13 Culture and Human Inference Perspectives from Three Traditions Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. KAIPING PENG, DANIEL R. AMES, & ERIC D. KNOWLES Human inference—that is, the ability to make judgments—is a basic psychological process that cuts across areas of study in psychology, from perception and cognition through social behavior and reasoning. It is an area that has been well studied not only in mainstream psychology in the United States, but also across many other cultures of the world, by psychologists, anthropologists, and philosophers alike. In this chapter, Peng, Ames, and Knowles provide a comprehensive review of the cross-cultural literature on human inference. They first describe three major perspectives that have provided much of the impetus for the work conducted to date—the value, self, and theory tradition. In particular, they describe the basic tenets of each tradition and highlight their contributions to the conduct of research and theoretical understanding of human inference. A major part of their chapter presents a state-of-the-art review of the cross-cultural research in specific domains of inference, including domains in inductive reasoning, as well as deductive and formal reasoning. Their review of these areas is superb and draws attention to the major findings in the field, which cut across cognitive, personality, and social psychology. The major contribution of the work of Peng et al., however, is their attempt to integrate the three major perspectives into a single, synthesized model of cultural influence on human inference. They point out, and correctly so, that mainstream psychology is too quick to latch on to single viewpoints, examining psychological processes solely from those single viewpoints to the exclusion of other views of the same process. One is quickly reminded from their points here about the story of different people viewing a different part of the same elephant or of the Humpty Dumpty story as described in a previous chapter in this book. Peng et al. also point out that such an exclusive focus on single perspectives of psychological phenomena runs the danger of becoming fragmented into more pieces, further shattering the whole into more unidentifiable parts. Instead, Peng et al. distill an integrated theory of cultural influences on human inference, suggesting the ways in which the value, self, and theory traditions may all be true and all work together in a collectively efficient manner to influence human inference. While they describe for the reader different traditions of thought among Western linear thought, logical determinism, and Eastern holism and contradiction and 245 Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 246 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. how these influence human inference, at the same time they provide an important lesson about cultural influences on theory construction as they employ a framework of holism and synthesis to a field that is fragmented. In this way, there are two lessons to be learned from their approach, one concerning the content of their work (i.e., about their model of human inference) and the other concerning their method of theory construction. Given their synthesized view of human inference, Peng et al. suggest clearly that the most important challenge for future study in this area concerns the need for methodologies that are meaningful at both psychological and cultural levels, that are both tractable and precise, while at the same time nuanced and sensitive. They call for a rapprochement between the methods and theories of cross-cultural and cultural psychology, at the same time espousing the guiding methodological principles of mainstream research, including concerns for objectivity, validity, generalization, and causal explanation. Their call for rapprochement and integration among theories, methods, and approaches, including quantitative and qualitative ones, strikes a chord similar to the message provided by many other authors in this volume and is necessary if cross-cultural psychology will be able to continue to evolve in the creation of universal models of psychological processes, as Peng et al. have proposed, and to test them adequately. Two decades ago, American social psychologists Nisbett and Ross (1980) published their now classic book, Human Inference, a broad survey of how judgments, particularly about the social world, unfold from evidence and reasoning. D’Andrade, a notable cognitive anthropologist, read the book and pronounced it a “good ethnography.” The authors were dismayed: They thought they had written a universal account of inference and cognition, describing social judgment processes in a relatively timeless and culture-free way. Most of their colleagues at the time agreed. However, in the ensuing 20 years, cultural psychology has blossomed, some of it pursued by Nisbett and Ross. The accumulating evidence on cultural differences in inference is clear, and Nisbett and Ross now agree that their original work amounts to something of an ethnographic study of inference in a single culture, the United States (see Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, in press). What has happened in the past two decades that changed the minds of these and other psychologists studying human judgment, leading them to believe previous efforts on human inference are useful, but culturally bound? What has cultural psychology revealed about the role of culture in human inference? In this chapter, we review an ongoing revolution that examines the cultural nature of judgment and thinking. Evidence suggests that so-called basic processes such as attribution and categorization do not play out in the same ways among all human groups—and the differences go beyond superficial variety in content. A variety of empirical studies on culture and inference, mostly works completed in the past decade, is utilized to illustrate the cultural characteristics of human inference. But, before reviewing this evidence, we examine three prominent psychological approaches to studying culture: the well-established value and self traditions and the emerging theory tradition. Each has a distinct way of conceiving culture and makes different kinds of claims about the relationship between culture and inference. Our brief introduction of these traditions lays the groundwork for an overview of psychological research findings. After recounting the findings, we return to the traditions and propose an integrated way for thinking about the rich and wide-ranging connections between culture and human inference. Perspectives on Culture and Human Inference It is no great exaggeration to suggest that the biggest challenge to culture-oriented scholars of human inference is the issue of the independent variable, “What is culture?” Wide-ranging answers are available from a host of disciplines, variously including shared meaning systems, cultural personality or ethos, practices and habits, institutions and social structures, artifacts and tools, and everything that takes place in human psychological life and interaction be- Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE yond what is dictated by our genes. However, for psychological researchers to gain traction on the issue of human inference, they must “unpack” culture and adopt a position on how to define and reflect culture in their work (Ames & Peng, 1999b; Betancourt & Lopez, 1993; Rohner, 1984; Whiting, 1976). There is likely no single best definition of culture or way of studying the effects of culture. Rather, research psychologists highlight various aspects of culture, adopting inevitably imperfect, but workable, assumptions about what culture is. In psychological work related to human inference, there have been two dominant traditions over the last 20 years: one that arranges cultures by their distinct value systems and one that contrasts cultures in terms of their conceptions of selfhood. More recently, another tradition has emerged that describes cultures in terms of a variety of widely shared implicit folk theories. We review each of these perspectives in turn, but note that they have many assumptions and techniques in common; individual scholars—and even individual studies—may draw on several or all of these approaches. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Value Tradition Many people who have traveled or lived outside their home country have a sense that people in other cultures possess values different from their own. In some way, these values could be taken as defining culture itself, and systematic differences in values—especially in a small collection of “core” values—could be seen as providing some structure for thinking about cultural differences. This, broadly, is the approach advocated by a large number of cultural psychologists (e.g., P. B. Smith & Bond, 1999, p. 69). A pioneering figure from these ranks is Hofstede (1980), who some 20 years ago compiled an almost unparalleled data set: He administered a survey of values to nearly 120,000 IBM employees in 40 countries. Hofstede factor analyzed the data at the country level (as a proxy for culture) and found four dimensions, which he labeled power distance (willingness to tolerate differences in power and authority), individualism (versus collectivism; orientation toward individual or group), masculinity (versus femininity; the former stressing achievement and material success, the latter stressing harmony and caring), and uncertainty avoidance (willingness to tolerate ambiguity). Hofstede’s 247 approach has been pursued by a number of other scholars, including Schwartz (1991; Schwartz and Sagiv, 1995), who argues that 10 important values (such as tradition, security, power, and stimulation) form a universal structure across two dimensions: openness to change/conservation and self-transcendence/self-enhancement. According to Schwartz, any given culture has an identifiable position in this value space that allows it to be compared with other cultures. A number of scholars have examined crosscultural differences in inference and judgment by focusing on particular value dimensions. Shweder (1995), for instance, explored the value of spiritual purity among Hindu