12 MOTIVATION 12.1 Motivation and the Hungry Animal 12.2 The Social Animal: Motives to Love 12.3 The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex 12.4 The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve 12.5 Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness PSYCHOLOGY, Twelfth Edition | Carole Wade • Carol Tavris Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation otivation Biological Drives For decades, the study of motivation was dominated by a focus on biological drives, such as those to: • Acquire food and water • Have sex • Seek novelty • Avoid cold and pain But drive theories do not account for the full complexity of human motivation. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Four Central Areas of Human Motivation Areas of human motivation explored in this chapter: Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.1 Motivation and the Hungry Animal Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.1 Module Learning Objectives 12.1. A Define motivation, and distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 12.1. B Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is. 12.1. C Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example of each. 12.1. D Distinguish between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, and discuss some factors that contribute to each disorder. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Defining Motivation Intrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an activity for its own sake Extrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an activity for external rewards, such as money or fame Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Biology of Weight Obesity and overeating are not simply a result of: • Failed willpower • Emotional disturbance • Overeating A biological mechanism keeps your weight at a genetically influenced set point. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Genetic Influences on Weight and Body Shape Hunger, weight, and eating are regulated by a set of bodily mechanisms, that keep people close to their set point, including: • Basal metabolism rate • Number of fat cells • Brown fat Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Gene Mutations and Leptin When a mutation occurs in the genes that regulate normal eating and weight control, the result may be obesity. • Ob gene • Leptin Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Other Factors in Obesity Numerous other genes are linked to being overweight or obese Receptors in nose and mouth urge to eat more Brain will get high on sugary foods • Increase dopamine levels • Underactive reward circuitry Appetite-suppressing drugs inevitably fail Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Other Factors in Obesity Exaggerated? Some experts think that health concerns about obesity have been exaggerated because many overweight people are otherwise fit and in good cardiovascular health, and many thin people are not Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Implicit Association Test: Food Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Weight The worldwide rise in weight has to do with five big changes in the environment: Increased abundance of fast food and processed foods Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Weight Widespread consumption of high-sugar, high-calorie soft drinks Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Weight Sharp decline in exercise and other expenditures of energy Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Weight Increased portion sizes of food and drinks Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Weight Abundance of highly varied foods Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Environmental Influences on Weight Other suspects in the mystery of increasing obesity: • Sleeplessness • Women’s excessive weight gain during pregnancy • Central heating and air conditioning • Exposure to cold viruses Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Body as Battleground: Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa Others Characterized by: • Fear of being fat • A distorted body image • Radically reduced consumption of food • Emaciation Characterized by episodes of excessive eating (bingeing) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging) • Binging without purging (binge-eating disorder) • Chewing food but spitting it out without swallowing • Maintaining normal weight but worrying obsessively about gaining • Having phobias about certain foods Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Body as Battleground: Eating Disorders Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.2 The Social Animal: Motives to Love Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.2 Module Learning Objectives 12.2. A Describe how passionate love, compassionate love, social bonding, and the action of vasopressin and oxytocin all contribute to our understanding of the biology of love. 12.2. B Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships. 12.2. C Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in romantic relationships. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Biology of Love Passionate (romantic) love Companionate love (affection and trust) Origins of passionate love may begin in infancy when infant attaches to mother Two important hormones for social bonding: • Vasopressin • Oxytocin Characteristic feelings and actions that occur during attachment involve release of endorphins Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychology of Love Predictors of love • Proximity: We tend to choose our friends and lovers from the set of people who live, study, or work near us • Similarity: Choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs, values, personality, and interests Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychology of Love Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Attachment Theory of Love People’s attachment styles as adults derive in large part from how their parents cared for them Rarely jealous or worried about abandonment Agitated and worried partner will leave Distrustful, avoids intimate attachments Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Ingredients of Love Intimacy Commitment Passion Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Gender, Culture, and Love Similarities between men and women • Equally likely to feel love and need attachment Differences • Expressing feelings of love, defining intimacy As women have entered the workforce in large numbers: • Pragmatic (extrinsic) reasons for marriage have faded • Sexes are more alike in endorsing intrinsic motives as a requirement for marriage Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.3 The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.3 Module Learning Objectives 12.3. A Summarize early research findings on sexuality, and describe how biology, hormones, and expectations might contribute to differences in the sexuality of women and men. 12.3. B Discuss six motives for sex and contrast these with three motives for rape. 12.3. C Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to both sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Biology of Desire Sex research: • Kinsey’s surveys of sexuality • Masters and Johnson’s studies of physiological changes during arousal, orgasm – Male and female orgasms are similar. – All orgasms are physiologically the same, regardless of source of stimulation • Later research – People vary in sexual excitement, response, and inhibition. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Factors Promoting Sexual Desire Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in both sexes. However, sexual desire is also affected by: • Social experience • Context Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Men and Women: Same or Different? Psychologists still disagree on why there are sex differences in sex drive. Biological psychologists: Hormones and brain circuits involved in sexual behavior differ for men and women. Middle View: Men’s sexual behavior is more biologically influenced. Women’s sexual behavior is more affected by: • Circumstances • Specific relationship • Cultural norms Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Other psychologists: Most gender differences in sexual behavior reflect women’s and men’s different roles and experiences in life. The Psychology of Desire Psychologists observe that the brain is the sexiest sex organ. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Many Motives for Sex MOTIVES FOR SEX Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Sexual Coercion and Rape Gender differences occur in perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual coercion. Motives for rape are primarily psychological: 1 Narcissism and hostility toward women 2 A desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the victim 3 Sadism Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Gender, Culture, and Sex Cultures differ widely in sexual practices, transmit rules and requirements via: Gender roles Collections of rules that determine the proper attitudes and behavior for men and women Sexual scripts Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s gender, age, sexual orientation, religion, social status, and peer group Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Gender, Culture, and Sex Scripts • Can be powerful determinants of behavior – Including the practice of safe sex • Are changing, largely as a result of women’s improving economic status Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. BIOLOGY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION Factors of Sexual Orientation Traditional psychological explanations for homosexuality have not been supported. Possible biological factors include: • Genetics • Hormones • Prenatal events But biological factors cannot account for diversity of sexual responses, cultural customs, or experience. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.4 The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.4 Module Learning Objectives 12.4. A Describe three conditions that make goal-setting successful, distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals, and discuss the self-fulfilling prophecy cycle. 12.4. B Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Effects of Motivation on Work The importance of goals Goals improve motivation and performance when they: • Are specific • Are challenging but achievable • Are framed in terms of getting what you want rather than avoiding what you do not want Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Importance of Goals Performance goals Types of Goals Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Mastery (learning) goals Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills Expectations and Self-Efficacy Self-fulfilling prophecy An expectation that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways to bring it about Self-efficacy A person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Effects of Work on Motivation Conditions that increase job involvement, motivation, and satisfaction: • • • • • Work feels meaningful and important. Employees have control over many aspects of their work. Tasks are varied. Company maintains clear and consistent rules. Employees have supportive relationships with superiors and coworkers. • Employees receive useful feedback. • The company offers opportunities for growth. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Working Conditions Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.5 Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 12.5 Module Learning Objectives 12.5. A Discuss how accurate people are at estimating the type, duration, and extent of their future emotions, and comment on what research indicates makes people happy. 