8
Attitudes & Persuasive
Communications
MKT 326
CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Power of Attitudes
Attitude: a lasting, general evaluation of people, objects,
advertisements, or issues
▪ An attitude is lasting – it tends to endure over time and is general – it
applies to more than a momentary event.
▪ Anything that one has an attitude toward is called an attitude object.
▪ You have an attitude about nearly everything you consume.
▪
Ex. What toothpaste to buy, what shoes to wear, where to go on a first date,
what food to eat, what healthy is, etc. etc. etc.
▪ We will discuss contents of attitude, how we form attitudes, and how we
measure attitudes.
▪ Complex relationships exist between attitude and behavior which can be
difficult for the marketer to change (more on that later)
The Functional Theory of Attitudes
The Functional Theory of Attitudes was initially developed to explain how
attitudes facilitate social behavior. The following attitude functions were
identified:
▪ Utilitarian function - based on reward and punishment; straightforward
product benefits.
▪ Based solely on provide pleasure or pain
▪ Ex. “Just drink Coke for the taste of it”
▪ Value-expressive function - goes to the consumer’s central values or
self-concept.
▪ What does a product say about the consumer?
▪ Ex. Buy “green” products because you value the environment
▪ Ego-defensive function - protects the person from external threats or
internal feelings.
▪ May help make up for self-conscious inadequacies.
▪ Ex. Use Axe to be more macho
▪ Knowledge function - the need for order, meaning, and structure.
▪ Learn more or to fulfill a need
▪ Ex. Prescription drug commercials
For Reflection…..
Imagine that you work for Ashland University’s College of Business
and Economics Marketing Department and have segmented
students into four different clusters, each representing one of the
four functions listed on the previous slide.
Develop a marketing strategy (or tag line) based on each of the
four functions to motivate AU students to stay in school and
complete their degrees.
Utilitarian
Value-expressive
Ego-defensive
Knowledge
The ABC Model of Attitudes
An attitude has three components: affect, behavior, and cognition.
▪ Affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object.
(Chapter 5)
▪ Behavior involves the person’s intentions to do something with
regard to an attitude object.
▪ This intention does not always results in behavior – more on that later.
▪ Cognition refers to what the consumer knows about an attitude
object.
The ABC model emphasizes the interrelationships among knowing,
feeling and doing.
Hierarchies of Effects
Attitude researchers have developed the concept of a hierarchy of effects
to explain the relative impact of the three components of attitudes.
The three hierarchies are:
• The standard learning hierarchy: Think Feel Do (CAB)
• This is a problem-solving process, it assumes the consumer is highly
involved.
• Consumer is motivated to seek out information, carefully weigh
alternatives and come to a thoughtful decision.
• The low-involvement hierarchy: Do Feel Think (BAC)
• Consumer acts on limited knowledge and forms an evaluation after
buying the product.
• After experiencing the product forms an opinion
• Consumer has low involvement – more influenced by displays or jingles
than attributes of the product
The experiential hierarchy: Feel Do Think (ABC)
Consumer acts based on emotional reactions.
Hedonic motivation stemming from excitement or pleasure
How Do We Form Attitudes?
Not born with an attitude or opinion of a service or product – So how are
they formed?
Attitudes can form through:
Classical conditioning
Repetition helps create the wanted response (Remember Ch. 4 – Pavlov's
Dogs?)
Ex. pairing an attitude object (brand name) with a jingle.
Instrumental conditioning
Use of the attitude object is reinforced (positive, negative, or punishment)
often by the marketer.
Ex. when you wear product X it makes you look cool
Leaning through complex
cognitive processes
Socialization and external influences combine with wants and needs
Ex. one learns what to do in social situations by modeling the behavior of friends
and endorsers.
All Attitudes are Not Created Equal
Remember not all attitudes are formed in the same way.
One person may be a consumer for life (high loyalty) vs. someone else who
is unsure or mildly positive (low loyalty) for the same product.
Consumers vary in their commitment to an attitude and the degree of
commitment is related to their level of involvement with the attitude object.
There are three levels of commitment:
Compliance means that we form an attitude because it helps us to gain
rewards or avoid punishment
Low to High
This type of commitment requires the lowest level of involvement. Superficial.