Indians. Meanwhile, Leung (1997) examined how East Asian harmony values affect justice perceptions and decisions, such as reward allocation. However, the most widespread research program in the value tradition has focused on one of the dimensions identified by Hofstede: individualism-collectivism. This dimension reflects an orientation toward one’s own needs and impulses (individualism) or toward the needs and dictates of one’s social groups, such as families and communities (collectivism). Individualism-collectivism has drawn a great deal of attention from cross-cultural researchers, and some observers see it as the most overarching theory of cultural psychology (Triandis, 1995). Scholars have made this dimension operational at both the country level (assigning “individualism scores” to countries) and at the individual level (with studies gauging individual participants’ values). Most often, East Asians are seen as more collectivist, while North Americans and Europeans are viewed as individualist. How does the value tradition prepare us to think about cultural differences in inference? Three main points emerge. First, in frequently highlighting individualism-collectivism as a central dimension, the value approach draws our attention to inferences that concern judgments about groups and about how individuals relate to groups. If a main source of cultural differences occurs in the attitudes of members about their groups and group relations, we would expect to find considerable accompanying cultural variance in inferences related to groups and membership. Second, and more broadly, the value tradition underscores the importance of prescriptive stances in construal and judgment. Scholars in this tradition do not simply make causal claims about values that affect other values and Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 248 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY choices (such as claims about a general stance of individualism that affects a narrow attitude toward wanting to take credit for some good outcomes). Rather, claims are made that connect values to inferences and resulting beliefs (e.g., between individualism and the belief that a single person is the cause for a good performance). What is the connection between these prescriptive and descriptive stances? How do norms shape inferences from evidence? The value tradition draws attention to such questions. A third, and related, consideration prompted by the values approach is a pragmatic or functionalist one: What are the consequences of certain inferences in, for example, a collectivist culture? If collectivism describes a system of norms, those norms comprise an important part of the environment in which inferences must be “lived out.” Thus, the value approach prompts consideration of how inferences are shaped by the consequences they might entail in particular cultural contexts. We return to this issue of consequences, as well as to the issue of prescription-description, in our concluding analysis of the three traditions. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Self Tradition Beginning a century ago with James (1890), the construct of “self” has been widely regarded by scholars as playing a key role in much psychological functioning (see Markus & Cross, 1990, for a review). Although James and many of his Western intellectual heirs have voiced the caveat that the self may be experienced differently in various cultural systems, there has been little psychological research on this issue until recently. Is self a cultural concept? A chorus of researchers answers “Yes” and suggests it is perhaps the most important cultural concept. Contemporary thinking about culture and self has been led by Markus and Kitayama (1991), who suggest not only that the psychology of self varies across cultures, but also that self-conceptions may be at the very heart of what culture is. Markus, Kitayama, and others have described culturally driven ways of “being” a self, focusing specifically on two types of self: independent and interdependent. An independent construal of self, prevalent in the West, is characterized by a sense of autonomy, of being relatively distinct from others. In contrast, the interdependent construal of self, prevalent in Asia, is characterized by an emphasis on the interrelatedness of the individual to oth- ers; self-identity is more diffused socially across important others rather than strictly bounded with the individual. There is an obvious similarity between these self-concepts and individualism-collectivism. However, it is worth noting the descriptive, as well as the prescriptive, nature of these positions. We might crudely characterize the slogan of collectivism as “My in-group is important,” while an interdependent self might be described as “My in-group is who I am.” A host of research by Markus and Kitayama (e.g., 1991), Heine and Lehman (e.g., 1995, 1997), Singelis (e.g., 1994), and others has explored this cultural dimension of selfhood. Other scholarship on culture and self has emerged as well, including Shweder’s (1995) description of divinity in selfhood among Hindu Indians; in this case, self is not so much distributed socially across other persons (as with an interdependent self), but distributed spiritually across reincarnations and all living things. What guidance does the self tradition provide regarding cultural differences in human inference? Two major considerations emerge. First, understanding the social network that could potentially be implicated in a perceiver’s self-concept becomes critical. A perceiver’s attention to others in this network may be driven by his or her self-concept; the self-concept would likely also affect how others in this network are treated in judgments. Second, highlighting the self-concept encourages us to expand our view of the domains of inference in which self-construal matters. In other words, the impact of self-concept can be found in domains beyond self-judgment. Cognitive dissonance, for instance, might seem unrelated to the self, but Heine and Lehman (1997) argue that Japanese experience less dissonance than Canadians because of how they understand social contexts and the self. Theory Tradition The traditions of value and self have attracted many cultural psychologists over the last 20 years. These perspectives have revealed many insights and continue to do so. However, an increasing amount of cultural scholarship is not based on a person’s notions of self or value systems, but on various folk theories and beliefs shared by a culture’s members. There is no single theme of content (like “individualism”) that unifies this emerging tradition, but rather there is an inclination to identify and measure im- Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE plicit folk theories at a rather specific level—a level, moreover, that ties directly into inference and judgment. Work in this tradition does not attempt to measure culture in its entirety, but rather selects particular domains and attempts to describe judgments by culturally driven beliefs. Members of a culture share a variety of widespread stances that scholars have described in terms of cultural models (Holland & Quinn, 1987); cosmologies (Douglas, 1982); social representations (Moscovici, 1984; Wagner, 1997); cultural representations (Boyer, 1993; Sperber, 1990); naive ontologies and epistemologies (Ames & Peng, 1999b; Peng & Nisbett, 1999); and folk psychologies, biologies, sociologies, and physics (e.g., Ames, 1999; Atran, 1990; Fiske, 1992; Lillard, 1998; Peng & Knowles, 2000; Vosniadou, 1994). One way of describing these stances is to consider them implicit theories (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995; Vallacher & Wegner, 1987) about the world that persons in particular communities have in common to varying degrees. The particular theories studied vary widely. Chiu, Hong, and Dweck (1997), for instance, examined implicit theories about personality change: Americans tend to assume considerable constancy in personality, while Hong Kong Chinese often expect malleability. Elsewhere, Ames and Peng (1999a) showed that, compared to Americans, Chinese are guided by more holistic theories of impression evidence in getting to know a target person. The research of Menon, Morris, Chiu, and Hong (1999) suggests that Americans’ theories of groups lead them to assign less causality and responsibility at the group level, while Chinese, led by different theories, are more willing to make such attributions. Given this variety of topics, the theory approach to culture is identifiable by a common set of assumptions and methodologies—stances largely shared with the emerging implicit theories perspective in psychology in general (Dweck, 1996; Wegner & Vallacher, 1977). Some of these assumptions are shared with scholarship in the self and value traditions, but the theory tradition seems distinct in its specificity of constructs and variety of domains. What distinct insights does the theory tradition offer regarding culture and the psychology of inference? Two novel points emerge. First, the implicit theory approach offers compelling ways for describing variance across persons and groups and change across time. Personality psychologists are increasingly using implicit 249 theories to capture the differences between individuals (e.g., Dweck, 1996); some developmental psychologists, meanwhile, describe the course of cognitive development in terms of theory adoption and use (e.g., Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1997). At the culture level, the theory approach offers dynamic models for describing how widespread beliefs are transmitted, flourish, and fade—and for what kinds of beliefs might be likely to prosper (Boyer, 1993; Moscovici, 1984; Sperber, 1990; Strauss & Quinn, 1997). The implicit theory approach also lends itself readily to cultural differences within a given geographic region, such as within a country. A second contribution is that the theory approach points toward comparatively precise models of culturally influenced psychological process. Culture is made operational at a representational level as a knowledge structure (a folk theory) that supports and guides inference. As Ames and Peng (1999b) note, implicit theories can play a direct role in inferences, with perceivers invoking a theory to go beyond the information given (e.g., use of a stereotype in which a target’s gender yields an inference about their aggressive tendencies). Theories can also play a management role in inference, guiding how evidence and other theories are recruited and used (Ames & Peng, 1999b). For instance, an epistemological theory about the value of contextual evidence does not itself yield a conclusion, but can guide a perceiver’s attention toward certain aspects of the environment. The effect of culture no doubt can be seen working at both these levels. Cultural Research on Human Inference These three traditions take different approaches to studying culture and human inference. What does each reveal about cultural differences in inference? Can they be integrated into some overarching framework? Are they somehow at odds with one another—and is one more preferable than the others? Before we answer these questions, we proceed first by reviewing evidence for cultural differences. We organize our review around two major domains of inference: induction and deduction. Here, we are concerned with findings rather than traditions, and we include as much relevant empirical work as possible. After this review of findings, we return to the issue of the three traditions and, Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 250 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY based on the evidence, search for an overarching framework. Inductive Reasoning As a working definition, we take induction to be the human ability to reach useful generalizations based on limited experience and information. These generalizations come in multiple forms, ranging from the apprehension of correlations between phenomena in the environment to the attribution of causes for physical and social events, and from the inference of a target person’s personality traits and mental states to the formation and use of categories. In this section, we argue that culture plays a role in each of these types of inductive inference. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Covariation Judgment Since the birth of behaviorism, psychologists have viewed the ability to perceive covariations between environmental stimuli accurately as a fundamental type of human inference (Alloy & Tabachnik, 1984). Perhaps because the processes that rely on covariation judgment (e.g., classical conditioning) are seen as so basic to human cognition, psychologists have only recently begun investigating the influence of culture on people’s ability to detect and evaluate associations. In one of the few studies to address this issue, Ji, Peng, and Nisbett (1999) examined covariation judgment among Chinese and Americans. Reasoning that the dialectical epistemology of Asians would make them especially sensitive to relations between stimuli, these researchers predicted that Asians would exceed Americans in their ability to evaluate the magnitude of associations between stimuli. Chinese and American participants were shown pairs of arbitrary figures on a computer screen; particular stimuli were correlated to varying degrees, and participants were asked to judge the degree of association. The results provide preliminary evidence for the influence of culture on covariation detection. Chinese were more confident than Americans about their covariation judgments, and their confidence judgments were better calibrated with the actual degree of covariation between figures. In addition, American participants showed a strong primacy effect, making predictions about future covariations that were more influenced by the first pairings they had seen than by the overall degree of covariation to which they had been exposed. In contrast, Chinese participants showed no primacy effect at all and made predictions about future covariation that were based on the covariation they had actually seen. Causal Attribution Covariation judgment is undeniably important to human survival; very often, however, people are not satisfied by merely estimating the magnitude of associations between environmental phenomena. People typically go further, assigning phenomena to their presumed causes. Lay causal analysis—or causal attribution—has been one of the most thoroughly studied areas in psychology. Below, we review evidence that, in both the social and physical domains, people’s attributions are influenced by culture. Social Domain The last two decades have seen a growing acknowledgment that culture guides people’s attributions for social phenomena (i.e., the social behavior of others). Prior to this recognition, however, psychologists often assumed that the findings of studies conducted in Western settings would generalize across cultures. One of most widely reported findings in (Western) attribution research is that people tend to see behavior as a product of the actor’s dispositions, while ignoring important situational causes of behavior. In an early demonstration of dispositional bias, Jones and Harris (1967) asked perceivers to infer a target’s attitude on a controversial political topic based on an essay written by the target. Participants were also given information about situational determinants of the target’s behavior that suggested against the usefulness of the speech in ascertaining the target’s true attitude—specifically, that the target had been required to write the essay by an authority figure. Despite having information about the power of the situation, most participants were willing to infer a behavior-correspondent attitude. After this and other classic demonstrations, confidence in the universality of dispositional bias ran high—so high, in fact, that psychologists dubbed the bias the “fundamental attribution error” (Ross, 1977). The assumption of universality is reflected in theoretical accounts of attribution, which portray dispositional inference as the product of gestalt (Heider, 1958; Jones, 1990) or ecological (Baron & Misovich, 1993) perceptual processes presumed to be similar across cultures. Work by Miller (1984) first suggested that the fundamental attribution error might not Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE be so fundamental. She found that, whereas Americans explained the behavior of others predominantly in terms of traits (e.g., recklessness or kindness), Hindu Indians explained comparable behaviors in terms of social roles, obligations, the physical environment, and other contextual factors. This finding calls into question the universality of dispositional bias and, by extension, attribution theories that link dispositional inference to universal perceptual mechanisms. Miller’s work instead suggested that attributions for social events are largely the product of culturally instilled belief systems that stress the importance of either dispositional or situational factors in producing social behavior. Numerous researchers have extended Miller’s (1984) basic finding—in which Asians focus more on situational factors in explaining behavior than do Westerners—to a wide range of cultures and social phenomena. While we cannot present an exhaustive review of crosscultural attribution research (see Choi, Nisbett, & Norenzayan, 1999, for a more extensive treatment), we survey some representative studies below. American explanations for events such as mass murders were shown by Morris and Peng (1994; see also Morris, Nisbett, & Peng, 1995) to focus almost entirely on the presumed mental instability and other negative dispositions of the murderers, whereas Chinese accounts of the same events referred more to situational and societal factors. The researchers then replicated this cultural difference using visual stimuli that depicted animal movements. Participants were presented with cartoon displays of a target fish moving relative to the school in a variety of ways. Each pattern of movement was ambiguous in that the movement of the target fish could be attributed to dispositional causes (e.g., the fish is a leader) or situational causes (e.g., the fish is being chased by the school). As expected, Chinese participants were more likely to see the behavior of the individual fish as being produced by situational factors than were Americans. Other researchers have documented cultural diversity in attributions for more mundane, everyday events. For instance, F. Lee, Hallahan, and Herzog (1996) found that sports editorial writers in Hong Kong focused on situational explanations of sports events, whereas American sports writers were more likely to prefer explanations that involved the dispositions of individual team members. Choi et al. (1999) found that Korean participants, unlike Ameri- 251 can participants, did not underutilize consensus information (i.e., information about the behavior of other people) when making attributions—information that logically should be used to gauge the power of situational factors. Likewise, Norenzayan, Choi, and Nisbett (1999) found that Korean participants were more responsive to contextual factors when making predictions about how people in general would behave in a given situation and, much more than American participants, made use of their beliefs about situational power when predicting the behavior of a particular individual. Choi and Nisbett (1998) duplicated the basic conditions of the Jones and Harris (1967) study, adding a condition in which, before making judgments about the target’s attitude, participants were required to write an essay and were allowed no choice about which side to take. It was made clear to participants that the target had been through the same procedure the participants had. Participants were then asked to judge the target’s true attitude. The American participants in this condition made inferences about the target’s attitude that were as strong as those made by participants in the standard no-choice condition. Korean participants, in contrast, made much less extreme inferences. Thus, Korean participants, presumably by virtue of seeing the role that the situation played in their own behavior, recognized the power of the context and made attributions about others accordingly. Similar results were obtained by Kitayama