12.5. B Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an example of each. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 12.1: The Misprediction of Emotion Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Should I Stay or Should I Go? Three Major Kinds of Motivational Conflicts Approach-Approach Conflicts GOAL #1 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts Approach-Avoidance Conflicts GOAL #1 GOAL GOAL #2 GOAL #2 Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Taking Psychology with You How To Attain Your Goals • Seek activities that are intrinsically pleasurable. • Focus on learning goals, not only on performance goals. • Assess your working conditions. • Take steps to resolve motivational conflicts. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. End of Chapter Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Interactive Figures Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE The “Low Road” and “High Road” Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE Comparison of Theories of Emotion Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE Implicit Association Test: Food Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE The Sexual-Response Cycle Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. INTERACTIVE FIGURE Implicit Association Test: Sexuality Click here to watch the interactive feature. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Acknowledgments Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Slide Credit Slide 2 biletskiy. Shutterstock Slide 3 sarra22. Shutterstock Slide 7 David Davis. Shutterstock Slide 7 matka_Wariatka. Shutterstock Slide 8 Kirsty Pargeter. Shutterstock Slide 9 dream designs. Shutterstock Slide 9 Luis Louro. Shutterstock Slide 11 arek_malang. Shutterstock Slide 11 Gleb Semenjuk. Shutterstock Slide 11 Adam Gregor. Shutterstock Slide 11 kurhan. Shutterstock Slide 12 Skydive Erick. Shutterstock Slide 14 mipstudio. Shutterstock Slide 15 123rf.com Slide 16 Ambrophoto. Shutterstock Slide 17 Aleksandr Stennikov. Shutterstock Slide 18 nexus 7. Shutterstock Slide 19 tale. Shutterstock Slide 24 Flashon Studio. Shutterstock Slide 24 Monkey Business Images. Shutterstock Slide 25 manifeesto. Shutterstock Slide 28 Serg64. Shutterstock Slide 29 Iraidka. Shutterstock Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Slide Credit Slide 32 Maridav. Shutterstock Slide 33 Creativa. Shutterstock Slide 35 cesc_assawin. Shutterstock Slide 38 Thorsten Schmitt. Shutterstock Slide 44 mexrix. Shutterstock Slide 46 lculig. Shutterstock Slide 52 quetton. Shutterstock Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11 EMOTION, STRESS, AND HEALTH 11.1 The Nature of Emotion 11.2 Emotion and Culture 11.3 The Nature of Stress 11.4 Stress and Emotion 11.5 Coping with Stress PSYCHOLOGY, Twelfth Edition | Carole Wade • Carol Tavris Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.1 The Nature of Emotion Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.1 Module Learning Objectives 11.1.A Explain the components that define an emotion, list the emotions that have a universal facial expression, and describe some of the limits affecting the ability to decode facial expressions of emotion. 11.1.B Discuss the brain structures involved in the experience of emotions, explain what mirror neurons do, and describe the primary chemicals involved in emotional experience. 11.1.C Summarize the basic research findings indicating that cognitive appraisal plays a role in emotional experience. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. A state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action motion Emotion and the Face Verbal communication • Refers to a person’s speech or writing • The words we use to send a message to another person Nonverbal communication • Includes all other mechanisms used in communication • Vocal channels • Body language • Facial expressions • Even clothing Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 11.1: Some Universal Expressions Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotion and the Face Facial expressions: • Reflect internal feelings AND influence them (facial feedback) • Foster communication with others • Signal intentions to others • Enhance infant survival Cultural and social limits to readability of facial expressions: Facial expressions are only part of the emotional picture: • People are better at identifying emotions expressed by others in their own ethnic, national, or regional group • People can feel emotions without showing them. • Within a culture, facial expressions can have: • People use facial expressions to lie about their feelings. – Different meanings depending on the situation – Different interpretations depending on the social context Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotion and the Brain Cerebral cortex Can override the amygdala’s initial appraisal Amygdala Responsible for assessing threat Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotion and the Brain Left prefrontal cortex “Approach emotions” Right prefrontal cortex “Escape emotions” Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotion and the Brain Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Neurons for Imitation and Empathy Mirror neurons Brain cells that fire when a person or animal observes another carrying out an action Involved in: • Empathy • Language comprehension • Imitation • Reading emotions • Mood contagion • Rapport Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Energy of Emotion When under stress or experiencing an intense emotion, two hormones are released: Epinephrine Norepinephrine This results in increased: Alertness Arousal Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. BIOLOGY AND LIE DETECTION Can Lies Be Detected in the Brain and Body? Polygraph machines: • Based on the assumption that a lie generates emotional arousal • Low reliability and validity • High rate of labeling innocent people as guilty Other approaches: • Brain imaging (fMRI) • Increasing cognitive load Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotions and the Mind Emotions are created and influenced by appraisals: Beliefs Attributions Perceptions Goals Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotions and the Mind Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotions and the Mind Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.2 Emotion and Culture Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.2 Module Learning Objectives 11.2.A Describe the ways emotional experience can differ across cultures, in terms of concepts, language, and expectations. 