specific use of a word, term, or concept is the central idea (main point) of a paragraph or essay. This strategy is used to provide detailed definitions and meanings that are essential to a main idea, including unfamiliar words; abstractions; discipline‐specific vocabulary; words or terms a writer wishes to redefine in a new, original, unique way; and distinguishing connotative meanings (popularly used and understood) from denotative meanings (dictionary meanings). Writers use this strategy when the readers’ understanding of the meaning of a particular word, term, phrase, or expression is crucial to the purpose (main point, thesis) of the text and/or is the writer’s main point in the text. Refutation: The verb to refute means “to argue against.” Writers use refutation for a number of reasons to recognize, explain, and describe one or more opposing arguments/positions/views on a subject for the purpose of exposing flaws and proving that their argument or position is the strongest and most valid. Presenting counterarguments also helps writers to improve their ethos by demonstrating their knowledge and fairness. Argumentation: This is sort of a catch‐all category in which writers may use one or many of the strategies described above to help him/her argue a position on a controversial issue. Controversy is the key to using this argument strategy well: argumentation means that you study a controversial topic about which people strongly disagree (such as abortion, legalizing gay marriage, medical marijuana, etc.), pick a side (usually for or against), and then present your argument, hopefully in a way that is more convincing than arguments on the opposing side of the issue, NOT by saying that the other side is all wrong, bad, or stupid but instead presenting why your argument is stronger than the opposition. PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION: common combinations & order in English compositions Some of these are specific to certain strategies while others may be used to logically order ideas expressed using a variety of strategies defined above. I have outlined the strategy‐specific organization patterns first; following these are the other organizational patterns, many of which will work in a variety of situations and with several different rhetorical strategies and/or combination of strategies. STRATEGY‐SPECIFIC ORGANIZATION PATTERNS Cause & Effect Order: The causes or reasons are usually presented first and followed by the results, effects, or consequences; however, a writer may focus on just causes or just effects (not necessarily both), in which case he/she must use another pattern of organization. Compare & Contrast Orders: Compare & Contrast—BLOCK STYLE: Used to analyze or explain similarities or differences by focusing on explain the items being compared or contrasting, explaining the qualities or criteria of each item fully before moving on to the next item being compared. For example, if I was comparing the price and quality of Domino’s and Caesar’s pizza using block style, I would first discuss the price and quality of Domino’s in a single paragraph, and then I would discuss the price and quality of Caesar’s in the next paragraph. Compare & Contrast—POINT‐BY‐POINT STYLE: This method of organization focuses of the criteria (or points) of comparison or contrast instead of the items being compared or contrasted. Using this style and the example above, I would first explain the similarities or differences of the price of Domino’s vs. Caesar’s in one paragraph, and then—in a second, new paragraph— move on to discuss the quality of Domino’s vs. Caesar’s. Process Order: When writing a process paper, we use sequential order, which details the sequence of events or actions (steps or stages of a process) to explain or give instructions about how to do, make, accomplish (etc.) something in particular by beginning with the first step and moving on logically to the next steps toward the final step. Classification Order: This is also sometimes called topical order because classifying means to divide ideas up into distinct and separate topics (groups or classes) and then explain each topic, group, or class individually and in detail. Topics may be ordered in any way that best suits the writer’s purpose (see some of these ordering patterns below under “Other Patterns”). Definition Order: When using definition, the key word, term, phrase, concept or expression is usually presented first, followed closely by its standard, traditional, most accepted, and/or dictionary meaning. This basic definition is then followed by a detailed explanation of the writer’s alternative, new, original, unique, and/or connotative definition as well as a discussion of how and why this word, term, phrase, concept, or expression is a central part of the main idea of the text (thesis). Refutation Order: In this pattern, which is also called order of opposing arguments, the opposing view or counterargument (one or more) is usually presented first and then followed by an equally or more detailed explanation of the writer’s main idea/perspective in a way that highlights the flaws in the opposition and attempts to prove the truth, probability, and/or reasons why the writer’s view is stronger and more valid. OTHER ORGANIZATION PATTERNS—ones that work with various strategies and combinations of strategies Order of Importance or Climax: Using this pattern, information can be organized in one of two ways: (1) from least to most important idea (standard) or (2) from most to least important idea (reverse). Order of Generalization & Example (also called Statement & Clarification Order): This pattern may be uses with most if not all rhetorical approaches in which combining a statement/generalization with specific details as support is the most logical. There are two structures possible: statement/generalization followed by detailed support, called inductive approach or reasoning, or the reverse order of details presented first and then followed by a statement/generalization, also called deductive approach or reasoning. Chronological Order: A structure that focuses on describing and explaining the order of time in which events occur, from first to last or beginning to end. Often used with the strategies of process or description. Spatial Order: This type of organization is usually used with description or narration but may be used with other strategies. Spatial order focuses on order of space—moving from one location in a continuous and sequential manner, such as a description of a room that begins at the door, moves clockwise around the room (describing everything along the way), and ends where it began. Problem‐to‐Solution Order: First a problem is presented in a detailed manner along with the causes that have led up to the problem. This is followed by a detailed explanation of a solution to the problem. This organization pattern is appropriate for many strategies such as refutation, cause & effect, process, and classification. Order of Familiarity: Ideas or points are ordered from the most to least or least to most familiar—or, in other words, from the ideas or points most widely known or recognized by the audience or in the reverse order, from the least to know widely known and recognized. Order of Frequency: Used when dealing with how often something occurs, from most to least frequently occurring or in the reverse order, from the least to most frequently occurring. Order of Complexity: An order in which the points or ideas are presented from the most simple ones to the most complicated ones or in the reverse order, from the most complicated ones to the most simple and easy to understand. Order of Audience Awareness or Audience Acceptance: This pattern focuses on ideas or points that the audience is most to least or least to most likely to be aware of and comfortable with. For example, Americans are familiar with democracy and