and Masuda (1997) in Japan. These researchers duplicated the procedure of Gilbert and Jones (1986), in which participants were paired with a confederate and told one of them would be randomly assigned to read an essay written by a third person. After the confederate was chosen to read the essay, American observers assumed that the target individual actually held the position advocated in the speech. Although Masuda and Kitayama found strong attitude inferences in line with the speech for Japanese subjects in the standard nochoice condition, they found none at all when it was made clear that the target individual was simply reading an essay written by someone else. Physical Domain Unlike attributions for social phenomena, relatively little research has examined the influence of culture on lay explanations for physical events. Nonetheless, there is reason to believe that folk theories of physical causality differ between Western and Asian Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 252 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY cultures, and that these differences may lead to culturally divergent interpretations of physical phenomena. Many scholars have argued that Asian folk physics is relational and dialectical, stressing conceptions of “field” and “force over distance” (Capra, 1975; Needham, 1954, 1962; Zukav, 1980). On the other hand, Western folk physics is seen as preferring internal and dispositional causes, explaining physical phenomena in terms of “the nature of the object concerned” rather than the relation of objects to the environment (Lewin, 1935, p. 28). Peng and Knowles (2000) presented evidence that this difference in intellectual tradition may affect everyday interpretations of physical events. These researchers presented Chinese and American individuals with physical interactions involving “force-over-distance” causality resembling hydrodynamic, aerodynamic, or magnetic phenomena. In explaining these events, Chinese participants were more likely to refer to the field, whereas Americans were more likely to refer solely to factors internal to the object. The researchers concluded that development within Asian cultures instilled individuals with a relational, field-oriented folk physics, while Western cultures instilled their members with a more dispositional, analytic folk physics (also see Peng & Nisbett, 1996). Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Person Perception Our inferences about other persons are crucial to our everyday lives. We frequently and fluidly make judgments about those around us: what they’re like, how they’re feeling, what they want. These judgments are certainly related to attribution, but differ in an important way: Whereas attribution concerns assigning cause and responsibility to events, person perception concerns assigning qualities to persons. For instance, if Beth’s new assistant Andrew acts aggressively toward her, Beth might consider attributing the behavior to Andrew’s dispositional aggression or to some other event that made Andrew angry—a case of both attribution and person perception. However, if Beth is deciding whether or not to ask Charles to be her new assistant and gets letters of recommendation from Charles’ teachers and former employers and also interviews Charles, integrating this information to form a judgment is more a case of person perception (“solving for a person”) than attribution (“solving for an event”). Not surprisingly, person perception inferences take on different forms in different cultures. Here, we only briefly review selected findings in two areas of person perception: impression formation and the inference of mental states. Impression Formation What kinds of impressions do we form about persons? One theme that emerges is the willingness to see personal qualities as fixed and enduring or malleable and changing (Dweck, 1996). This difference seems to map well onto the cultural dimension of independent and interdependent selves: The former notion features a more fixed self, the latter describes a changeable, context-based self. This connection was pursued by C. Y. Chiu, Hong, and Dweck (1997) in their comparison of dispositional judgments by American and Hong Kong perceivers. As the literature on the self would predict, these researchers found a main effect of culture: American perceivers were more willing than Hong Kong perceivers to ascribe fixed, enduring traits to targets. Dweck, Chiu, and Hong (1995) also measured the individual theories of the perceivers about the nature of dispositions: A high score on their dispositionalism scale indicated a belief in fixed, unchanging traits. There was a culture difference in dispositionalism, with Americans scoring higher. Following in the theory tradition, Dweck and colleagues demonstrated that this implicit theory of dispositionalism mediated the effect of culture on perceivers’ trait judgments. It appears that perceivers in the East may be less oriented toward making ascriptions of dispositions to targets. Are there also differences in the kinds of evidence that are sought out and used in forming impressions? Research by Ames and Peng (1999a) suggests there are. Following from cultural research on self, dispositionalism, and dialecticism, Ames and Peng proposed that Americans would be more focused on evidence directly from or about a target (e.g., a self-description), while Chinese would be more focused on contextual evidence (e.g., a description of the target by a friend, a description of the target’s friend). Across a variety of studies, just such a pattern emerged. Americans expressed greater preference for target-focused evidence and made greater use of target self-descriptions in their evaluations of targets. Inference of Mental States How know what others are thinking, wanting? Recent work suggests state epistemologies may differ Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. is it that we feeling, and that mental by culture. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE Knowles and Ames (1999) suggested that Western cultures stress a “norm of authenticity” such that a person’s external actions and displays should be consistent with their internal attitudes. “Saying what’s on your mind” and “straight talk” are sought-after qualities in the West. Eastern cultures, meanwhile, may view such displays as impolite and potentially bizarre. The role of hosts in many Asian countries, for instance, is to intuit a guest’s unspoken needs, while guests are often expected to defer and not betray self-centered desires. Knowles and Ames (1999) collected initial evidence documenting such an epistemic difference in the United States and China. When asked how important various pieces of evidence are in determining what someone is thinking, Americans, on average, rate “what they say” as more important than “what they do not say,” while Chinese show the reverse preference. The same pattern holds for determining what someone is feeling or wanting. Mental state epistemology in the West may be as simple as listening: It is not uncommon to wish targets disclosed less about their beliefs, desires, intentions, and so forth. Reading minds in the East, however, may take other routes, such as nonverbal behavior. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Categorization Categorization is one of the most ubiquitous and important human mental activities and provides efficiency in memory and enables communication. Moreover, categories aid survival by allowing us to make educated guesses about the unseen properties of categorized objects (“That rustling behind the bush must be Johnny’s new pit bull. I bet it has a bad temper.”). Categorization is one of the most wellstudied areas of psychology, as well as the closely allied field of cognitive anthropology. Researchers have distinguished between three related questions. First, where do categories get their structure (the question of category coherence)? Second, how and when do people use categories to make inductions about unseen properties of objects (the question of category use)? Finally, how do individuals acquire new categories (the question of category learning)? There is growing evidence that culture is part of the answer to each of these questions. Category Coherence Of all the infinitely many ways one could divide the world, why do people show a decided preference for some categories (e.g., “dog”) and not others (e.g., “apple 253 or prime number”)? In other words, what makes some categories hang together or cohere? In her recent review of category coherence research, Malt (1995) noted a shift in psychologists’ thinking concerning the source of category coherence. Early psychological work tended to suppose that structure inherent in the environment determines which categories people will form. Most notably, Rosch and colleagues (Rosch & Mervis, 1975; Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, & Boyes-Braem, 1976) argued that perceptible features in the world are not distributed randomly across entities, but rather occur in clusters—for instance, “fur,” “four legged,” and “barks” tend to occur together. People take advantage of this environmental structure by grouping entities that share clusters of features into categories; for instance, entities in which fur, four legged, and barks cooccur are grouped into the category “dog.” While it is true that the human perceptual system must place constraints on which feature correlations people notice (Murphy & Medin, 1985), the work of Rosch and colleagues emphasizes the role of environmental structure in determining category coherence. A corollary of this view is that, to the extent the human perceptual system is the same everywhere, classification systems will be relatively impervious to the influence of higher level cognitive structures—such as those instilled by culture. More recent work, while not denying the role of environmental structure in lending coherence to taxonomic categories like “dog” and “fern,” points to the contribution of high-level cognitive structures in determining coherence of nontaxonomic categories. Barsalou (1983, 1985) drew attention to a class of categories that could not exist simply by virtue of their mapping onto environmental structures such as correlations between perceptible features. Specifically, “goal-based” categories are coherent because their members serve a common goal; for example, pencils and calculators, despite sharing few features, could both be grouped into the category “things used to take to a math exam.” Goal-based categories are highly susceptible to cultural influence since cultures undeniably shape the goals adopted by their members. To illustrate, things to take to a math exam is a coherent category for Western youths, but not for members of preliterate societies, whose members lack the goal of taking math exams. Work in cognitive anthropology and crosscultural psychology suggests that culture even Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. 