11.2.B Explain how display rules and emotion work influence the communication of emotion in a social and cultural context. 11.2.C Explain sex differences that appear to exist in emotional experience, and comment on the complex reasons for these differences. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. How Culture Shapes Emotions Most people in all cultures are But people in capable of feeling different cultures Culture determines certain innate might indeed emotions, themuch of what differ in their ones that have abilities to people feel physiological experience hallmarks in the emotional about.emotional blends brain and nervous and variations. system. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Communicating Emotions Display rules • Social and cultural rules that regulate when, how, and where a person may express (or suppress) emotions Body language • The nonverbal signals of body movement, posture, and gaze Emotion work • Expression of an emotion, often because of a role requirement, that a person does not really feel Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Gender and Emotion • Women and men are equally likely to feel all emotions, although gender rules shape differences in emotional expression. • North American women are on average more expressive than men, except for anger at strangers. • Both sexes do similar emotion work when the situation or job requires it. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.3 The Nature of Stress Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.3 Module Learning Objectives 11.3.A Describe the three phases of the general adaptation syndrome, and discuss how modern conceptualizations of the HPA axis and psychoneuroimmunology extend those ideas. 11.3.B Describe some of the contributions to health that result from optimism, conscientiousness, and a sense of control. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Will This Survey Stress You Out? Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Stress and the Body General adaptation syndrome Phase 1: Alarm Phase 2: Resistance Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Phase 3: Exhaustion Current Approaches Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Current Approaches When stressors of poverty and unemployment become chronic, they can increase people’s chances of illness. People’s responses to stress vary according to their: • Learning history • Gender • Preexisting medical conditions • Genetic predispositions Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Immune System: PNI Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) The study of the relationships among psychology, the nervous and endocrine systems, and the immune system PNI researchers are particularly interested in the white blood cells that destroy harmful foreign bodies (antigens). Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. The Immune System: PNI Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Stress and the Mind At first, studies reported that optimism is better for health, well-being and longevity than pessimism. However, studies have since indicated both positive and negative outcomes for optimism and pessimism. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Conscientiousness and Control Locus of control: • A general expectation about whether the results of your actions are under your own control (internal locus) or beyond your control (external locus) • Feeling in control provides numerous beneficial outcomes, especially those related to stress Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. CULTURE AND CONTROL What Can We Change, and What Must We Accept? Cultures generally differ in the kind of control they emphasize and value. Western cultures: Eastern cultures: • Primary control • “Fighting back” philosophy • Secondary control • “Learn to live with it” philosophy Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.4 Stress and Emotion Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.4 Module Learning Objectives 11.4.A Summarize the evidence that negative emotions (such as hostility and depression) detract from health. 11.4.B Summarize the evidence that positive emotions contribute to health. 11.4.C Discuss how confession, forgiveness, and other forms of “letting grievances go” contribute to health benefits. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Hostility and Depression: Do They Hurt? • Personality type is less predictive of health problems than is hostility. • Proneness to anger is a major risk factor. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Hostility and Depression: Do They Hurt? Clinical depression is linked to at least a doubled risk of later heart attack and cardiovascular disease. • Lethargy • Overeating Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Positive Emotions: Do They Help? Positive emotions seem to be healthful, but it is difficult to separate cause and effect • Counteract high arousal • More creativity and motivation • More likely to attract friends and supporters Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Emotional Inhibition and Expression Continued inhibition of thoughts and emotions actually requires physical effort that can be stressful to the body. Two ways of letting go of negative emotions: • Confession • Forgiveness Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 11.6: Heartfelt Forgiveness Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.5 Coping with Stress Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. 