Identification occurs when we form an attitude to conform to another
person or group’s expectations
ex. imitating the behavior of desirable models
Internalization means that deep-seated attitudes become part of our
value system.
Difficult to change because so important to us
For Reflection…….
Share a commitment you’ve made to a product
at each of the three levels of commitment:
o
Compliance
o
Identification
o
Internalization
Consistency Principle
Principle of Cognitive Consistency suggests consumers
value harmony among their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Motivated to maintain uniformity among these elements.
People will change thoughts, feelings or behaviors to remain
consistent with prior experiences
Not likely to hear “I love Pepsi. It tastes awful.”
Theories trying to explain dissonance effects or inconsistency in
attitudes:
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Self-Perception Theory
Social Judgment Theory
Balance Theory
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
States that when a person is confronted with inconsistencies among attitudes
or behaviors, he or she will take some action to resolve this “dissonance,”
perhaps by changing an attitude or modifying a behavior.
People seek to reduce dissonant behavior or feelings through
eliminating, adding, or changing elements
The magnitude of dissonance depends on the importance and
number of dissonant elements
Dissonance is more likely in high involvement situations
where there is more pressure to reduce inconsistencies.
Can help to explain why evaluations of a product tend to
increase after we buy the product (Convince ourselves we made
the right decision in response to post purchase dissonance).
Marketers can provide customers with additional
reinforcement after they purchase to help customers justify the
decisions after the fact.
Self Perception Theory
Provides an alternative explanation of dissonance effects.
Assumes that people use observations of their own
behavior to determine what their attitudes are.
We maintain consistency by the assumption if we bought it
in the past, then we must think positively about it.
Recent research suggests when consumers are asked to make
a series of cognitively demanding choices, they deplete
resources needed to monitor behavior and opt for easier
decisions.
This may result in a consumer saying yes to a salesperson instead of
looking for reasons to say no.
Social Judgment Theory
We assimilate new information about products in light of what
we already know/feel
Initial attitude is a frame of reference
People find information to be acceptable or unacceptable.
They form Latitudes of Acceptance and Rejection around
an attitude standard.
o
Assimilation effect - messages that fall within the
latitude of acceptance tend to be seen as more
consistent with one’s position than they actually are
o
Contrast effect - messages within the latitude of
rejection tend to be seen even farther from one’s own
position than they actually are
o
Both tend to be exaggerations of judgement
Balance Theory
Considers how we might perceive relations among different attitude
objects and how we might alter attitudes to maintain consistency (or
balance).
This perspective includes relations between three elements or triads. Each
contains:
1. A person and his or her perceptions.
2. An attitude object.
3. Some other person or object.
• We want the triad to be in balance so we may alter our perception.
ex. boyfriend with earring
Elements are linked by a unit relation (we think the person is connected to
an attitude object; like a belief) or a sentiment relation (a person expresses
liking or disliking for an attitude object).
Perceptions are altered to make them consistent. When we have balanced
perceptions, attitudes are stable.
For Reflection
Think of a behavior that you do that is inconsistent with
your attitude (ex. attitudes toward healthy eating or active
lifestyle, attitudes toward materialism, attitudes towards
studying, etc.)
Why do you continue the behavior?
Identify how you have resolved dissonant elements.
Attitude Models
Attitude models specify and explore the different elements that affect
attitudes.
Multi-attribute attitude models are used because attitudes are so
complex.
Assume a consumer’s attitude toward a product depends on the beliefs she has
about several of its attributes, which can be used to derive a measure of overall
attitude.
Basic multi-attribute models specify 3 specific elements:
Attributes (characteristics of the product)
Beliefs (the extent to which the consumer believes the product possesses an
attribute)
Importance weights (the relative priority of an attribute to the consumer).
The Fishbein Model measures three components of attitude:
Salient beliefs (beliefs about the object a person considers during evaluation)
Object-attribute linkages (probability that a particular object has an important attribute)
Evaluation of each of the important attributes.
Overall Attitudes are equal to the sum of the beliefs about each attribute multiplied
times the importance of each attribute.
Marketing Applications
of the Multiattribute Model
Strategic Applications of Multi-Attitude Models
Strategic Applications Include:
Capitalize on relative advantage.
If an attribute of your brand is superior to the competition, then convince consumers
that the attribute is important.
Strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages.