capitalism and believe in these ideals, so they are more comfortable with, aware and accepting of these political systems; however, Americans know little about other systems, such as European socialist democracy or communism, so Americans are the least at ease with, accepting and/or aware of these other systems because of their knowledge and understanding of other systems is lacking. EXAMPLE PARAGRAPHS: written examples demonstrating strategies & patterns Cause & Effect / Cause & Effect Order Because toys have become electronic devices, some children today are unable to entertain themselves. Gone are the days when children invented their own adventures and used sticks as swords, cookie sheets as armor, and refrigerator boxes as fortresses to defend. The electronic age has delivered children all sorts of gadgets and gizmos that stifle a child’s creativity during play because of pre‐imagined and limited functions and uses—some modern toys even have buttons to activate recorded messages of scripted, monotonous “adventures” that leave no room for a child to fill in the details. Something has been lost amidst the advent of modern technology: the precious and priceless ability of a child to transform any old object by the simple power of imagination. With no imagination, it is no wonder some children today have short attention spans. 1. What are the causes (reasons) the writer presents? 2. What are the effects (results/consequences)? Compare & Contrast Order: Block Style As a child, I thought my parents were ignorant and out of touch with reality. They couldn’t possible understand anything I thought or felt. When they weren’t annoying me with their ridiculous lectures, or grounding me for minor infractions of the rules, they were embarrassing me in public. Now, as a parent myself, I find it frustrating that my children think I have no clue about their lives, even though I understand perfectly well what they are thinking or feeling. I find myself giving my children the same lectures I once thought were ridiculous. My children cannot seem to follow the rules their father and I have set, and they are continuously embarrassing me in public. My, how things have changed. 1. What quality is being compared in this paragraph? 2. Who is the writer comparing in this paragraph? Compare & Contrast Order: Point‐by‐Point Style Although they are sisters, Jennifer and Jessica are complete opposites. Jennifer enjoys playing sports while Jessica would rather watch. Jennifer has no interest in playing a musical instrument, but Jessica is the first chair violinist. Jennifer listens to new age music; Jessica prefers country music. Jennifer’s favorite subject is English; conversely, Jessica’s favorite is math. Jennifer likes to curl up in a chair on a rainy day and read a good book while Jessica would rather sleep all day. No one would ever guess that they are actually twins. 1. Who are the two people being compared in this paragraph? 2. What are the “points” of comparison between the two subjects? Refutation (Opposing Arguments) Order [The topic here is Reiki, a natural method of healing in which healers claim to transfer healing energy, called ki, through the palms of the hands.] Opponents of alternative healing methods such as Reiki claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. Opponents think so because HIV/AIDS and cancer patients often spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking medicine. However, it is actually common knowledge that, except for cases in which the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or cancer; instead, drugs can only ease pain and suffering caused by other treatments patients must undergo such as chemotherapy. Instead of drugs, which are expensive and have many side effects, an individual can use his/her energy to overcome the hardships of life, find emotional balance, leave the stress of his/her illness and everyday life, and let go of the haunting worries. Most chronic conditions such as eczema or migraines are known to be caused by things like poor diet and stress, and deep‐rooted anger and other strong emotions can contribute to viral infections. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our thoughts are very important for our overall well‐being, we should consider that Reiki can help us avoid illnesses and improve our lives in areas that traditional medicines cannot. 1. What is the writer arguing for in this paragraph? What is he/she arguing against (the counterargument)? 2. How would you describe the writer’s presentation of both views on the topic? (Angrily, incompletely, fair, etc.?) (Extended) Definition Order: I’m a teacher, but not in the traditional sense of the word. T E A C H E R: the word no longer feels as awkward rolling off my tongue and flowing from my fingertips as it once did. A fellow teacher and friend remarked one day during my first semester teaching that she didn’t feel old or smart enough to be a “real” teacher. I still think of this at times and remember how I used to worry that my students would discover my deepest, darkest secret: that I really wasn’t all that old or smart, I didn’t have all the answers, I was still trying to just figure all this writing stuff out too, I was no “expert,” and, really, I simply loved language and to write. Slowly but happily, I discovered this was all it took to be a teacher. Truly loving and always wanting to know more about a subject are the only important qualifications a teacher needs in relation to her subject. Labels like expert, scholar, authority, and even more playful ones like guru or champion are grossly inept because they all suggest that a person can somehow achieve, overcome, or conquer knowledge. What a preposterous, pretentious notion considering that we’d still be trying to bash open walnuts with rocks and make square wheels turn if our Neanderthal ancestors had one day decided that they had learned all there was to know in the world. There are instead so many more humble, honest, and apt terms that capture what a teacher is and does: adventurer, watcher, dreamer, analyst, risk‐taker, catalyst, seeker, builder, enthusiast—to name just a few. I have come to believe that a true teacher cannot ever “master” a subject (and those who think they can are likely the most dreadful bores you’ve ever had). For authentic, sincere teachers, there is no prize at the end of the race because there is no race in the first place. There is only the energy, motivation, and desire to run, discover, never stop chasing it down. 1. What word or term is the writer redefining in this paragraph? 2. What is the writer’s new definition of this word/term? Order of Importance or Climax: Standard Style (Least to Most) My encounter with nature became a learning experience for me. I learned to come prepared for anything. Our canoe overturning was proof that anything could happen. All of our supplies were gone. I also learned that although nature is beautiful, she can also be deadly. If it hadn’t been for the cave we discovered in the moonlight, the hail storm surely would have killed us. Most of all, I learned to trust my mother. I never thought I would say this, but she does know a thing or two. She kept her wits about her and kept me calm as well. Even in the middle of nowhere without any supplies, she still managed to take care of me. Her grandfather had taught her how to survive in the wild, and she hadn’t forgotten a thing. 1. What is the writer ranking (assigning degrees of importance to) in this paragraph? 2. List the writer’s ideas in the same order of importance as the writer has presented them. Order of Importance or Climax: Reverse Style (Most to Least) A plan to improve the city’s park was approved Monday night by the city council. The plan involves adding landscaping to the north end, rebuilding the bridge over the lake, and updating the playground equipment. Funds for the project have been donated by local businesses who hope that improving the park will bring more people to the downtown area which will in turn bring more customers. The next order of business is for the city council to open the bidding process for the various improvements. After bids are accepted by the council, the massive overhaul and construction project that will eventually transform the city’s downtown area can final begin. 