11.5 Module Learning Objectives 11.5.A Discuss how emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping contribute to the problem-solving approach to dealing with stress. 11.5.B Describe three effective coping strategies that rely on rethinking the stressful problem at hand, and give an example of each. 11.5.C Discuss the ways in which friends can help or hinder successful coping efforts. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Coping with Stress Mindfulness meditation Calming activities Exercise Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Solving the Problem Emotion-focused coping Concentrating on the emotions the problem has caused Problem-focused coping Taking steps to solve the problem Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Rethinking the Problem Learning from the experience Reappraising the situation Making social comparisons Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Drawing on Social Support When Friends Help You Cope Friends can help: Friends and social support help to improve health and reduce stress Partner support: Touching can elevate levels of oxytocin, the hormone that induces relaxation Giving support to others can be a valuable source of comfort Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 11.7: Hugs and Health Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Drawing on Social Support Coping with Friends • In close relationships, the support person may also be the source of stress. • Married couples who argue in a hostile way have: – Increased elevations of stress hormones – Weakened immune systems • Friends may be unsupportive or offer the wrong kind of support. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education Inc. All rights reserved. UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE Emotion, Stress, and Motivation Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to: 6. Identify symptoms of various abnormal conditions. 6.1 Describe the facial expressions that were experienced during a stressful situation. 6.2 Detail the three phases of Hans Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS) while also providing an example of each stage from a personal stressful event. 7. Identify contributors to human action, motivation, and drive. 7.1 Explain how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs affect a stressful situation. Reading Assignment Chapter 11: Emotion, Stress, and Health Chapter 12: Motivation Additional Reading Assignment: In order to access the following resource, click the link below: Knapp. J. (2015, February 1). General adaptation syndrome model [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XADIs-A1iiM To view a transcript of this video, click here. PSY 1010, General Psychology 1 Unit Lesson Chapter 11: Emotion, Stress, and Health You look weird. Are you upset? Did I say something that irritated you? According to Wade and Tavris (2017), one can often detect various emotions by looking at the facial expressions of others. Across various cultures, an individual can readily notice when someone is sad, angry, or happy simply by looking at the person’s face. In this chapter, you will examine research related to emotions and how these feelings impact various parts of the body, both mentally and physically. For instance, have you ever noticed someone’s lip curl before? Did you immediately think the individual was disgusted or feeling some form of contempt? Ekman and Friesen (1988) conducted research in 10 countries and discovered that 75% of the respondents identified one’s expression of a unilateral lip curl to be a form of contempt. They reported that in many countries, this facial expression was viewed almost overwhelmingly as contempt, so the next time you have a mean thought, just remember, it is written all over your face. Do you always look at someone in the eye when he or she is speaking to you? Eye contact is an integral component of communication. Research has discovered that there is more than meets the eye when making eye contact. Hess (1975) conducted research in which he discovered that one’s pupil size is related to his or her level of arousal. He noticed that the pupils of most men and women became larger when viewing pictures of the opposite sex. On the other hand, when looking at pictures Facial expressions can tell a great deal about how of the same sex, he noticed that the pupils actually someone is feeling. What emotions do you think this constricted. Hess also observed these differences when woman is experiencing? individuals were seeking to solve problems. The pupils (We hope, 2012) reached maximum dilation when the individual arrived at the solution. Thusly, the small dots in our eyes are impacted by emotional and cognitive factors. What are your thoughts? The next time you see your significant other, go take a look in the mirror and examine your pupils. Are all smiles created equally? Ekman (1985) argues that individuals display various smiles. He posits that humans have different smiles for various situations: the embarrassment smile, the miserable smile, and the compliant smile, just to name a few. Have you ever noticed this? Does your smile change when you are attempting to put on a happy face? The next time someone smiles at you, begin to notice if there is a hidden message behind those lips. Have you ever been given the bird while driving in traffic? You know, it is the nonverbal gesture in which someone gives you a middle-finger salute in a not-so-pleasant manner. Nonverbal gestures can convey many messages in our