If an attribute is not strongly associated with your product, then campaign why your
product possesses this quality.
Add a new attribute.
Promote a new attribute to distinguish the product from competition.
Influence competitors’ ratings.
Through comparative advertising, downplay competition's attributes compared to
your strength.
For example: If prospective customers viewed one brand as superior, a marketer could try to
convince the consumer that a particular attribute is important. A marketer might discover that
consumers do not equate his brand with a certain attribute; a communications campaign can be
used to strengthen the linkage. Marketers can encourage consumers to appreciate a new
attribute when new features are developed for products. Finally, one can decrease the
competitors’ higher ratings with comparative advertising.
Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
In many cases, a person’s attitude is not a very good predictor of behavior. So
researchers examined the Fishbein model….
The Extended Fishbein Model: The Theory of Reasoned Action
To get a more accurate measure about prediction additions include:
Intentions versus behavior—strongly held attitudes are distinguished
from weakly held attitudes; past behavior is a better predictor of future behavior
than intentions.
Social pressure—others have a strong influence on behavior, including
what we think others would like us to do.
Subjective norms account for the effects of what we believe other people think we
should do. They have two factors:
Intensity of normative belief that others believe we should take or not take
some action.
The motivation to comply with that belief (the degree to which the consumer
takes others’ anticipated reactions into account when she evaluates a purchase).
Attitude toward buying—attitude toward the act of buying focuses on
perceived consequences of purchase.
Obstacles to Predicting Behavior
There are certain obstacles to predicting behavior (the improved
Fishbein model):
It was designed to deal with actual behavior—not outcomes of
behavior.
Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control.
Behavior is not always intentional (impulsive actions; situation
changes, novelty seeking).
Measures of attitudes do not always correspond with the behavior
they are supposed to predict.
It is very important to match the level of specificity between the attitude and
the behavioral intention.
Obstacles to Predicting Behavior(cont’d)
There are certain obstacles to predicting behavior (the improved
Fishbein model Continued):
A problem can exist with respect to the time frame of the attitude
measure. (The longer between attitude measurement and actual behavior = weaker
relationship)
Direct personal experience is stronger than indirect exposure
(through an advertisement).
The problem of personal experiences versus receiving information such as
advertising
There are also cultural roadblocks, which limit the universality of
the theory of reasoned action.
Ex. Some acts are not voluntary in all cultures, and the model predicts the
performance of a voluntary act.
More on culture later….
Persuasion: How do Marketers Change Attitudes?
Marketers try to persuade consumers and these persuasion attempts are based on
basic psychological principles and strategic marketing communications.
Persuasion involves an active attempt to change attitudes
Six approaches to persuasion are:
Reciprocity – we are more likely to give if we receive.
Scarcity – items are more attractive when they are not available.
Authority – we believe authoritative sources more readily than non-authoritative
sources.
Consistency – people try not to contradict themselves in terms of what they say and
do about an issue.
Liking – we agree with those we like/admire.
Consensus - We consider what others do before we decide what to do.
Can you think of a time that you were persuaded by marketing? Which of
the persuasion tactics were used and in what way?
The Elements of Communication
Marketers and advertisers have traditionally relied on the
communications model to understand how marketing messages
can change consumers’ attitudes.
Specifies that a number of elements are necessary for communications
to be achieved.
The basic model can be perceived as having five parts:
The Source - where the communication originates.
The Message - This meaning must be put in some form
The Medium - must be transmitted some way
Decode - one or more receivers then interpret the message.
Feedback - must be received by the source.
An Updated View: Interactive Communications
The original model is not wrong, but doesn’t take into account today’s
dynamic means of communication and interactivity. For example:
In permission marketing, consumers agree to allow marketers to send
them promotional information or they “opt out”.
In traditional broadcasting, where the information is transferred and then
repeated before the buyer buys, is outdated with the advent of
narrowcasting (finely tuning messages to suite very small groups of
receivers).
Consumers are partners in the communications process, not passive
observers (think social media).
The Source
Source effects - the same words uttered or written by different people
can have very different effects.
Under most conditions, the source of a message can have a big impact on the
likelihood the message will be accepted.
A match between the needs of the recipient and the rewards the source offers
increases the recipient’s motivation to process the message
Two very important source characteristics are credibility and
attractiveness. (How much we believe or like the source)
Source credibility refers to a source’s perceived expertise, objectivity, or
trust- worthiness.