1. What is the writer ranking (assigning degrees of importance to) in this paragraph? 2. List the writer’s ideas in the same order of importance as the writer has presented them. Generalization & Example (Statement & Clarification) Order A quick tour through my house will convince you that I am an extremely messy person—even a slob. Starting in my bedroom, you will see clothes tossed around as if thieves had just looted the place. T‐shirts dangle from door knobs, socks sit balled up on top of the dresser, and blue jeans cover the floor like a drop cloth. A trail of shoes and sneakers leads you out of the bedroom and into the bathroom. There you will stand on a sopping towel and see a blow‐dryer and a copy of Newsweek lying on the sink alongside an uncapped tube of Crest. Just behind you is the towel rack: no towel, naturally, just a dripping shirt and a crusty old bathrobe belt. Next to the bathroom is the kitchen—slob headquarters. To the left are erupting bags of garbage, a bald tire, and a tall stack of yellow newspapers. To the right you'll notice a greasy oven stacked high with pots and—beside it—a sink full of gray water and dirty dishes. Considering all the items you must hop over, step on, and avoid altogether, touring my house is more like completing an obstacle course than a casual stroll from room to room. 1. What is the generalization in this paragraph? 2. The writer uses a distinct rhetorical strategy to develop this paragraph. What is it? Classification (Topical) Order There are four basic kinds of writing: each mode may take different forms but has a primary purpose. The first is expository writing, which has a purpose of explaining something or giving directions, such as providing directions to your house. The second mode is persuasive writing, which has a purpose of influencing the reader’s way of thinking. A politician’s speech is an example of persuasive writing. The third mode is descriptive writing, which has a purpose of providing vivid details so that the reader can picture what is being presented. An essay that depicts the glorious Grand Canyon fits into this category. The fourth mode is narrative writing, which has a purpose of presenting an experience in the form of a story. A personal account of a vacation is an example of narrative writing. Through these four modes, or combinations of modes, writers have several options for expressing their ideas. 1. What categories does the writer break the content of the paragraph into? 2. Why do you think the writer put the topics in this particular order? What purpose might the writer have for ordering his points this way? Chronological (Time) Order It seemed like an ordinary day when she got up that morning, but Lynda was about to embark on the worst day of her life. First, she fell in the bathtub because her mother forgot to rinse out the bath oil. Then Lynda spilled orange juice on the outfit she had spent hours putting together for her school pictures. When she changed, she messed up the French braid her mother had put in her hair. She dropped all of her school books as she walked out the door and her math homework flew away in the wind. Once she made it to the car, she thought everything would be all right. She was wrong: her father didn't look before he backed out of the driveway and ran into the neighbor’s truck. Lynda’s side of the car was damaged the most, and she ended up with a broken arm. That night, she cried herself to sleep. 1. Is there a topic sentence in this paragraph? What about a concluding sentence? What’s the main idea? 2. Are all of the details in the paragraph relevant? Why or why not? Problem‐to‐Solution Order: Several students receive poor grades on writing assignments, not because they lack the ability to communicate but because they cannot seem to manage their time when it comes to a large project. They do not know where to begin and therefore put things off until the last minute. To solve this problem, students need to develop a timeline for completing the project. If they divide the assignment into manageable “chunks” or parts and then set a schedule for completing each part, they will be able to finish the entire project before the deadline. Without the pressure of not knowing where to begin, the students will be able to focus on the assignment and communicate their ideas effectively. 1. What is the problem presented in the paragraph? What is the solution? 2. What rhetorical strategy does the writer use to develop his/her idea? Spatial Order I couldn’t believe my eyes when we finally emerged from the storm shelter. Where the barn once stood there was now only a few tufts of hay, the path that led to the house was scattered with branches and debris, and the entire roof of the house was gone. The north wall was caved in and we could see right into the house—what was left of it. Tears rolled down my cheeks as I noticed that most of our belongings had been sucked up into the great vacuum and scattered across the countryside. We heard a loud cracking and moaning as the west wall gave way and collapsed, sending up a wave of dust. And yet, there in the middle of the front yard was mother’s prized rose bush, swaying in the breeze as if nothing had happened. Seeing it made me realize how lucky we were to be alive. We stood there in dismay, our arms locked around one another. 1. This is a paragraph without a clear topic sentence. What, then, is the main idea? How do you know? 2. What rhetorical strategies does the writer use to develop the idea? Name more than one. Sequential Order The first step in redesigning your closet is to take everything out and sort through it. Anything you haven’t worn in over a year should be given to charity. Check garments for wear and tear and take care of anything that needs mending. If it is beyond repair, get rid of it. The second step is to install a closet organizer. Choose one that will hold the different types of garments in your wardrobe. The third step is to put items in the closet so that those you wear most often are easy to access. The final step is to stay organized. Put garments back in their appropriate places so that you will be able to find them. 1. This is another paragraph without a clear topic sentence. Is there a main idea? What is it? How do you know? 2. How would you describe the “flow” of this paragraph? Is it smooth, easy to read? Why or why not? Order of Familiarity African‐Americans know what it is like to be underestimated because of the color of their skin. For example, a black person who communicates with others using in Standard English are often praised unduly for how well they speak. This is also an occurrence too often experienced by Asian‐Americans as well, including those born and bred in the U.S.A. And black folk know what it is like to be feared, pitied, admired, and scorned simply on account of our race before we even have a chance to “boo!” We, in turn, view white people through the prism of our own race based expectations. I honestly am surprised every time I see a white man who can play basketball above the rim, just as Puerto Ricans and Cubans tend to be surprised to discover “Americans” who salsa truly well. All of which is to say that the notion that every individual is judged solely on personal merit, without regard for sociological wrapping, is mythical at best. 1. What is the main idea of this paragraph? Where is it? How do you know? 2. What rhetorical strategies does the writer use to develop his/her ideas? Order of Frequency, Order of Complexity, Order of Audience Awareness or Audience Acceptance These are most often used at the essay (not paragraph) level because the ideas are often too complex to combine within single paragraphs. 