society today; however, according to Axtell (1991), one must be careful when embracing certain gestures. For example, the extended index and pinky fingers in America signify a cry of victory for fans of the University of Texas Longhorns; on the other hand, this same sign equates to a curse in Africa. So, the next time you go to give someone a thumbs-up at a ballgame, make sure that the recipient knows you are applauding a job well done! Are you stressed out? Do you feel as if the weight of the world is constantly on your shoulders? Many individuals today live in a constant state of stress. As you continue with your studies, begin to examine the relationship of stress and one’s emotions. Many lingering stressors can cause physical harm to our bodies. Do you know someone who suffers from extreme migraines? Has anyone in your family been diagnosed with high blood pressure? There is a possibility that these individuals have not learned how to deal well with stress. Children are not immune to feeling stress either. Due to the many demands in school, extra-curricular activities, and community service, many children today are overscheduled, and this is causing undue stress. PSY 1010, General Psychology 2 What happened to the days when children had stress-free lives and simply enjoyed childlike activities? Examine the children around you. Do they seem overwhelmed with all of the activities on their plates? As you conclude your examination of this chapter, begin to think about your coping mechanisms. Do you have a friend in which you can confide? How well do you handle small and big fires that seem to creep up on a daily basis? Hans Selye proposed a widely accepted model of stress response. Watch the short video below to learn more. Knapp. J. (2015, February 1). General adaptation syndrome model [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XADIs-A1iiM To view a transcript of this video, click here. It is impossible to escape various stressors in life. Therefore, it becomes important to seek available resources to deal with issues as they arise. Our reactions to stress will directly impact our overall well-being. Think about it. You cannot escape the stress, but you can embrace better ways in which to deal with it! Chapter 12: Motivation Are you driven by intrinsic or extrinsic satisfaction? What motivates you to reach your goals? Wade and Tavris (2017) confront the issue of motivation in this chapter. As you read the textbook, you will quickly learn that human beings have several innate drives that influence one’s motivation in various areas: eating, love, sex, and achievement. Does size really matter? Although many cultures readily express disgust with overweight and obese individuals, in some cultures, the heavier one is, the more he or she is desired. According to Simmons (1998), a particular tribe in Nigeria values large, robust women. An overweight young lady is a sign of health, desirability, and prosperity. Many teenage girls take a sabbatical to the “fattening room” in order to increase their chances of catching the ideal mate. They gorge excessively on food to quickly increase their body fat and weight. What do you think about this tradition? Would you overeat to attract your soul mate? On the flip side of this controversy, some individuals are going to great lengths to lose weight. Many have developed eating disorders in a quest to achieve the ideal Barbie figure. As you read this section, weigh your thoughts on this topic. Does our society place too much emphasis on one’s weight? Has anyone ever told you that you look like your spouse or significant other? Research conducted by Zajonc, Adelmann, Murphy, and Niedenthal (1987) reveals that many couples grow to resemble each other after 25 years or more of marriage. Many factors are offered as explanation for why couples who seemingly look completely opposite when they first marry begin to look more like brother and sister after a couple of decades together. Diet is one factor that could contribute to this phenomenon. Many couples adopt the same eating habits, and their diets could contribute to physical resemblances. Environmental factors come into play as well. If a couple lives in a tropical climate with great exposure to sun, they will begin to develop similar skin patterns. However, the greatest factor argued by these scholars lies in facial musculature. Most of the couples studied shared common empathy for each other. The joys and sorrows felt by one spouse were shared by the other one as well. The various facial expressions shared over the years inflict an etching pattern on one’s muscles and produce skin tone changes. In essence, facial similarities emerge. So, what could this research mean for you? Do you want to look like your spouse in 20 years? Could advertising impact gender stereotyping? For instance, if there is a family shown in a commercial on television, is the father usually taller than the mother? Have you ever noticed that cooking ads usually involve women? Furthermore, have you viewed any commercials in which men worked in roles that were primarily dominated by women? According to Jones (1991), gender stereotypes have evolved over the years. What do you think? Have you noticed that women are now portraying different roles than they did 10 years ago? Challenge yourself to notice television and magazine ads this week. Do you think June Cleaver would successfully fit within a T-Mobile ad today? PSY 1010, General Psychology 3 Do you know someone who has a high sex drive? What makes one individual crave sex while another can completely loathe the mere thought of sexual intimacy? Many individuals possess various sexual fantasies and desires. Some fantasies might be considered extreme yet be perfectly within the law. On the other hand, some sexual drives are viewed as bizarre and have legal ramifications attached. For instance, necrophilia