Credibility can be enhanced if the source’s qualifications are perceived as
somehow relevant to the product being endorsed.
Sincerity is important
Disclaimers can lead people to trust company less or has ulterior motives
A consumer’s beliefs about a product’s attributes will weaken if he perceives
that the source is biased.
Knowledge bias – source’s knowledge is not accurate
Reporting bias – source has the required knowledge but is not willing to convey it
accurately
The Source
Source attractiveness refers to the source’s perceived social
value. The 2nd source characteristic.
This quality can emanate from the person’s physical appearance,
personality, social status, or similarity to the receiver (we like to listen to
people who are like us).
A halo effect often occurs when persons of high rank on one dimension
are assumed to excel on others as well. (good at something=good at
everything) Opposite is the “fork-tail” effect!
Star Power: Celebrities as Communications Sources
Celebrities embody cultural meanings (ex. status, social class, gender, age,
personality) to the general society.
Advertisers choose a celebrity who embodies the desired meaning the
product (or its position in the market) - the meaning transfers from the
manufacturer to the consumer via the star.
For Reflection….....
What celebrity sources do you perceive as
being most credible?
Is this in specific product or service categories or
across the board?
The Message
How the message is said is important as well as what is said.
Subtle aspects of how a message is delivered can influence interpretation.
Even the layout of a print ad sends a message
The single most important feature of the message is whether the
communication stresses a unique attribute or benefit of the
product.
Some messages are confusing, offensive or annoying. Some
examples include:
Commercials that show a sensitive product and emphasize its usage
A contrived or over-dramatized situation
Putting down a person in terms of appearance, knowledge or sophistication
Threatening an important relationship
Showing physical discomfort
Unattractive or unsympathetic character
Commercials with poor casting or execution
Decisions to Make About the Message
Depending on the marketer’s objectives and the nature of the product,
different kinds of messages produce different results.
When creating a message, marketers must address several questions:
Should we use pictures or words?
Verbal elements are more affective when accompanying picture reinforces the
message.
How often should message be repeated?
Too little = uncertainty; too much = wear out
Should it draw an explicit conclusion?
Tell them the answer or let the consumer decide?
How should we structure the argument?
The way we present the argument may be as important as what we say.
Must hit the sweet spot.
Should it explicitly compare product to competitors?
Be careful not to portray the competition too negatively
New Message Formats
The new array of ways to transmit information in both text and picture offers
marketers new alternatives for advertising.
Social Media:
M-commerce, (mobile commerce) can be used as a new way to transmit
information in both text and picture form, and social media applications
are now used globally.
Facebook, Linked-in and many others
Apps allow you to purchase items with your phone
Reality Engineering:
When marketers borrow elements of pop culture and use them as
promotional vehicles.
Ex. Distressed jeans
Transmedia storytelling:
A strategy that typically includes communications media that range from
Web sites, blogs, and email to recorded phone calls and even graffiti
messages in public spaces.
Guerilla and Ambush Marketing:
Strategies that use unconventional means to encourage word of mouth about products.
Product Placement:
The insertion of a real product into fictional movies, TV shows, books, and plays
Types of Message Appeals
Emotional vs. Rational Appeals
Emotional: Try to bond the consumer and the product
The effectiveness of appeals to the head vs. heart depends on the nature of the
product and the type of relationship consumers have with it.
Sex Appeals
Include various levels of erotic suggestions.
Erotic content draws attention but can be counterproductive, making consumers
less likely to buy the product or distracting attention from other ad contents.
Humorous Appeals
Can get attention, but may not affect recall or product attitudes.
Funny ads can provide a distraction
Humor is more effective when the ad clearly identifies the brand and the funny
material does not overwhelm the message. Subtle is better.
Fear Appeals
Emphasize negative consequences that occur unless the consumer changes a
behavior or an attitude
Most effective when the advertisers use only a moderate threat and when the ad
presents a solution to the problem.
The Message as Art Form: Metaphors
Marketers are storytellers, but must create a message that has some
concrete form so the consumer will get the message.
Often use literary devices such as:
A metaphor involves placing two dissimilar objects into a
close relationship such that “A is B” Metaphors allow the
marketer to activate meaningful images and apply them to
everyday events.