中国 中⽂文 中英双语 英⽂文 特写 中国崛起和“⾃自由贸易”衰落之谜 The Rise of China and the Fall of the ‘Free Trade’ Myth 潘卡伊·⽶米什拉 2018年2⽉月7⽇日 PHOTO ILLUSTRATIONS BY TAMARA SHOPSIN ‘America first does not mean America alone,” President Trump declared last month at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. This sudden burst of pragmatism from an avowed nationalist showed what a difference a year can make. Denouncing the “false song of globalism” during his presidential campaign, Trump, on his third full day in office, canceled the Trans-Pacific Partnership, a regional trade deal with Japan and 10 other countries. He then denounced Canada, Germany and South Korea for exporting more to the United States than they import. He promised to renegotiate trade pacts with Europe, Canada and Mexico and get a better deal for American workers. In Davos, however, he reached out with conciliatory words to the very free-trading and globalizing elites he has consistently maligned. 特朗普总统上个⽉月在瑞⼠士达沃斯举⾏行的世界经济论坛(World Economic Forum)上 宣布:“美国第⼀一并不意味着美国独⾃自⽽而⾏行。”来⾃自⼀一名公开宣称的民族主义者的 实⽤用主义突然爆发,显⽰示了⼀一年的时间产⽣生的影响。在总统竞选期间,特朗普谴 责“全球主义虚假之歌”;在上任的第三天,他就取消了美国与⽇日本和其他⼗十个国 家达成的跨太平洋伙伴关系协定(Trans-Pacific Partnership,简称TPP);接下 来,他谴责了加拿⼤大、德国和韩国向美国出⼝口的商品⽐比它们从美国进⼝口的多;他 誓⾔言要与欧洲、加拿⼤大和墨⻄西哥重新谈判贸易协定,为美国⼯工⼈人争取更多的好 处。然⽽而,在达沃斯,他却向恰是那些提倡⾃自由贸易和全球化的精英伸出了橄榄 枝。 Clearly, Trump’s views on trade and globalization have evolved since his insurgent campaign. This may well be because of the rapid gains in the past year of a country he did not mention by name. In fact, Trump chose in Davos to affirm that “America is open for business” because it was in these same Alpine heights, three days before Trump was inaugurated as president, that China seized the opportunity to claim leadership of the global economy. With the United States seemingly in a protectionist crouch, China had become, despite all its problems, indispensable. “In a world marked by great uncertainty and volatility, the international community is looking to China,” Klaus Schwab, the founder of the World Economic Forum, said last year while introducing his guest, the Chinese president and general secretary of China’s Communist Party, Xi Jinping. 显然,特朗普在贸易和全球化问题上的观点,与他在竞选活动期间所持有的造反 式的观点相⽐比,已经有所改变。这很可能是因为⼀一个他未指名的国家在过去⼀一年 ⾥里迅速得到的利益。事实上,特朗普选择在达沃斯申明“美国对商业敞开⼤大⻔门”, 是因为在特朗普就任总统的三天之前,同在这个阿尔卑斯⼭山⼩小镇,中国抓住这个 机会宣称⾃自⼰己是全球经济的领导者。在美国看似要退到贸易保护主义的⾓角落时, 中国尽管有各种各样的问题,但已经变得必不可少。“在⼀一个充满不确定性和动荡 的世界,国际社会正在对中国表⽰示期待,”世界经济论坛创始⼈人克劳斯·施⽡瓦布 (Klaus Schwab)去年介绍他的嘉宾,中国国家主席、中国共产党总书记习近平时 说。 As the usual gaggle of hedge-funders, Silicon Valley executives and government officials looked on, Xi rose to defend free trade and globalization against the relentless attacks of Trump. “Some people blame economic globalization for the chaos in our world,” Xi said. “One should not retreat to the harbor when encountering a storm, for this will never get us to the other shore of the ocean.” Xi then confidently quoted Dickens. “ ‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.’ These are the words used by the English writer Charles Dickens to describe the world after the Industrial Revolution. Today, we also live in a world of contradictions.” 在⼀一群对冲基⾦金⾏行家、硅⾕谷⾼高管和政府官员组成的惯常听众⾯面前,习近平站出来 捍卫⾃自由贸易和全球化,抵制特朗普的⽆无情攻击。“有⼀一种观点,把世界乱象归咎 于经济全球化,”习近平说。“不能⼀一遇到⻛风浪就退回到港湾中去,那是永远不能 到达彼岸的。”习近平还⾃自信地引⽤用了查尔斯·狄更斯的名著。“‘这是最好的时代, 也是最坏的时代’,英国⽂文学家狄更斯曾这样描述⼯工业⾰革命发⽣生后的世界。今天, 我们也⽣生活在⼀一个⽭矛盾的世界之中。” Never mind that Dickens was actually describing the world before the French Revolution. Xi’s claim of openness was, to say the least, riddled with contradictions of its own. It is increasingly difficult for foreign companies to do business in China; Beijing’s “Made in China 2025” industrial policy aims to increase “indigenous innovation” and self-reliance. When Trump, a year later in Davos, denounced such “unfair economic practices” as “industrial subsidies and pervasive state-led economic planning,” there was little doubt which nation he had in mind. 且不说狄更斯实际上是在描述法国⼤大⾰革命前的世界。⾄至少可以说,习近平宣称开 放,这本⾝身就充满了⽭矛盾。外国公司在中国做⽣生意正变得越来越难;北京的《中 国制造2025》产业政策旨在提⾼高“⾃自主创新”和⾃自⼒力更⽣生。特朗普⼀一年后在达沃斯 把这种“不公平的经济做法”谴责为“⼯工业补贴以及⽆无所不在的、国家主导的经济计 划”时,他⼼心⾥里想着哪个国家⼏几乎是毫⽆无疑问的。 ⼲⼴广告 Yet Xi is entitled to some of his rhetorical point-scoring. The financial crisis of 2008 greatly weakened the American economy, but it left China relatively unscathed. More important, China, whose share of world trade in the mid-1970s was less than 0.5 percent, is today the world’s leading exporter — the hub of new and increasingly dense transcontinental trading networks that bypass the United States. “When the United States grows, so does the world,” Trump claimed in Davos. But America’s status as the linchpin of the global economic order is now endangered. The trading system China dominates has reduced the long dependency of Latin American and sub-Saharan African countries on American and European markets. China is now bringing to a close the first phase of globalization, begun by Europe and the United States in the 19th century. In the process, it is making East Asia the new center of the world economy. 不过,习近平有资格赢得⾔言辞上的⼀一些胜利。虽然2008年的⾦金融危机极⼤大地削弱 了美国经济,但中国相对来说并未受到伤害。更重要的是,1970年代中期在世界 贸易中所占份额还不到0.5%的中国,如今是世界上主要的出⼝口国,也是⼀一个不包 括美国的、⽇日益密集的跨⼤大陆新贸易⺴⽹网络的枢纽。“美国增⻓长时,世界也增 ⻓长,”特朗普在达沃斯宣称。但是,美国在全球经济秩序中的关键地位,如今正⾯面 临着危险。中国主导的贸易体系已经减少了拉丁美洲和撒哈拉以南⾮非洲国家对美 国和欧洲市场的⻓长期依赖。中国如今正在终结始于19世纪的欧洲和美国的第⼀一个 全球化进程。在这个过程中,中国正在把东亚变成世界经济的新中⼼心。 It has fallen upon Trump, as president of the United States, to respond to this momentous historic shift, and he has done so with his characteristic mix of threats, boasts and volte-faces. But to grasp China’s economic achievement, and its ramifications, it is imperative to ask: Why has a market economy directed by a Communist state become the world’s second-largest? Or, to rephrase the question: Why shouldn’t it have? Why shouldn’t China’s rise have happened the way it did, with state-led economic planning, industrial subsidies and little or no regard for the rules of “free trade”? 回应这⼀一重⼤大历史性转变的任务,落到了担任美国总统的特朗普⾝身上,他⽤用他特 有的威胁、⼤大话和180度⼤大转弯的结合已经做出了回应。但是,要理解中国的经 济成就及其难以预料的后果的话,⼈人们必须要问:⼀一个共产主义国家领导的市场 经济,为什么成了世界第⼆二⼤大经济体?或者换个问题:为什么它不应该成为世界 第⼆二⼤大经济体?为什么中国的崛起不应该像实际发⽣生的那样——国家主导的经济 计划、⼯工业补贴,以及基本上或根本不考虑“⾃自由贸易”规则——发⽣生了呢? The economic success of East Asian countries like Japan in the 20th century had already invalidated the article of faith invoked by Trump in Davos: that nations can advance only by eliminating barriers to the free movement of goods and capital and by minimizing the role of government in the economy. But these historical lessons have long been obscured by economic orthodoxy, one that Trump’s — and China’s — unexpected ascents have now exposed to critical scrutiny. 东亚国家的经济成功,⽐比如⽇日本在20世纪的成功例⼦子,已经推翻了特朗普在达沃 斯引⽤用的信条:即只有通过消除商品和资本⾃自由流动的壁垒、将政府在经济中的 作⽤用最⼩小化,才能推动各国的经济发展。但是⻓长期以来,经济学的正统观念⼀一直 掩盖了这些历史教训,只是在特朗普——以及中国——上升到出⼈人意料的⾼高度之 后,这些教训如今才得以受到批判性的审视。 In his most recent book, “Straight Talk on Trade,” the Harvard professor Dani Rodrik castigates fellow economists for holding fast to a simple-minded view of free trade and globalization, one that he believes has caused economic chaos and political backlash across the West. “Are economists,” he asks, “responsible for Donald Trump’s shocking victory in the U.S. presidential election?” This might be overstating the case. But it is true that the argument that free markets equal progress was most eloquently and influentially advocated by the American economist Milton Friedman. 哈佛⼤大学教授丹尼·罗德⾥里克(Dani Rodrik)在他的新书《开诚布公谈贸易》 (Straight Talk on Trade)中,对⾃自⼰己的经济学同⾏行在⾃自由贸易和全球化问题上坚 持⼀一种头脑简单的观念进⾏行了严厉的批评。他认为,这种观念已经在整个⻄西⽅方世 界引发了经济混乱和政治反弹。他问到:“经济学家对唐纳德·特朗普在美国总统 ⼤大选中令⼈人震惊地获胜有责任吗?”这也许夸⼤大了事实。但是,⾃自由市场等于进步 的论点最为雄辩、最有影响⼒力的倡导者,是美国经济学家⽶米尔顿·弗⾥里德曼 (Milton Friedman)。 