involves the urge to have sex with a corpse. It has been discovered that many serial killers have had sex with their victims as a last form of control. As you read this section, think about your own sexual desires and motives. Would you be considered normal by society’s standards? As you conclude your study of this section, begin to examine your motives for achievement. What Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Pontg95, 2016) motivates you to succeed? Does a high-paying job equate to job satisfaction? Wade and Tavris (2017) discuss several factors that influence our motivations for work. Both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards drive individuals. It is often a struggle to find a balance between the two. As you continue, reflect upon your pursuit of happiness. What makes you happy? According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, certain physiological needs must first be met in order for us to attain higher levels of satisfaction. What do you think? Has your definition of happiness changed in recent years? References Axtell, R. E. (1991). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language around the world. New York, NY: Wiley. Ekman, P. (1985). Telling lies. New York, NY: Norton. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1988). Who knows what about contempt: A reply to Izard and Haynes. Motivation and Emotion, 12, 17–22. Hess, E. H. (1975). The tell-tale eye: How your eyes reveal hidden thoughts and emotions. New York, NY: Van Nostrand. Jones, M. (1991). Gender stereotyping in advertisements. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 231-233. Pontg95. (2016, March 26). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs pyramid [Image]. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs_Pyramid.png Simmons, A. M. (1998, October 18). Fat is where it’s at for women in Nigerian state’s tradition. Austin American-Statesman, A21. Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2017). Psychology (12th ed.)[VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781323598269/ We hope. (2012, November 3). Carol Burnett 1958 [Image]. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carol_Burnett_1958.JPG PSY 1010, General Psychology 4 Zajonc, R. B., Adelmann, P. K., Murphy, S. T., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1987). Convergence in the physical appearance of spouses. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 335-346. Suggested Reading The links below will direct you to both a PowerPoint and PDF view of the Chapter 11 and 12 Presentations, which will summarize and reinforce the information from these chapters in your textbook. Click here to access the Chapter 11 PowerPoint Presentation. (Click here to access a PDF version of the presentation.) Click here to access the Chapter 12 PowerPoint Presentation. (Click here to access a PDF version of the presentation.) In order to access the following resources, click the links below: Let’s talk about sex! Although this phrase has been repeated in multiple pop culture lyrics over the years, the topic still remains a taboo subject. In fact, much controversy still surrounds this subject even in the 21st century. What makes one individual have a demanding sex drive while others could live without ever partaking in the event? Alfred Kinsey sought to examine various issues related to sex and our innate desires. In fact, much controversy engulfs his research. For extra enrichment, go to the CSU Online Library, and review two articles discussing Kinsey and his radical views in relation to sex. Coffin, J. G. (2010). Beauvoir, Kinsey, and mid-century sex. French Politics, Culture and Society, 28(2), 1837. Retrieved from https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=http://go.galegroup.com.libraryre sources.columbiasouthern.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=oran95108&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA2 37453459&asid=b4ea05644bebc045e0e1e496938478fb Epstein, J. (1998). The secret life of Alfred Kinsey. Commentary, 105(1), 35. Retrieved from https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=http://go.galegroup.com.libraryre sources.columbiasouthern.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=oran95108&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA2 0106534&asid=5077c7e096adc3b9f3dd038cb9ac3c3a Learning Activities (Non-Graded) Non-graded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information. Knowledge check! The short quizzes below are a great way to self-test your knowledge of the concepts learned in this unit. Take a few minutes to complete these quizzes to check your understanding. They are located in the textbook on the page(s) given. The answers are provided in the document below the quizzes, but try to answer the questions before checking the answers. Chapter 11 Quiz for Module 11.1 (page 390) Quiz for Module 11.2 (pages 394-395) Quiz for Module 11.3 (page 403) Quiz for Module 11.4 (page 407) Quiz for Module 11.5 (page 413) Chapter 11 Quiz (pages 416-417) Chapter 12 Quiz for Module 12.1 (page 426) Quiz for Module 12.2 (pages 432-433 Quiz for Module 12.3 (page 442) PSY 1010, General Psychology 5 Quiz for Module 12.4 (page 449) Quiz for Module 12.5 (page 452) Chapter 12 Quiz (pages 455-456) Answer Keys Click here for the Chapter 11 answer keys. Click here for the Chapter 12 answer keys. Movies for Enrichment Review Various movies exist that illustrate aspects of motivation. The movies listed below relate to hunger, aggression, and Maslow’s hierarchy of motives. For additional enrichment, take a couple of hours to review one or more of these movies to identify various aspects related to motivational concepts.     A Clockwork Orange (1971) Eating (1990) Gaby: A True Story (1981) The Karate Kid (1984) PSY 1010, General Psychology 6
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