Ex. “Your in good hands with Allstate”
A simile compares two objects, “A is like B.”
Ex. “Like a good Neighbor State Farm is there”
Resonance is another literary device that is frequently used
in advertising to form a presentation that combines play on
words with a relevant picture.
Ex. A play on words
Source vs. Message
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) assumes
that once a consumer receives a message, he or she
begins to process it.
Depending on the personal relevance of this information, one
of two routes to persuasion will be followed.
Under conditions of high involvement, a consumer takes the
central route to persuasion.
The consumer will determine if the message is relevant.
The person will engage in cognitive processing to evaluate the
arguments presented and generate either positive (supporting)
responses or negative responses (counterarguments).
Under conditions of low involvement a peripheral route is
taken.
The consumer is not motivated to think about the argument.
The consumer uses other cues in deciding on the suitability of the
message.
Case Study: Shampoo Buying: A “Bad Hair” Day?
When was the last time you purchased shampoo or other hair care products? How long did it take you
to choose? How did you decide?
The hair care aisle of a typical drugstore has more than 200 choices for shampoo. The packages
promote a myriad of benefits including repair, protection, hydration, control, and nourishment. How does a
consumer make a match between his or her needs and the brand benefits? It’s not easy to choose and
therefore, not a surprise that many shoppers spend about 20 minutes in this aisle when they select a shampoo
brand.
The confusion builds when you consider that it is not just shampoo that we buy. There are gels,
mousse, hairsprays, shine enhancers, and conditioners. A recent Mintel survey shows that three-quarters of
consumers use conditioner in addition to shampoo, and these numbers are even higher for women.
One way that consumers try to simplify the purchase process is by referring to compelling
advertising, so ad agencies work hard to create effective messages that can reinforce current brand loyalty or
persuade consumers to try a new brand. Hair care product advertising relies heavily on TV, press, the
internet, and outdoor advertising, most commonly in the form of billboards. In addition, many ad campaigns
feature appealing celebrity endorsers such as Katie Holmes, Nicole Scherzinger, and Sofia Vergara.
And it’s not only women in the U.S. who scratch their heads over these choices. To the women of
Singapore and the Philippines, the choice of hair conditioner poises the same challenges. To connect with
women in these countries, Unilever tried a nontraditional campaign to show the benefit of Cream Silk Hair
Fall Defense, a conditioner brand the company sells in those countries. Cream Silk’s core benefit is the
“strength” it gives hair. With the help of advertising agency JWT, Unilever was able to break through the
advertising clutter and deliver its message in an entirely new format.
JWT began by contacting Paul Goh, the leading violin bow-maker in Singapore. For this promotion,
Mr. Goh was asked to switch out the horsehair violin bows he traditionally used and exchanged them with
human hair on four of his violin bows. This hair had been washed and conditioned with Cream Silk. To
demonstrate the strength of the hair, a string quartet used the bows as it played a 4-hour concert in a busy
shopping mall in Manilla. Good news for Unilever: The entire concert concluded without even one broken
hail on the violin bows! The video was posted on YouTube and went viral. The video included the
advertising message:
When it comes to showing strong hair, all commercials show it the same
way. So we changed the game by turning the demonstration of STRONG
HAIR, into a live performance….
According to the advertising agency JWT, “The event struck the right chord with Cream Silk’s target
market. The crowd swelled to 600 at its height, more than 450 Cream Silk samples were given away and the
vast majority of consumers we surveyed walked away with a positive perception of the brand.
Discussion Questions:
1. In the context of the Multiattribute Attitude Model discussed in class, describe Crème Silk’s violin
promotion. Which attribute(s) were central to the promotion? How does this model explain what the
company was trying to accomplish with the “Human Hair Quartet?”
2. Investigate another shampoo brand’s marketing strategy. Compare and contrast the shampoo brand’s
strategy with Unilever’s Cream Silk. (Remember to use models and terminology from Chapter 8 to help
support your claims).
3. As a consumer, would this type of marketing strategy influence your decision when choosing a hair
care product? Why or why not? Consider your current brand of shampoo, what were the main factors
that influenced your decision to buy/try/use this brand over another brand? (Remember to use terminology
from Chapter 8 to help support your answer.)
From Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, Being 12ed., Chapter 8. Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
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