The paradoxes of China’s rise today are best illuminated by Friedman’s querulous visit to the country in 1980, when China was desperately poor. The Nobel laureate from Chicago was then cementing his reputation as an apostle of free markets. He had just published “Free to Choose,” a book that was written with his wife, Rose, and later turned into a television series featuring, among others, Ronald Reagan, Arnold Schwarzenegger and Donald Rumsfeld. Friedman’s argument, that “the world runs on individuals pursuing their separate interests,” would shape American economic policy for decades to come. He helped disparage the idea, exemplified most vividly by Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, that government had a legitimate, and often indispensable, role to play in advancing economic development and protecting the vulnerable. As his keen disciple Reagan famously put it, “Government is not the solution to our problem; government is the problem.” 最能展⽰示中国今天的崛起这个⽭矛盾现象的,是弗⾥里德曼1980年对中国进⾏行的⼀一次 不愉快的访问,那时中国极度贫困。这位来⾃自芝加哥的诺⻉贝尔奖获得者当时正在 巩固⾃自⼰己作为⾃自由市场⿎鼓吹者的声誉。他刚刚发表了与妻⼦子罗斯(Rose)合著的 《选择的⾃自由》(Free to Choose)⼀一书,这本书后来变成了⼀一部电视系列⽚片,罗纳 德·⾥里根(Ronald Reagan)、阿诺德·施⽡瓦⾟辛格(Arnold Schwarzenegger)和唐纳德· 拉姆斯菲尔德(Donald Rumsfeld)等⼈人都曾出现在⽚片⼦子中。弗⾥里德曼的观点 是:“世界的运⾏行依靠分别追求⾃自⾝身利益的个体。”这个观点后来塑造了⼏几⼗十年的 美国经济政策。他在贬低另⼀一种观点上起了推波助澜的作⽤用,富兰克林·罗斯福 (Franklin Roosevelt)的新政最为⽣生动地体现了那种观点,即政府在促进经济发展 和保护弱势群体上有合法的、⽽而且往往不可或缺的作⽤用。弗⾥里德曼的追随者⾥里根 的⼀一句名⾔言是:“政府并⾮非解决问题的⽅方法;政府本⾝身才是问题所在。” Friedman’s fervent advocacy of free trade and the efficiency of unregulated markets gave intellectual ballast to the so-called Washington Consensus. Free markets, the thinking went, not only generated wealth for all nations but also maximized consumer choice, reduced prices and optimized the use of scarce resources. Friedman’s faith in the efficiency of markets came to constitute what John Stuart Mill referred to as “the deep slumber of a decided opinion.” 弗⾥里德曼对⾃自由贸易以及不受监管的市场效率的热情倡导,给所谓的华盛顿共识 提供了智⼒力⽀支撑。这种思维认为,⾃自由市场不仅为所有的国家创造财富,同时也 给消费者带来最⼤大化的选择,使价格降低,让稀缺资源得到最优化的使⽤用。弗⾥里 德曼对市场效率的信⼼心,达到了构成约翰·斯图尔特·密尔(John Stuart Mill)称之 为“既定意⻅见的沉睡”的程度。 Friedman was the most influential proponent of free trade since Adam Smith declared it, in 1776, the basis of the wealth of nations. But in 1980, few people in China, including the academics who invited Friedman to a lecture tour, knew that their American guest was an impatient, even volatile, ideologue. 弗⾥里德曼是亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)之后最具影响⼒力的⾃自由贸易⽀支持者——后者在 1776年宣称⾃自由贸易是国家财富的基⽯石。但在1980年,包括邀请他来做巡回演讲 的学者在内的中国⼈人⼤大多没意识到,他们的这位美国嘉宾是⼀一个没有耐⼼心、甚⾄至 反复⽆无常的意识形态论者。 ⼲⼴广告 A series of (often comical) misunderstandings ensued. Friedman complained about the Chinese man with a “terrible body odor” who received him at the Beijing airport; the man turned out to be one of his academic hosts. Friedman’s lectures in praise of free markets were met with bewilderment. His assertion that capitalism was superior to socialism disturbed the Chinese greatly. Some of the more agitated Chinese economists went in a delegation to Friedman’s hotel to lecture him about the achievements of their regime. 随后发⽣生了⼀一系列(往往滑稽可笑)的误会。弗⾥里德曼抱怨到北京机场接他的那 个中国男⼈人有“可怕的体味”,结果发现此⼈人是招待他的学者之⼀一。弗⾥里德曼颂扬 ⾃自由市场的讲座引发了迷惑。他断⾔言资本主义优于社会主义,这令中国⼈人⼤大为不 安。⼀一些⽐比较激动的中国经济学家结队前往弗⾥里德曼下榻的酒店,向他讲述他们 的制度取得的成就。 Friedman, who (erroneously) saw Japan and South Korea as brilliant examples of open, competitive markets, was understandably impatient in China; the country embodied everything that was wrong with government planning. Indeed, China in 1980 was just lurching out of Mao Zedong’s calamitous experiments. Deng Xiaoping’s government was trying to improvise new solutions to the country’s economic backwardness, which officials thought had exposed China to humiliation in the 19th and early 20th centuries. “Development,” Deng said, “is the only truth. If we don’t develop, we will be bullied.” And national development, in Deng’s view, could be achieved by a variety of means. His flexible attitude was summed up by a much-popularized Chinese maxim: “Cross the river by feeling for the stones.” 弗⾥里德曼(错误地)将⽇日本和韩国视为开放的竞争性市场的杰出榜样,所以他在 中国的不耐烦是可以理解的。这个国家体现了政府规划的所有错误。实际上, 1980年的中国正在努⼒力⾛走出⽑毛泽东的灾难性实验。当时,邓⼩小平政府正试图为中 国的经济落后找出新的解决⽅方案——官员们认为,中国在19世纪和20世纪初遭受 的屈辱正是经济落后造成的。邓⼩小平说,“发展才是硬道理。不发展就会受⼈人欺 负。”在他看来,国家发展可以通过多种⼿手段实现。他灵活的态度可以⽤用⼀一句⼲⼴广为 流传的中国谚语概括:“摸着⽯石头过河”。 The Chinese couldn’t help bristling at Friedman’s blunt dismissals of their government. Despite horrific disasters, the Chinese state had drastically raised literacy and life-expectancy levels. Also, the Chinese were then seeking a third way: They looked to Japan and Singapore rather than the United States for economic models that would accelerate growth without endangering the authority of the Communist Party. The Chinese saw little of value in an American proponent of laissez faire. Friedman left China, angrily claiming that his hosts were “unbelievably ignorant about how a market or capitalist system works.” 弗⾥里德曼对中国政府毫不掩饰的轻视,让中国⼈人很愤怒。尽管发⽣生了可怕的⾃自然 灾害,中国政府还是⼤大幅提⾼高了国民识字率和预期寿命。⽽而且,中国当时正在寻 求第三条道路:他们开始参照⽇日本和新加坡——⽽而⾮非美国——的经济模式,以期在 不威胁共产党政权的情况下加快经济增⻓长。当时,中国⼈人认为,美国对⾃自由贸易 的⽀支持毫⽆无价值。弗⾥里德曼离开了中国,愤怒地宣称他的东道主“对市场或资本主 义制度运作⽅方式的⽆无知令⼈人难以置信”。 Friedman died in 2006, shortly before the financial crisis of 2007 and 2008. The extensive political aftershocks of that crisis arguably include the election of a protectionist to the highest office in the United States, who has threatened to cancel decades of commitments to free trade at the risk of alienating his country’s closest allies. 弗⾥里德曼于2006年去世,就在2007年和2008年⾦金融危机爆发前不久。⼀一个保护 主义者当选为美国最⾼高官员,可以说也是那场危机产⽣生的⼲⼴广泛政治影响的⼀一部 分,此⼈人冒着疏远他的国家最亲密盟友的⻛风险,威胁要终⽌止美国数⼗十年来对⾃自由 贸易的承诺。 As bewildered (and appalled) as Friedman would most likely have been by Trump’s demonization of free trade, he would have found it still harder to explain why China, run by a Communist Party, has emerged as central to the global capitalist economy. For the Chinese regime achieved this not by liberating its 1.4 billion citizens to maximize their private interests in unfettered markets but by controlling its currency, owning large businesses and intervening heavily in investment decisions by private companies. 如果弗⾥里德曼还活着,他很可能会被特朗普对⾃自由贸易的妖魔化感到迷惑(和震 惊),不过让他更难理解的恐怕是共产党领导的中国会成为全球资本主义经济的 中⼼心。因为中国政府不是通过让它的14亿国民在不受约束的市场上实现个⼈人私利 最⼤大化来做到这⼀一点,⽽而是通过控制货币和⼤大型企业,以及⼤大量干预私营企业的 投资决策。 Indeed, economic history reveals that great economic powers have always become great because of activist states. Regardless of the mystical properties claimed for it, the invisible hand of self-interest depends on the visible and often heavy hand of government. To take only one instance, British gunboats helped impose free trade on 19th-century China — a lesson not lost on the Chinese. Britain was protectionist before it was a free-trading nation. The United States itself was, while industrializing, the “mother country,” as the economic historian Paul Bairoch wrote, “and bastion of modern protectionism.” Its average tariffs in the late 19th century were nearly as high — 45 percent — as the steepest ones Trump has slapped on imports of washing machines. The philosophical father of economic protectionism is, in fact, Alexander Hamilton, the founder of the American financial system, whose pupils included the Germans, the Japanese and, indirectly, the Chinese. 事实上从经济史可以看到,强⼤大的经济实⼒力都是积极的国家干预促成的。尽管⾃自 称有着神秘的特性,私利的⽆无形之⼿手取决于政府有形的、往往强硬的⼿手。仅举⼀一 例,英国的炮艇迫使19世纪的中国实⾏行⾃自由贸易——这是中国⼈人不会忘记的教 训。英国在成为⾃自由贸易国家之前,也是贸易保护主义国家。正如经济史学家保 罗·巴罗奇(Paul Bairoch)写的,美国本⾝身当时虽然在⼯工业化,但它是“现代保护主 义的⺟母国”和“堡垒”。在19世纪后期,美国的平均关税⾼高达45%,和特朗普给进⼝口 洗⾐衣机设定的最⾼高关税⼏几乎相当。事实上,经济保护主义的哲学之⽗父是美国⾦金融 体系的创始⼈人亚历⼭山⼤大·汉密尔顿(Alexander Hamilton),他的学⽣生包括德国⼈人、 ⽇日本⼈人以及——间接地——中国⼈人。 No story is as instructive as that of the Japanese, arguably the most diligent of Hamilton’s disciples. Post-1945 Japan preceded China as the hub of regional and intercontinental trade networks. Soon after its disastrous part in World War II, Japan helped revitalize Asia and by the mid ’90s was the biggest investor and exporter in most East Asian countries; it gave more foreign aid and sent more tourists to them and was the biggest buyer of their raw commodities. What’s more, it offered a model for development that combined a market economy with state intervention — one that China was even then beginning to learn from. 