254 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY plays a role in the coherence of taxonomic categories. Malt (1995) reviewed a number of ethnobiological studies that indicated that the degree to which a society subcategorizes a plant or animal domain corresponds in part to the cultural importance of that domain. Folk categorizers direct their attention disproportionately to domains of the most practical importance to their culture (e.g., edible plants and domesticated or dangerous animals) and as a result create narrower subordinate categories within those domains. This finding parallels psychological evidence that individuals with a history of allocating a disproportionate amount of attention to a particular domain—for instance, birdwatchers or dog aficionados—may develop “expertise” in that domain. Experts create more subdivisions within their domain of expertise than do nonexperts and categorize within the domain more quickly (Tanaka & Taylor, 1991). In sum, culture may affect the deployment of attention to different taxonomic domains, lending coherence to increasingly subordinate categories. Other anthropological and psychological research suggests that culture influences category coherence not only by directing attention, but also by changing the kinds of features used to bind categories together. López, Atran, Coley, Medin, and Smith (1997) found that, while Americans tended to categorize animals on the basis of size and ferocity, Itzaj-Mayan animal categories were based largely on relational— specifically, ecological—features, such as habitat and food consumption. Likewise, Atran and Medin (1997) found that Itzaj-Mayan informants grouped arboreal mammals partly according to the nature of their interactions with plants. Experimental research suggests that such a relational style of categorization plays an important role in Chinese culture. In 1972, L.-H. Chiu showed Chinese and American children sets of three pictures drawn from various domains and asked them to pick the two that went together. The dominant style of categorization for Chinese children was “relational-contextual.” For instance, shown a picture of a man, a woman, and a child, Chinese children were likely to group the woman and child together because “the mother takes care of the baby.” In contrast, American children were more likely to group objects on the basis on isolable properties, such as age (e.g., grouping the man and woman together because “they are both grownups”). Category-Based Induction In addition to organizing the world for purposes of memory and communication, categories serve the vital function of allowing people to go “beyond the information given.” Once an object has been categorized, category membership may be used as the basis for inferences about the object’s unseen or invisible properties; this process is referred to as category-based induction. For instance, knowing that an animal is a mammal allows one to infer that it probably bears live young and regulates its own body temperature. Work by Choi, Nisbett, and Smith (1997) suggests that category representations are less chronically accessible for Koreans than for Americans and thus are less readily used in category-based induction. In keeping with previous research on category-based induction (e.g., Osherson, Smith, Wilkie, López, and Shafir, 1990), Choi and colleagues made operationalized category-based induction using a premise-conclusion format. For instance, individuals might be presented with the following argument: Hippos have ulnar arteries. Hamsters have ulnar arteries. . . . . . . . . . . . Dogs have ulnar arteries. Participants are then asked the extent to which they believe the conclusion given the premises. In the above example, participants might use the premises to infer that mammals have ulnar arteries and thus place great confidence in the conclusion. The researchers increased category salience by mentioning the category in the conclusion (that is, participants made an inference about “mammals” rather than dogs). This manipulation had no effect on Americans, but increased the degree to which Koreans performed category-based induction. This suggests that categories have a lower chronic accessibility for Koreans and are thus more susceptible to priming. Category Learning There is evidence that culture may influence the processes through which people acquire new categories. Norenzayan, Nisbett, Smith, and Kim (2000), adopting a procedure used by Allen and Brooks (1991), presented East Asians and Americans with cartoon extraterrestrial creatures, indicating some were from Venus and some were from Saturn. One group of participants was asked to examine a series of creatures and make guesses, with feedback, about the category to which each Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. belonged. Other participants went through a more formal, rule-based category-learning procedure. In this condition, participants were told to pay attention to five different properties of the animals and were told that if the animal had any three of these properties, it was from Venus; otherwise, it was from Saturn. Although Asian and American participants performed equally well at the exemplar-based categorization task, the response times of Asian participants were slower in the rule-based condition. Most telling, when presented with an animal that met the formal criteria for a certain category, but more closely resembled animals in the other category—thus placing rule-based and exemplar-based criteria in conflict—Asians made more classification errors than did Americans. The Category of Self The idea of “self” being a category like “mammal” or “hammer” may seem peculiar at first glance, but after considering cultural differences, seeing self as a culturally varying category becomes something of an obligation. Considerable research attention has been directed at how perceivers in the West and East describe themselves. The results reveal several themes, most notably that perceivers in the West see the self as more bounded and concrete, while perceivers in the East see the self as more socially diffused, changeable, and context bound. In 1998, A. P. Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, and Nisbett reviewed much of the relevant research and showed that Americans are more likely to describe themselves in abstract, fixed ways (e.g., using trait terms such as “friendly”), while Koreans, Japanese, and Chinese are more likely to refer to social roles and other people (e.g., “I am Jane’s friend”). Elsewhere, Shweder (1995) explored the Hindu Indian self-concept. Whereas Americans appear to possess an independent view of self, and Southeast Asians seem to see the self as more socially distributed, Shweder argued that the Indian notion of self invokes notions of divinity. With beliefs in reincarnation, karma, and the interconnectedness of all living things, the category of self comes to include multiple lifetimes and life forms. Deduction and Formal Reasoning In this section, we review findings about the role of culture in deduction and formal reasoning. Deduction has a rather well-accepted meaning: moving from information that is given to information that follows with certainty or 255 necessity (e.g., given that all donuts have holes, if X is a donut, then it must have a hole). By formal reasoning, we mean to broaden our scope somewhat to include a variety of judgments based on propositions or highly distilled arguments. Here, we note selected cultural research on syllogistic reasoning and dialectical reasoning, particularly in the domain of thinking about contradiction. Historically, it was often assumed that such abilities were universal—or at least took on a single form such that cultural differences could be ascribed to performance or intellectual differences (see Cole, 1996). However, a host of scholars have revealed culture-specific concepts and approaches, differences that seem much more reflective of fundamental epistemologies and cultural assumptions than individual competence. Syllogistic Reasoning Russian psychologist Luria (1931) was an early explorer of syllogistic reasoning and culture. In his studies in remote areas of Russia, participants were given what most Western scholars would view as a straightforward task of deduction. Participants were told that all bears in the North are white, and that a particular village was in the North. Participants were then asked the color of the bears in the village. Most failed to answer the question—and many questioned the basic premises of the task, suggesting, for instance, that the researcher go to the village and find out firsthand. Cole (1996) replicated part of Luria’s (1931) work in Africa and similarly found that many participants did not engage the question at the theoretical level. Participants were given premises such as, “If Juan and Jose drink a lot of beer, the mayor of the town gets angry,” and, “Juan and Jose are drinking a lot of beer now.” In this case, participants were asked to judge if the mayor was angry with Juan and Jose. Some participants treated the question theoretically, but many others saw it as an empirical issue and gave answers such as, “No, so many men drink beer, why should the major get angry?” A century ago, such supposed “deficits” of reasoning might have been seen as evidence of lack of intelligence and cultural development. Now, most scholars would agree that such performance is not a deficit, but rather highlights distinct cultural models of reasoning (D’Andrade, 1995). Indeed, Luria (1931) and Cole (1996) came to stress practical, everyday activity and cultural artifacts as central to culture- Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 256 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY specific reasoning: It may be useless, and perhaps harmful, to presume that abstract Western tasks such as syllogistic reasoning are the gold standard of reasoning and deductive ability. D’Andrade (1995) suggested that reasoning relies on learned cultural models (such as inference rules) and may also incorporate physical cultural artifacts (like an abacus). Using the Wason task, a widely employed puzzle that putatively tests logical reasoning, D’Andrade showed that successful performance depends overwhelmingly on how the puzzle is framed in terms of everyday knowledge and ordinary domains. Framed as an abstract issue in a “label factory,” participants do poorly; framed as a question about the drinking age, participants excel. Such real-world grounding has similar effects across a variety of syllogistic and other kinds of reasoning tasks (D’Andrade, 1995). Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Dialectical Reasoning While few people share the logician’s ability and enthusiasm for formal reasoning, it is tempting to characterize most everyday thinkers as broadly adhering to some core tenets of argument that have been mobilized since Aristotle’s time—for instance, the “law of noncontradiction,” which implies that no statement can be both true and false. However, Peng and Nisbett (Peng, 1997; Peng & Nisbett, 1999) have shown that such a characterization might best be limited to Western thinkers; East Asians, they argue, subscribe to a different epistemology, with different rules for constructing arguments and making judgments. This work highlights the fact that deductive and other kinds of reasoning hinge on underlying epistemological assumptions about what knowledge and truth are and how one can know them—assumptions that can vary by culture. Peng and Nisbett (1999) describe Western reasoning as embracing three core laws. The law of identity (A = A) denotes that everything must be identical with itself. The law of the excluded middle (A is either B or not-B) implies that any statement is either true or false; there are no half-truths. The law of noncontradiction (A is not equal to not-A) proposes that no statement can be both true and false. On their face, such notions seem to fit with a variety of Western psychological phenomena, such as naive realism (e.g., Ross & Ward, 1996) and essentialism (e.g., Gelman & Medin, 1993), as well as a seeming abhorrence of vacillation and falsehood. Following various philosophers and historians of the East and West (Liu, 1974; Lloyd, 1990; Needham, 1954, 1962; Zhang & Chen, 1991), Peng and Nisbett (1999) argued that a different approach obtains in Eastern folk thinking: a dialectical epistemology. This folk dialecticism differs from the rarified (“dialectical”) philosophies of Hegel and Marx in that these approaches often assume or insist on some original contradiction or opposition that is then resolved; the Eastern folk dialectical epistemology Peng and Nisbett describe accepts and even embraces contradiction rather than attempting to “fix” or resolve it. Peng and Nisbett (1999) described three assumptions that underpin the Eastern dialectical epistemology. First, the principle of change suggests that reality is a dynamic process; something need not be identical with itself because reality is fluid and changing. Second, the principle of contradiction notes that, since change is constant, contradiction is constant; the very nature of the world is such that old and new, good and bad, exist at the same time in the same object or event. Third, the principle of holism holds that, since change and contradiction are constant, nothing in human life or nature is isolated and independent; rather, all things are related, and attempts to isolate elements of a larger whole can only be misleading. Peng and Nisbett (1999) claimed that these sets of assumptions form two kinds of folk epistemologies: a dialectical epistemology that is more widespread in the East and a more linear/ logical epistemology that is more widespread in the West. Of course, elements from each epistemology are shared by many or all cultures, but the comparative prevalence of these implicit theories suggests cross-cultural studies might reveal how culture-specific epistemologies affect inference. We turn now to evidence on culture and dialectical thinking. Folk Wisdom on Dialectical Thinking Peng and Nisbett (1999) examined folk knowledge as embodied in books of proverbs. They found that dialectical proverbs that pose a contradiction or assertion of instability (e.g., “Too humble is half-proud”) were more common among Chinese proverbs than among English ones. When nondialectical (e.g., “Half a loaf is better than none”) and dialectical proverbs were selected from among Chinese and English proverbs equally and given to Chinese and American undergraduates to evaluate, Chinese participants had a greater preference for the Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE dialectical proverbs than did American participants. The same pattern of preference emerged with Yiddish proverbs, stimuli equally unfamiliar to both Chinese and Americans. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Dialectical Resolution of Social Contradictions Peng and Nisbett (1999) presented Chinese and American students with a variety of contradictions drawn from everyday life. For example, participants were asked to analyze conflicts between mothers and their daughters and between having fun and going to school. American responses tended to come down clearly in favor of one side or the other (e.g., mothers should respect their daughters’ independence). Chinese responses were more likely to find a middle way that attributed fault to both sides and attempted to reconcile the contradiction (e.g., both the mothers and the daughters failed to understand each other). Dialecticism and Preferred Argument Form In a study examining argument preferences, Peng (1997) gave Chinese and American participants two different types of arguments—a logic-based one refuting contradiction and a dialectical one—for several issues. In one case, participants read arguments against Aristotle’s proposition that a heavier object falls to the ground first. The logical argument summarized Galileo’s famous thought experiment: If a heavy object is joined to a lighter one, they now have a weight greater than the lighter object alone and hence should fall faster; on the other hand, extending Aristotle’s view, the lighter object should act as a brake and therefore the combined object should fall more slowly. Since these entailments form a contradiction, it is possible to reject the original proposal that objects of a different weight fall at different speeds. The dialectical argument, meanwhile, was based on a holistic approach to the problem: Since Aristotle isolated objects from possible surrounding factors (e.g., wind, weather, and height), the proposition must be wrong. For several such issues, Chinese expressed a greater preference for the dialectical arguments, while Americans were drawn to the linear, logical arguments. Tolerance of Apparent Contradiction One of the strongest implications of the notion that Westerners adhere to a logical analysis of problems is that, when presented with contradictory propositions, they should be inclined to reject one in favor of the other. Easterners, on the 257 other hand, might be inclined to embrace both propositions, finding them each to have merit. In one study, Peng and Nisbett (1999) presented participants either with one proposition or with two propositions that were seemingly contradictory. For instance, one proposition used was, “A developmental psychologist studied adolescent children and asserted that those children who were less dependent on their parents and had weaker family ties were generally more mature.” In some cases, this was paired with a second, apparently contradictory statement: “A social psychologist studied young adults and asserted that those who feel close to their families have more satisfying social relationships.” Participants read one, the other, or both of these and then rated the plausibility of the statements they read. Across five issues, Chinese and American participants agreed on which of the two statements offered was more plausible (i.e., a main effect of statement). However, when reading the statements in pairs, Americans found the predominantly plausible statement even more plausible than when reading it alone: They bolstered their belief in the plausible statement that it was presented along with a contradiction (cf. Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979). In contrast, Chinese participants expressed lower plausibility ratings for the predominant statement when it was paired with a contradiction, seemingly compromising between the two perspectives. Conclusions Two decades ago, cognitive anthropologist Edwin Hutchins, like Nisbett and Ross, published a book. His was titled Culture and Inference (1980), and it contains a careful ethnography of reasoning among the Trobriand Islanders. Hutchins was working against arguments that the Trobrianders and other such cultures lacked concepts of causality and logic (D. D. Lee, 1940, 1949). Thus, Hutchins, ironically enough, was making something of a universalist argument: Sophisticated inferences are not the kind of thing that only members of “civilized” cultures can do. However, in the process of showing that complex reasoning, such as modus tollens and plausible inference, existed among the Trobrianders, Hutchins also delivered important conclusions about the ways in which inferences differ across cultures: Reasoning, he concluded, is inseparably intertwined with cultural models. What is universal is our capacity Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 258 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY to infer and judge, but this is always and only done in light of cultural models (see D’Andrade, 1995). Over the last 20 years, cultural psychologists have done much to qualify, interpret, and expand on the ideas of both Nisbett and Ross and Hutchins. Those in cultural psychology know much now about how inference unfolds in different ways in various cultures—and they are poised to learn even more. The differences reviewed in this chapter defy simple summation, but the highlights deserve to be recounted briefly. After doing so, we consider cultural differences in inference in light of the value, self, and theory traditions. Lessons on Cultural Differences Findings on cultural differences in inference can be grouped into two broad categories: induction and deduction. Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Induction Covariation detection is a basic form of induction: Given evidence of the cooccurrence of various events and features, how and when do perceivers infer a connection? Research that focuses on the holistic, dialectical epistemology associated with Chinese culture shows that Chinese may be more attuned to relations among stimuli in a field: They show fewer primacy effects than Americans, and compared to Americans, their confidence in judging covariation tracks better with their actual accuracy. Attribution has enjoyed considerable attention from cultural researchers, in part because of the compelling differences that emerge. In the domain of social attribution, scholars have repeatedly shown that Americans tend to isolate single individuals as causes, while Asians and other collectivists comparatively stress situations and groups as causes. Similarly, in the physical domain, Chinese are more likely to highlight the role of the field in explanations, whereas Americans tend to focus on the internal properties of objects. Cultural differences emerge in judgments about persons as well, including inferences about their personalities and their mental states. Americans appear to share a dispositionalist folk theory, such that they see individuals as having stable, internal, enduring dispositions, whereas Asians are more likely to see persons as changeable and context bound. Likewise, in forming impressions of a target person, Americans tend to prefer information directly from that person, while Chinese are comparatively more interested in others’ views of the target and information about the target’s context. Further, Americans seem to expect that mental states are more readily inferred by a person’s own statements; Chinese seem to base inferences of mental states more heavily on other, unspoken cues. In the realm of categorization, culture shapes category coherence by directing attention to culturally important phenomena; as the priorities of cultures differ, so do their categories. Further, Asians seem more likely than Americans to categorize things by their relations, such as social obligations, rather than isolable features. Compared to Americans, Asians may also be less attuned to categories in their inferences and category learning. These findings are perhaps more intriguing in light of cultural research on the category of self. Considerable scholarship shows that Asian concepts of self are more socially diffused and context and relationship bound, while American concepts of self are more concrete and abstract. Deduction Given premises in some logical relation, do people in all cultures draw the same inference? Studies of culture and syllogistic reasoning suggest that this question needs to be reconsidered. Namely, what count as premises and logical relations depends on the culture-specific models. Within a culture, framing logical questions with ordinary knowledge rather than abstractions has a massive difference on performance. It seems safe to conclude that people in all cultures are capable of making complex inferences, but each culture does so within its own models. Cultural studies have also highlighted diversity in basic epistemologies of what counts as evidence and the nature of truth—and differences in epistemology give rise to different styles of reasoning and deduction. Chinese appear to share a dialectical epistemology that stresses the changing nature of reality and the enduring presence of contradiction. This stands in contrast to a Western linear epistemology built on notions of truth, identity, and noncontradiction. As a result, some scholars argue, Chinese prefer to seek a compromise in the face of contradiction, whereas Americans pursue more exclusionary forms of truth and resolution. Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. The Three Traditions: Relation to Culture and Inference In the beginning of this chapter, we reviewed three perspectives for approaching culture: the value tradition, the self tradition, and the theory tradition. The value tradition, for instance, has shown that individualists tend to isolate single persons as causes. The self tradition, for example, has revealed that the category of self differs substantially across cultures. And, the theory tradition can be seen in work on the role of culturally bound epistemologies in reasoning. Each tradition, then, has shed light on the question of culture and inference, but is there some way of integrating these perspectives? Do scholars and concerned readers have to place their loyalty in one tradition to the exclusion of the others? We suggest that a synthesis is both possible and preferable, at least at the level of describing how the phenomena targeted by each tradition might relate. The result is a rich way for thinking about how culture and inference relate. A starting point for building the synthesis is to consider what folk theories do and their origin. Virtually by definition, theories (whether implicit folk ones or scientific ones) support inferences: They guide how evidence is collected and interpreted and support judgments that go beyond immediate data. Indeed, it would be nearly impossible to describe everyday inference in a psychologically rich way without resorting to some folk knowledge structures like implicit theories. Thus, to understand cultural effects on inference in a proximal sense implies understanding how cultural theories are at work in ordinary judgment. But what is the origin of theories? It seems quite clear that cultural values must be an important source for theories: Values guide our attention to what is good and important. Our views of what the world is like are shaped by what we think the world should be like. Asian norms about the importance of groups and social relations, for instance, no doubt yield rich folk theories about those entities. The dynamic seems to be at work within the tradition of the self as well, for norms about how to be a “good” self are seen as yielding beliefs about what the self “is.” And, as James (1890) notes, self concepts have a wide-ranging role in psychological processes, so concepts of self are likely intertwined with a host of other beliefs, such as beliefs about others. 259 In short, implicit theories may play something of a mediating role between values and the concept of self on the one hand and inferences on the other. Values and concepts of self may have a more removed, distal effect on inferences, but a more proximal impact on beliefs. This mediating model may seem complete, but it fails to address a final important question: What are inferences for? As S. T. Fiske (1992) and others have observed, thinking is always for something; we would add that what thinking is for differs across cultures. Why is it, for instance, that people judge causes? On occasion, it might be a private act, meant to be shared with no one. More often, though, such inferences are shared and put to use in some kind of action. Take the example of a transgression: We seek an explanation in order to act—to prevent, to punish, to forgive, and so on. Our implicit theories may guide an attribution inference, but the inference is not alone in shaping action. Action is also shaped by cultural values and concepts of self. In the case of transgressions, Western theories may isolate a single person as a cause, and Western values may imply some form of person-directed retributive justice. East Asian theories, meanwhile, might identify a group or situation as a cause, and East Asian harmony values might prescribe collective responsibility as an outcome. Values and concepts of self thus play a dual role: First, they shape the theories that, in turn, drive inferences; second, they shape the contexts in which the resulting inferences are turned into action (see Figure 13.1). In this scheme, it makes no sense to ask which of the three traditions is the “best” approach to studying culture and inference. Rather, these three traditions target different parts of a system of the influence of culture on inference. Isolating one set of relationships at a time (for instance, between theories and inferences or between values and theories) is a practical, and perhaps necessary, research strategy, but scholars are well served to acknowledge the broader system of the relationship of culture with inference. A full story of how culture affects inference must address each of these components.1 Looking Ahead What is next for the cultural psychology of human inference? Several challenges emerge from our review of findings. The traditions of value and self each contain differing perspectives, but each has also been dominated by a central construct, individualism-collectivism in the case Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 260 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Figure 13.1 A Model of Cultural Influence on Human Inference of values and independent-interdependent selves in the tradition of self. One challenge for these traditions will be to expand these dimensions. The 1996 work of Nisbett and Cohen on the “culture of honor,” for instance, suggests an important alternative to the constructs of value and self. For its part, the theory tradition continues to grow. As it does, it may face the danger of becoming fragmented. While it holds the promise of being psychologically precise and rich in terms of describing cultural effects on inference, it runs the risk of targeting an ad hoc collection of representations detached from broader cultural patterns. Scholars in this tradition