没有哪个故事像⽇日本⼈人的故事那样具有教育意义——⽇日本⼈人可以说是汉密尔顿最 勤奋的⻔门徒。1945年后,⽇日本领先于中国,成为地区和洲际贸易⺴⽹网络的中⼼心。在 ⼆二战中扮演灾难性的⾓角⾊色后不久,⽇日本帮助振兴了亚洲,到了90年代中期,⽇日本 成为⼤大多数东亚国家中最⼤大的投资者和出⼝口国;它提供的外国援助最多,向其他 东亚国家输送的游客最多,也是它们出产的原材料的最⼤大买家。更重要的是,它 提供了⼀一种发展模式,将市场经济与国家干预相结合——当时,中国才刚开始学 习这种模式。 ⼲⼴广告 How did Japan, a country devastated by a world war that had few natural resources of its own, achieve economic primacy in Asia? Friedman’s explanation in “Free to Choose” was that “free trade set off a process that revolutionized Japan and the lives of its people.” Francis Fukuyama, who proclaimed the end of history in 1989, credited Japan’s success to “economic liberalism” of the kind espoused by Adam Smith. But the Japanese followed a very different model, one adopted from Hamilton. 作为⼀一个被世界⼤大战摧毁、⼏几乎没有⾃自然资源的国家,⽇日本是如何成为亚洲主要 的经济强国的?弗⾥里德曼在《选择的⾃自由》⼀一书中对此的解释是:“⾃自由贸易引发 了⼀一场⾰革命,彻底改变了⽇日本和⽇日本⼈人民的⽣生活。”1989年宣布历史终结的弗朗 ⻄西斯·福⼭山(Francis Fukuyama)将⽇日本的成功归因于亚当·斯密推崇的“经济⾃自由主 义”。不过,⽇日本⼈人遵循的其实是⼀一种⾃自汉密尔顿变化⽽而来的⾮非常不同的模式。 Japan learned early the political risks of economic stagnation. At the height of 19th-century imperialism, it signed a humiliating treaty that subjected its trade policy to the control of five Western powers, deprived it of the right to impose tariffs, set radically low import duties and gave foreign residents in trading ports extraterritorial status. Smarting from such insults, the conservative Meiji rulers of Japan became obsessed with regaining their sovereignty and protecting themselves from foreign tormentors. ⽇日本很早就知道经济停滞的政治⻛风险。在19世纪帝国主义的⿍鼎盛时期,它签署了 ⼀一项耻辱的条约,将⾃自⼰己的贸易政策置于五个⻄西⽅方强国的控制之下,失去了征收 关税的权利,设定了极低的进⼝口税,并赋予贸易⼝口岸的外国居民治外法权。这些 侮辱令⽇日本极其痛苦,保守的明治政府⼀一⼼心想恢复主权,保护⾃自⼰己不受外国欺凌 者伤害。 In this endeavor, they looked to Germany. Unified in 1871, Germany was scrambling to catch up with industrialized Britain. To do so, it borrowed from recipes of national development proposed by Hamilton soon after the Americans broke free of their British overlords. In his “Report on the Subject of Manufactures,” submitted to Congress in 1791, Hamilton used the potent term “infant” industries to argue for economic protectionism. Hamilton’s father was Scottish. Born in the West Indies, then a British colony, Hamilton was keenly aware of how the British practiced protectionism: preventing colonies from competing while selling their own goods around the world. In his view, infant nations needed room to maneuver before they could compete with established industrial powers. The United States embraced many of Hamilton’s recommendations; the beneficiaries were, first, the textile and iron industries and then steel. 在这件事上,他们把⺫⽬目光转向了德国。于1871年实现统⼀一的德国在奋⼒力赶超已实 现⼯工业化的英国。为了追赶英国,德国借鉴了汉密尔顿在美国脱离英国宗主后不 久提出的国家发展⽅方案。在1791年提交给国会的《关于制造业的报告》(Report on the Subject of Manufactures)中,汉密尔顿采⽤用了“婴⼉儿”产业这个有⼒力的说 法,希望推⾏行经济保护主义。汉密尔顿的⽗父亲是苏格兰⼈人。出⽣生在当时属于英国 殖民地的⻄西印度群岛的汉密尔顿敏锐地意识到,英国⼈人是如何实⾏行保护主义的: 阻⽌止殖民地的竞争,并把⾃自⼰己的商品销往世界各地。在他看来,在与⽼老牌⼯工业强 国竞争之前,婴⼉儿国家要有回旋的余地。美国采纳了汉密尔顿的很多建议,受益 的⾸首先是纺织和炼铁⾏行业,然后是炼钢⾏行业。 It was Hamilton’s formula, rather than free trade, that made the United States the world’s fastest-growing economy in the 19th century and into the 1920s. And that formula was embraced by other nations coming late to international economic competition. Hamilton’s most influential student was a German economist named Friedrich List, who lived in the United States from 1825 until the 1830s and wrote a book titled “Outlines of American Political Economy.” On his return to Germany, List attacked the free-market gospel preached by Britain as sheer opportunism. In his view, the British could afford to kick away the ladder of protectionism they had climbed to the summit of global industry and manufacture. He was all for free trade, but only after young industries had been nurtured in a protective environment. Applying List’s lessons, Germany moved with spectacular speed from an agrarian to an industrial economy. 是汉密尔顿的⽅方案⽽而不是⾃自由贸易让美国成为了19世纪增⻓长最快的经济体,并⼀一 直持续到20世纪20年代。这个⽅方案也被参与国际经济竞争较晚的另⼀一些国家所接 受。汉密尔顿最有影响⼒力的学⽣生是德国经济学家弗⾥里德⾥里希·李斯特(Friedrich List)。从1825年开始到1830年代,他⼀一直在美国⽣生活,并写了⼀一本名为《美国政 治经济⼤大纲》(Outlines of American Political Economy)的书。⼀一回到德国,李斯 特便抨击英国宣扬的⾃自由市场信条,称其是⼗十⾜足的机会主义。在他看来,英国有 实⼒力,可以把当初⾃自⼰己登上全球⼯工业和制造业巅峰所⽤用的保护主义梯⼦子踢开。他 完全赞成⾃自由贸易,但必须先在保护性的环境下扶持年轻⾏行业。德国吸取李斯特 的经验,以惊⼈人的速度从农业经济向⼯工业经济转变。 PHOTO ILLUSTRATION BY TAMARA SHOPSIN. The stakes were higher for Japan. There was hardly a country in Asia that had not been forced by Britain, Holland and France into unequal trade agreements. Economic liberalism was not a feasible option. The visible hand — the state rather than the market — was needed to guide development. Closely following Germany’s example, Japan heavily subsidized its first factories, copied British design and imported foreign machinery and engineers. It not only protected many of its businesses from excessive competition but also guaranteed them a minimum profit. ⽇日本的赌注更⾼高。亚洲⼏几乎没有哪个国家不曾被迫与英国、荷兰和法国签过不平 等贸易协定。经济⾃自由主义不是⼀一个可⾏行的选择。需要⼀一双看得⻅见的⼿手——国 家,⽽而⾮非市场——来引导发展。紧随德国的先例,⽇日本⼤大⼒力补贴了第⼀一批⼯工⼚厂, 模仿英国的设计,引进外国机械和⼯工程师。这不仅防⽌止了许多⽇日本企业陷⼊入过度 激烈的竞争,也保证了企业的最低利润。 When World War I disrupted Europe’s monopolies in its Asian colonies, Japanese companies moved in with their textiles, bicycles and canned foods. Following Europe’s free-trading imperialists, Japan had invaded and occupied Taiwan and then Korea, turning them into protected markets for its small industries. In a further refinement, the Japanese state bribed and coerced manufacturing companies. It gave them subsidies to export more, which in turn helped the companies fund innovations and become internationally competitive. 第⼀一次世界⼤大战打乱了欧洲在亚洲殖民地的垄断地位后,⽇日本公司的纺织品、⾃自 ⾏行⻋车和罐头⾷食品随之涌⼊入。紧随欧洲的⾃自由贸易帝国主义,⽇日本侵占了台湾和朝 鲜半岛,将其变作本国⼩小型产业的保护市场。为了进⼀一步改进,⽇日本政府还收买 和逼迫制造业公司。它向企业提供补贴以加⼤大出⼝口,从⽽而能为企业创新提供资 ⾦金,使其具备国际竞争⼒力。 ⼲⼴广告 World War II proved only a brief interruption in Japan’s policy of protection. Utterly devastated, Japan still managed to rid Asia of its European competitors. It was during the American occupation, as the historian John Dower notes, that Japan instituted what an economist described as the most “restrictive foreigntrade and foreign-exchange control system ever devised by a major free nation.” 第⼆二次世界⼤大战只是暂时中断了⽇日本的保护主义政策。虽然⽇日本被彻底摧毁,但 仍设法让亚洲摆脱了欧洲的竞争对⼿手。如历史学家约翰·道尔(John Dower)所指出 的,正是在美国占领期间,⽇日本建⽴立了被⼀一名经济学家称为“⼀一个⾃自由国家设计的 有史以来最⼤大、最具限制性的外贸和外汇控制系统”。 Given unlimited powers by their American occupiers to get the country going again, the bureaucrats of Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry laid the foundations of a world-class manufacturing economy. Nationalism was a great stimulus. As Dower put it, “National pride — acute, wounded, wedded to a profound sense of vulnerability — lay behind the single-minded pursuit of economic growth that created a momentary superpower a mere quarter-century after humiliating defeat.” But Japan would have struggled had war not erupted on the Korean Peninsula in 1950 and made Japan the main source of American procurements. The path of Japan’s protectionist state was now set — the country’s prime minister, Shigeru Yoshida, would call the destructive Korean War a “gift of the gods.” 为了让⽇日本重新运转起来,⽇日本通商产业省的官僚们被美国占领者赋予了⽆无限的 权⼒力,这让他们为⼀一个世界⼀一流的制造业经济打下了基础。民族主义是⼀一种巨⼤大 的经济刺激。正如道尔所⾔言,“在敏锐的、受伤的、与深刻的脆弱感融为⼀一体的民 族⾃自豪感背后,隐藏着对经济增⻓长的执着追求,(让⽇日本)在经历了屈辱的失败 之后仅仅四分之⼀一个世纪⾥里,创造出了⼀一个⼀一时的超级⼤大国。”但是,如果没有 1950年爆发的朝鲜半岛战争,让⽇日本成为美国采购的主要来源的话,⽇日本会⾯面临 更多的困难。朝鲜战争成就了⽇日本的贸易保护主义国家道路——时任⽇日本⾸首相的 吉⽥田茂将这场破坏性的战争称为“⽼老天的礼物”。 In the 1950s, Korea and Taiwan, both former Japanese colonies, inherited Japan’s institutions and protectionist practices. This was most striking in Korea, which was intensely poor in the early 1950s; its few industries were built by Japan during the 1930s. South Korea, too, found solutions for its problems in Friedrich List rather than Adam Smith. The country’s leader, Park Chung-hee, the military general who came to power in 1961, had worked for the Japanese colonialist regime. A fervent autodidact, Park was also deeply familiar with German theories of protectionism. (The economist Robert Wade reported coming across whole shelves of books by List in Seoul bookstores in the 1970s.) During his long years in power, Park nurtured South Korea’s chaebol business groups — Hyundai, Daewoo and Samsung — and boldly ventured into steelmaking. 1950年代,均曾是⽇日本殖民地的韩国和台湾,继承了⽇日本的制度和保护主义做 法。这⼀一点在韩国最为显著,韩国在1950年代早期⾮非常贫困;韩国仅有的⼏几个⼯工 业都是⽇日本在1930年代建⽴立起来的。韩国也是在弗⾥里德⾥里希·李斯特那⾥里、⽽而不是 亚当·斯密那⾥里,找到了解决⾃自⾝身问题的⽅方案。1961年上台的韩国领导⼈人朴正熙将 军曾为⽇日本殖民政权⼯工作。朴正熙热衷于⾃自学,他对德国的保护主义理论也⾮非常 熟悉。(经济学家罗伯特·⻙韦德[Robert Wade]曾在1970年代的汉城书店⾥里看到过 整书架的李斯特的著述。)朴正熙在⾃自⼰己掌权的多年时间⾥里培育了韩国的财阀商 业集团——现代、⼤大宇和三星,还⼤大胆地涉⾜足钢铁制造。 Because the United States saw Korea, Taiwan and Japan as a buffer against Communism, it helped promote such neomercantilist strategies — a mix of import substitution and export-oriented industrialization. American cold warriors also gave their strategic allies unhindered access to U.S. markets while tolerating the closure of their own to American investment. By the time the United States realized that its biggest Asian ward had grown too big, it was too late. Japan had taken many products invented in the United States (automobiles, consumer electronics) and manufactured them more cheaply and with superior quality. By the 1980s, Japan had supplanted the United States in aid and investments in East Asia. When the United States sought to limit Japanese exports, the Japanese responded by deepening their investment in Asia, moving factories and improving industrial skills and technology wherever they went. 因为美国把韩国、台湾和⽇日本看作是对抗共产主义的缓冲地带,美国帮助推动了 这种新的重商主义——⼀一种进⼝口替代与以出⼝口为导向的⼯工业化的组合。美国的冷 战⽃斗⼠士们也让他们的战略盟友不受阻碍地进⼊入了美国市场,同时容忍了这些国家 对美国投资关闭⾃自⼰己的市场。当美国意识到其最⼤大的亚洲保护对象变得过于强⼤大 时,已经太晚了。⽇日本已经拿⾛走了美国发明的许多产品(汽⻋车、消费电⼦子产 品),并以更低的造价和更⾼高的质量⽣生产它们。到了1980年代,⽇日本已在对东亚 援助和投资上取代了美国。当美国试图限制⽇日本对美国的出⼝口时,⽇日本的反应是 加⼤大他们在亚洲的投资,把⼯工⼚厂转移到这些地区,提⾼高了这些地区的⼯工业能⼒力和 技术⽔水平。 In 1994, when I first left India to travel to Southeast Asia, I found Japan everywhere, as both promise and rebuke. The renovation of Thailand, South Korea and Taiwan under Japanese auspices was then an established fact — and a standing reproach for us in India, which had failed to match East Asia’s success in manufacturing and trade. Like most countries in the world after 1945, France as much as Japan, India embraced a model of state-led development. Its aim, as in many nations liberated from colonial rule, was not so much the growth of private wealth as the strengthening of national power. Friedman described Indians in “Free to Choose” as deluded followers of Mahatma Gandhi, idly spinning cotton in cottage industries subsidized by the state. India, he said, was blind to industrialization and, furthermore, believed in central planning. This was a caricature: India had an ambitious industrialization program, and its economy mixed private markets with state-owned enterprises, even if its historical experience of British rule predisposed it to suspect that free trade benefited only developed industrial economies. Nevertheless, Friedman was broadly right in his view of India as a social and economic laggard. 1994年,当我第⼀一次离开印度去东南亚旅⾏行时,我到处都看到了⽇日本的影响,既 有承诺、也有批评。那时,泰国、韩国和台湾在⽇日本的帮助下整修⼀一新已是既成 事实,这对印度的我们来说是活⽣生⽣生的耻辱,印度在制造业和贸易⽅方⾯面未能向东 亚那样成功。与1945年后的世界上⼤大多数国家⼀一样,法国、⽇日本,还有印度,都 采⽤用了国家主导的发展模式。印度的⺫⽬目标与许多从殖民统治中解放出来的国家差 不多,与其说是让私⼈人财富增⻓长,不如说是为了增强国⼒力。弗⾥里德曼在《选择的 ⾃自由》⼀一书中把印度⼈人描述为圣雄⽢甘地(Mahatma Gandhi)的糊涂追随者,只知 道在政府补贴的家庭⼿手⼯工业中毫⽆无⺫⽬目的地纺棉花。弗⾥里德曼说,印度看不到⼯工业 化,更有甚者,印度还相信中央计划。其实,印度有雄⼼心勃勃的⼯工业化⽅方针,印 度经济是私营市场与国有企业的结合,尽管印度被英国统治的历史经验让其怀疑 ⾃自由贸易只惠及发达的⼯工业经济。尽管弗⾥里德曼对印度的描述是⼀一种夸张,但他 认为印度是⼀一个社会和经济落后国家的看法⼤大致正确。 India, following a model of import-substitution growth, barely participated in world trade. Its factories produced shoddy goods that you bought only because there were no alternatives. And so I was dazzled by what was on offer in Southeast Asia. The emblems of pop American culture — Kentucky Fried Chicken, McDonald’s, Madonna — were everywhere. But the most seductive consumer goods were almost invariably Japanese: Sony, Sanyo, National, Mitsubishi, Hitachi, Fuji. 遵循进⼝口替代增⻓长模式的印度,那时⼏几乎不参与世界贸易。印度⼯工⼚厂⽣生产的商品 质量很差,但⼈人们不得不买它们,因为别⽆无选择。在那次旅⾏行中,东南亚国家的 东⻄西令我眼花缭乱。美国流⾏行⽂文化的象征——肯德基、⻨麦当劳、⻨麦当娜 (Madonna)——随处可⻅见。但是,最诱⼈人的消费品⼏几乎全是⽇日本牌⼦子的:索尼、 三洋、松下、三菱、⽇日⽴立、富⼠士。 Feeling inadequate before East Asia’s progress, many middle-class Indians longed for what Chalmers Johnson, in a book about Japan’s unique growth, called the “capitalist developmental state.” In such states, skilled bureaucracies led by authoritarian leaders promoted a project of national development (while either paying lip service to, or ignoring, democratic norms). Private entrepreneurs made socially beneficial investments; government policies helped build their comparative advantage while also facilitating social stability with land reforms, education and other efforts to address income equality. 许多印度中产阶级在东亚国家的进步⾯面前感到了不⾜足,他们渴望那种查尔莫斯·约 翰逊(Chalmers Johnson)在⼀一本关于⽇日本独特增⻓长模式的书中称为“资本主义的发 展型国家”。在这种国家⾥里,由威权领导⼈人领导的有能⼒力的官僚机构推动国家的发 展项⺫⽬目(只是⼝口头上提、或根本⽆无视民主规范)。私⼈人企业家进⾏行对社会有益的 投资;政府的政策帮助他们拥有⽐比较优势,同时也通过包括⼟土地改⾰革、教育及其 他解决收⼊入不均问题的努⼒力促进社会稳定。 ⼲⼴广告 The “developmental state” assumed that market failures were to be expected and that the state played a necessary role in designing industrial and financial policy. These included not only trade protection and government subsidies but also, as the political economists Robert and Jean M. Gilpin wrote in “Global Political Economy” in 2003, “selective credit allocation and deliberate distortion of interest rates in order to channel cheap credit to favored economic sectors.” Governments were, in fact, very much part of the solution, as even the World Bank, beholden to the Washington Consensus, grudgingly acknowledged in its well-known 1993 report, “East Asian Miracle.” The high-performing Asian economies, it noted, “have achieved unusually low and declining levels of inequality, contrary to historical experience and contemporary evidence in other regions.” “发展型国家”假定市场失灵是意料之中的,国家在设计⼯工业和⾦金融政策上有必要 的作⽤用。这些政策不仅包括贸易保护和政府补贴,⽽而且也包括政治经济学家罗伯 特和吉恩·M·吉尔平(Robert and Jean M. Gilpin)在他们2003年的《全球政治经 济》(Global political Economy)⼀一书中描述的“选择性信贷分配,以及为了把廉价 信贷输送到受⻘青睐的经济领域,故意扭曲利率”的做法。实际上,政府是解决⽅方案 的重要组成部分,就连受惠于华盛顿共识的世界银⾏行也不得不在其有名的1993年 报告《东亚奇迹》(East Asian Miracle)中勉强承认这⼀一点。该报告指出,表现良 好的亚洲经济“实现了异乎寻常之低、且不断降低的不平等程度,这与历史经验及 其他地区的同期证据相反。” The hero of many middle-class Indians was the authoritarian leader of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, whose success in turning Singapore from an economic backwater into one of the world’s major commercial cities was much admired by Deng Xiaoping. We might have also revered, had we known more about him, South Korea’s technocratic despot Park Chung-hee, who accomplished economic goals with the help of highly trained managers, and who also appeared to reduce inequality and build what we in India sorely lacked: social cohesion. 许多印度中产阶级⼼心⺫⽬目中的英雄是新加坡的威权领导⼈人李光耀,他把新加坡从⼀一 个经济落后国家转变为世界主要商业城市之⼀一的成功,深受邓⼩小平的推崇。要是 我们对韩国专制统治者、技术官僚朴正熙有更多了解的话,我们或许也会尊敬 他,他在训练有素的管理⼈人员的帮助下实现了经济⺫⽬目标,⽽而且似乎也降低了不平 等,还建⽴立了我们在印度⾮非常缺乏的东⻄西:社会凝聚⼒力。 But little did I know that Hamilton (and List) would achieve their greatest influence in post-Mao China. “The rise of China resembles that of the United States a century ago,” the Chinese scholar Hu Angang writes. He is not exaggerating. Friedman may have been right that the Chinese Communists were hopelessly ignorant of how free markets work, but ending state intervention in the economy was never on the agenda. After Mao, Chinese leaders looked to Japanese and other East Asian developers, just as the East Asians had once looked to Germany. 但我没想到,汉密尔顿(以及李斯特)的影响⼒力会在后⽑毛泽东时代的中国得到最 ⼤大程度的发挥。“中国的崛起与⼀一个世纪前的美国相似,”中国学者胡鞍钢写道。 他没有夸⼤大其词。弗⾥里德曼也许是对的,中国共产党⼈人完全不清楚⾃自由市场是如 何运作的,但结束国家对经济的干预从来都不在它的⽇日程之上。在⽑毛泽东之后, 中国领导⼈人将⺫⽬目光投向了⽇日本等东亚⽐比较发达的国家,就像东亚⼈人曾经将⺫⽬目光投 向德国⼀一样。 