are challenged to describe connections, both among the implicit theories they are studying and between those theories and other cultural constructs (such as values). All these traditions are challenged to study inference with new populations. Most work to date has been done in the United States and Asia. More work needs to explore inference in other parts of the world, such as Africa. As Nisbett and Cohen (1996) have shown, research on values and judgments can also fruitfully examine cultural differences within countries. As globalization and immigration continue, cultural clashes in inferences deserve increased attention, as does the issue of acculturation. Perhaps the most important challenge for the study of culture and human judgment is one shared with other areas of cultural psychological work: the need for methodologies that are meaningful at both the psychological and cultural levels (Peng, Nisbett, & Wong, 1997). This general challenge requires approaches that are tractable and precise and, at the same time, nuanced and sensitive. Current approaches vary in their strengths and weaknesses, and it seems clear there is no single superior perspective. Postmodern approaches stress the uniqueness of cultures, but sometimes eschew opportunities for fruitful cross-cultural comparisons. Cultural system approaches focus on the important everyday ecology of practices and institutions, but may omit descriptions of the mediating psychology of cultural members. Dimensional or typological approaches stress important factors for arraying cultures, but run the risk of glossing over rich systems of sensemaking that have psychological reality. Many theory and value approaches helpfully focus on psychologically important aspects of culture, but may leave the broader picture undescribed. As psychological research moves to embrace the role of culture, it will do well to retain its guiding methodological principles. Among others, these include objectivity (attempting to Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. CULTURE AND HUMAN INFERENCE observe and describe with a minimal influence of personal bias), validity (a consistent concern with measures and operationalizations), generalization (attempting to go beyond single cases to reveal lawlike mechanisms and processes of psychology), and causal explanation (a focus on the causal relationships between factors). Yet, perhaps new principles will need to be integrated as well, including holism (seeing the important connections between cultural components of sense-making), suprapersonal levels of analysis (moving beyond the individual), and qualitative approaches (reflecting the richness of culture). It may be that a combination of approaches is required to satisfy all these principles—and so flexibility may itself become the most important principle of all. Looking back, an impressive amount of compelling scholarship has emerged on the topic of culture and inference in the past few decades. The topic and some basic tenets have come into focus, yet there is much more to do. We hope and expect that 20 years hence our current understanding will look well intentioned but naive in the face of accumulating insights on how culture shapes human inference. Notes Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. This project was supported by the Regents’ Junior Faculty Research Fellow Award by the University of California to the first author. We thank Sanjay Srivastava, Michael Shin, Coline McConnel, and other members of the U. C. Berkeley Culture and Cognition Lab for their comments and suggestions 1. Note that this system resembles what philosophers and developmental psychologists have called belief-desire psychology (see, e.g., Dennett, 1987; Searle, 1983; Wellman, 1990). This view holds that the keys to understanding everyday human action (e.g., “Carl eats celery”) are desires (e.g., “Carl wants to lose weight”) and beliefs (“Carl believes that celery aids weight loss”). Similarly, this system suggests that cultural values, like desires, shape action goals, while cultural theory-driven inferences yield beliefs relevant to actions. References Allen, S. W., & Brooks, L. R. (1991). Specializing the operation of an explicit rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology (General), 120, 3–19. 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The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580–591. Smith, P. B., & Bond, M. H. (1999). Social psychology across cultures. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Sperber, D. (1990). The epidemiology of beliefs. In C. Fraser & G. Gaskell (Eds.), The social psychological study of widespread beliefs (pp. 24–44). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. Stich, S. (1990). The fragmentation of reason. Cambridge: MIT Press. Strauss, C., & Quinn, N. (1997). A cognitive theory of cultural meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tanaka, J. W., & Taylor, M. E. (1991). Categorization and expertise: Is the basic level in the eye of the beholder? Cognitive psychology, 23, 457– 482. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:39:15. 17 Culture and Social Cognition Toward a Social Psychology of Cultural Dynamics Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. YOSHIHISA KASHIMA Social cognition, broadly defined as human thought about social behavior, has received considerable attention in the literature since the cognitive revolution of the 1960s and, indeed, has become one of the most important areas of study in mainstream psychology. Within this large area, cross-cultural research on social cognition has come to play an extremely important role in defining issues and in influencing research and theory. In this chapter, Kashima presents a comprehensive overview of the area of culture and social cognition. He first begins with an excellent discussion of the concept of culture in psychology, distinguishing the concept of culture as meaning from cultural dynamics. As Kashima suggests, cultural dynamics has to do with the paradoxical phenomenon of cultural stability and change, which arises from two contemporary views of culture: system oriented and practice oriented. These definitions and discussions about the concept of culture are essential to Kashima’s later points about the necessity for the development and creation of theories and research on cultural dynamics, which represent a further evolution of research and thinking about social cognition, and an integration of approaches and knowledge from various disciplines. The bulk of Kashima’s chapter is devoted to a state-of-the-art review of research on culture and social cognition. This review promises to be one of the most comprehensive reviews on this topic. He begins with a treatment of the historical context of early social cognition research and with a presentation of background studies in the area. His detailed review spans such topics as availability of concepts, causal attributions, self-concepts, social and personal explanation, self-evaluation, and others. He delineates many of the issues that are highlighted through his thorough evaluation of the research literature, pointing out both what we know and what we do not in each area. The reader is sure to view this area of his chapter as an important resource for this line of inquiry. Using his review of the literature as a platform, Kashima delineates his ideas concerning future research and theoretical work in the area. With regard to future empirical work, he suggests that two topics in the area of culture and social cognition—the explanation of social action and the maintenance of self-regard—deserve closer scrutiny and further research in the future. In particular, while much is known about what North Americans tend to do with regard to these topics, relatively much less 325 Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from waldenu on 2018-03-27 06:40:21. 326 CULTURE AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Copyright © 2001. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. is known about other people around the world, leaving this area ripe for investigation. In particular, the holistic approach and worldview perspective of East Asians may bring insights into this area of psychological functioning that heretofore were unconsidered. Clearly, however, the major thrust of Kashima’s argument for future work concerns the creation of what he terms the social cognition of cultural dynamics. As he explains at the beginning of his chapter and throughout his literature review, much of the early social cognition research and theories were characterized by an individualistic conception of meaning, according to which meaning is constructed solely within an individual person’s mind. There are many reasons for these biases in the literature, including the fact that most research was done in the United States by American researchers. Even research that was conducted outside the United States was often conducted by researchers who were trained in the United States (and thus influenced by Western educational dogma) or influenced by these factors. In the future, however, greater emphasis will need to be placed on the development of a theoretical framework that incorporates both cognitive and communicative processes in understanding cultural dynamics—that is, the processes by which cultural meanings are constructed in ongoing social activities among multiple individuals, as well as within an individual’s mind. This view of social cognition is inherently more complex, involving relational, collective, and individual issues, including the incorporation of context and history, as well as future and present time orientations. For these reasons, the development of such a theoretical viewpoint will necessitate fundamental changes in the ways in which we do research, which will ultimately lead to ways in which we understand human behavior in potentially profoundly different ways than now. This development of new theories and methodologies to ensure the continued evolution of knowledge in this area of psychology is commensurate with a message given by all authors throughout this volume. Until recently, cult...
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