The first investments in China in the 1980s came from Japan as well as from transnational Chinese business networks based in East Asia. China benefited from the market networks, management and technical know-how that accompanied these investments. Encouraged by the Clinton administration, it entered the World Trade Organization in 2001 and quickly seized the opportunity — limitless export markets — opened by American insistence on free trade. 上世纪80年代,中国的第⼀一批投资来⾃自⽇日本以及中国在东亚的跨国商业⺴⽹网络。中 国得益于这些投资带来的市场⺴⽹网络、管理⽅方式和实践知识。在克林顿政府的推动 下,中国于2001年加⼊入了世界贸易组织,并迅速抓住了美国坚持⾃自由贸易所带来 的机会——以及⽆无限的出⼝口市场。 Once Japan became the leading investor in Asia, regional production chains began to link those countries with one another. As Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan moved up the technology and value chains, they invested in developing countries, like Vietnam and Indonesia. This process of regionalizing investment and production, which largely dispenses with Europe and America, has now been accelerated by China’s rise as a manufacturing power. The biggest investor in Vietnam today, for instance, is South Korea, whose biggest trading partner is China. ⽇日本成为亚洲的主要投资者之后,区域⽣生产链⽴立即开始将这些国家联系在了⼀一 起。随着韩国、⾹香港、新加坡和台湾在技术和价值链上向上发展,它们开始在越 南和印度尼⻄西亚等发展中国家投资。这个将投资和⽣生产区域化的进程在很⼤大程度 上将欧洲和美国排除在外,现在,中国作为制造业⼤大国的崛起加速了这个进程。 例如,今天越南最⼤大的投资者是韩国,⽽而韩国最⼤大的贸易伙伴是中国。 The success of China’s state-led economy presents, in many ways, the same economic (and ideological) quandary that Japan unexpectedly threw up before the United States when, in the 1980s, it became the world’s leading creditor. A regional trading system dominated by China will make Asian countries less likely to enlist in American geopolitical objectives. Locked into boundary disputes with its neighbors, China has accelerated the militarization of the South China Sea, acquiring more than 3,200 acres of land on reefs and outcrops and installing runways, ports and hangars. But it has also abandoned its abrasive attitude, making determined efforts to pivot Asia away from Trump’s America. And it seems to be succeeding. 中国政府主导的经济成功,在很多⽅方⾯面都与美国在20世纪80年代成为世界头号债 权国时⽇日本意外抛给它的经济(和意识形态)困境相似。⼀一个中国主导的区域贸 易体系,将降低亚洲国家⽀支持美国地缘政治⺫⽬目标的可能性。中国受困于与邻国的 边界纠纷,加快了南海的军事化进程,在岛礁上取得了3200多英亩的⼟土地,还修 建了跑道、港⼝口和⻜飞机库。但它也放弃了粗暴的态度,下定决⼼心要把特朗普治下 的美国从亚洲挤出去。它似乎正在取得成功。 With China offering generous infrastructure deals to the former American territory of the Philippines, President Rodrigo Duterte announced that “it is time to say goodbye” to the United States — previously he threatened to ride a jet ski to a Chinese man-made island in the South China Sea and plant his country’s flag there. Other rival claimants to parts of the South China Sea — Malaysia, Vietnam and Brunei — have also moved closer to Beijing since Trump’s election. Smaller countries like Cambodia and Laos now resemble Chinese client-states. China is also trying to repair long-strained relations with Japan by inviting investments by Japanese multinationals. 中国向前美国殖民地菲律宾提出了慷慨的基础设施建设协议,所以菲律宾总统罗 德⾥里⼽戈·杜特地(Rodrigo Duterte)宣布,是时候跟美国“说再⻅见了”——之前,他曾 威胁要驾驶摩托艇,登上中国在南海修建的⼀一个⼈人⼯工岛,插上⾃自⼰己国家的国旗。 ⾃自特朗普当选以来,其他对南海部分区域有领⼟土主张的国家——⻢马来⻄西亚、越南 和⽂文莱——也向北京靠拢。柬埔寨和⽼老挝等⼩小国现在就像中国的附庸国。中国还 试图通过邀请⽇日本的跨国公司在华投资,来修复与⽇日本的⻓长期紧张关系。 ⼲⼴广告 These attempts to win over major American allies in Asia complement Xi’s ambitious One Belt, One Road initiative, which aims to put China at the center of global affairs through a network of trade links and infrastructure projects stretching from Asia to the Middle East to Africa and Europe. Investing more than $1 trillion in more than 60 countries — ports in Pakistan and Sri Lanka, high-speed railways in East Africa, gas pipelines in Central Asia — the initiative can claim to be the largest overseas investment drive ever undertaken by a single country. The 11 European Union members and five non-E.U. Central and Eastern European countries that have joined the China-led political and commercial group called 16+1 have all signed major infrastructure deals with China, enhancing Beijing’s influence in the E.U. The remaining 11 members of the Trans-Pacific Partnership have gone ahead without the United States; they are expected to sign a final agreement in March. 中国争取美国在亚洲的主要盟友的努⼒力,与习近平雄⼼心勃勃的“⼀一带⼀一路”计划相 辅相成。该计划旨在通过⼀一个从亚洲延伸⾄至中东、⾮非洲和欧洲的贸易联系和基础 设施项⺫⽬目,将中国置于全球事务的中⼼心。该计划将在60多个国家投资1万多亿美 元——包括巴基斯坦和斯⾥里兰卡的港⼝口,东⾮非的⾼高速铁路,以及中亚的天然⽓气管 道——可以说是有史以来单个国家最⼤大的海外投资努⼒力。11个欧盟成员国以及中 欧和东欧的5个⾮非欧盟成员国加⼊入了中国主导的政治和商业集团——16+1,他们都 与中国签署了重要的基础设施协议,增强了中国在欧盟的影响⼒力。TPP剩下的11 个成员国在美国退出后继续前进,有望在今年3⽉月签署⼀一项最终协议。 By pulling out of the TPP and threatening trade sanctions, Trump encouraged Japan to seek a deal with Europe that shuts out the United States. Britain, another stalwart American ally, is considering joining the TPP. China, meanwhile, is hectically negotiating more than a dozen trade agreements in Asia while proposing its own alternative to the TPP, a trade agreement called the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. China has also intensified efforts to build alternatives to such Western international institutions as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In 2014, China inaugurated, against staunch American opposition, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, whose members now include all Asian states except Japan. 由于退出TPP以及威胁进⾏行贸易制裁,特朗普促使⽇日本寻求与欧洲达成⼀一项将美 国排除在外的协议。⽽而美国的另⼀一个坚定盟友英国也在考虑加⼊入TPP。与此同 时,中国正在亚洲就⼗十⼏几项贸易协定展开热烈谈判,还提出了⾃自⼰己的TPP替代⽅方 案,也就是⼀一项名为“区域全⾯面经济伙伴关系”(Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership)的贸易协定。中国还加紧努⼒力,试图创建世界银⾏行(World Bank)和国际货币基⾦金组织(International Monetary Fund)等⻄西⽅方国际机构的替代 机构。2014年,中国不理会美国的坚决反对,启动了亚洲基础设施投资银⾏行 (Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank),该银⾏行⺫⽬目前的成员包括除⽇日本以外的 所有亚洲国家。 There is little doubt that Beijing is presenting itself as a benign alternative to the United States. In a speech just before his second term as the party’s general secretary, Xi claimed that there were more takers internationally for Chinese “values.” China, he said, offers “a new option for other countries and nations who want to speed up their development while preserving their independence.” 北京所展⽰示的⽆无疑是⼀一个替代美国的和善形象。在作为中共总书记的第⼆二任期开 始前的⼀一次讲话中,习近平称现在国际上有了更多中国“价值观”的接受者。他 说,中国“给世界上那些既希望加快发展⼜又希望保持⾃自⾝身独⽴立性的国家和民族提供 了全新选择”。 It was always wildly optimistic to suppose that China would eventually be integrated into an American-dominated order and persuaded, if not forced, to adopt its norms. A postcolonial Indian like myself, who traveled to China and read in its modern history and literature over the last decade and half, could only be skeptical of such claims. It was never less than clear to me, whether in the suburbs of Lhasa, Tibet (demographically altered by Han immigration), or in the bookstores of Shanghai (stacked with best sellers with titles like “China Can Say No”), that the quest for national sovereignty and regained strength defines China’s party state and its economic policies. 要设想中国最后会融⼊入美国主导的秩序,会被说服⽽而⾮非强迫接受美国的规范,总 归是过于乐观了。像我这样曾在过去的⼗十五年内去过中国、读过中国近代历史作 品和⽂文学作品的后殖民时期印度⼈人,对这种说法只会保持怀疑。⽽而我从来都很清 楚,不论是在(⼈人⼝口构成已被汉⼈人移民改变的)⻄西藏拉萨的郊区,�...
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Running head: RHETORICAL ANALYSIS

Rhetorical Analysis of “The Rise of China and The Fall of The ‘Free Trade’ Myth”

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RHETORICAL ANALYSIS

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Rhetorical Analysis of “The Rise of China and the Fall of The ‘Free Trade’ Myth”
The author uses visual information as well to present his view on trade. The first picture
idiomatically expresses the current situation of the trading routes; where the president of the
United States has put a barrier to regional trade. The author criticizes Donald Trump’s claim that
free trade negatively affects the economy of the United States, and compares the economic
performance of other countries such as China and Japan, whose prosperous economy depends on
free trade. The second picture in the article presents a city that magni...


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