Fundamentals of
Organizational
Communication
This page intentionally left blank
Ninth Edition
Fundamentals of
Organizational
Communication
Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values
Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak
University of Colorado
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
Editor in Chief: Ashley Dodge
Senior Acquisitions Editor: Melissa Mashburn
Editorial Assistant: Courtney Turcotte
SenioMarketing Coordinator: Jessica Warren
Managing Editor: Denise Forlow
Program Manager: Reena Dalal
Project Manager: Angel Chavez/Integra
Senior Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer
Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande
Art Director: Jayne Conte
Cover Designer: Bruce Kenselaar
Cover Image: Fotolia
Digital Media Project Manager: Tina Gagliostro
Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Anandakrishnan Natarajan/Integra
Printer/Binder: RR Donnelley/STP Harrisonburg
Cover Printer: RR Donnelley/STP Harrisonburg
Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this
textbook appear on appropriate page within text.
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from
the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain
permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc.,
Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your
request to 201-236-3290.
Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as
trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark
claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Shockley-Zalabak, Pamela.
Fundamentals of organizational communication: knowledge, sensitivity, skills, values/
Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak.—Ninth edition.
pages cm
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98030-7 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-205-98030-9 (alk. paper)
1. Communication in organizations. I. Title.
HD30.3.S55 2012
658.4'5—dc23
2014000690
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-10:
0-205-98007-4
ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98007-9
Dedication
To Charles Zalabak and Leatha and Jim Shockley
v
Brief Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
vi
Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based Approach 1
Perspectives for Organizational Communication
24
Communication Implications of Major Organizational Theories
70
Organizational Communication: Values and Ethical Communication
Behaviors 105
Individuals in Organizations 138
Groups in Organizations 185
Leadership and Management Communication
217
Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical Organizational
Communication Competencies 255
Organizational Conflict: Communicating for Effectiveness
278
Organizational Innovation, Change, and Communication 318
Strategic Organizational Communication: Professional Applications
of Organizational Communication 350
Career Options for Organizational Communication
377
Contents
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
1
Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based
Approach 1
The Changing Nature of Organizations and Work 2
Challenges for Individuals and Organizations 2
The Communications Era 3
Communication: The Key to Organizational Excellence 4
Excellence In Communication: Communication Competency 5
Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based Approach 7
■
The “What Business Is This of Ours?” Case 8
Understanding Human Communication 10
Defining Communication 10
Human Communication: Messages and Constitutive Processes 11
Source/Receiver 11
Encoding/Decoding 11
Message 12
Channel 12
Noise 12
Competence 13
Field of Experience 13
Communication Context 14
Realities and Effects 14
Communication as Constitutive of Shared Realities 15
Twenty-First-Century Concepts of Organizations 15
Definitions of Organizational Communication 17
Organizational Communication as Process 17
Organizational Communication as People 17
Organizational Communication as Messages 18
Organizational Communication as Meaning 18
Organizational Communication as Constitutive of Organizations 18
Self-Assessment of Personal Development Needs:
Your Personal Workbook 19
vii
viii
Contents
Chapter Highlights 20
Workshop 20
■
■
The Case Against Hiring Karen Groves 21
The “What Do You Mean I’m Not Getting A Raise?” Case 22
Tips for Effective Communication 22
References and Suggested Readings 23
2
Perspectives for Organizational Communication 24
■
Justin Payroll Company’s Processing Crisis 25
Introduction 25
The Functional Tradition 28
Organizational Communication Systems: Component Parts 28
Communication Inputs 29
Communication Throughput 29
Communication Output 30
Open versus Closed Systems 30
Message Functions 30
Organizing Functions 31
Relationship Functions 31
Change Functions 32
Message Structure 32
Communication Networks 33
Communication Channels 34
Message Direction 35
Communication Load 36
Message Distortion 37
The Functional Tradition: Summary of Essential Characteristics 38
The Meaning-Centered Approach 38
Communication as Organizing and Decision Making 39
Communication as Influence 41
Identification 42
Socialization and Assimilation 43
Communication Rules 44
Power 45
Communication as Culture 46
Communication Climate 48
The Meaning-Centered Approach: Summary of Essential
Characteristics 49
Twenty-First-Century Emerging Perspectives 49
Communication as Constitutive Process 50
Communication Constitutes Organization (CCO) 50
Postmodernism and Organizational Communication 52
Critical Theory and Organizational Communication 53
Contents
Feminist, Race, and Class Perspectives and Organizational
Communication 55
Institutions and Organizational Communication 57
Global Cultures and Organizational Communication 59
Technology and Organizational Communication 60
Twenty-First-Century Emerging Perspectives: Summary of Essential Issues 60
Practical Theory and Organizational Communication 61
Chapter Highlights 61
Workshop 63
■
■
The United Concepts Advertising Agency Dilemma Case 63
The “Newcomers Aren’t Welcome Here” Case 64
Tips for Effective Communication 65
References and Suggested Readings 65
3
Communication Implications of Major Organizational
Theories 70
■
The Davis Instrument Company’s Manufacturing Crisis 71
Introduction 72
The Scientific Management School 73
Principles and Basic Activities for Scientific Management 73
Frederick Taylor
Principles of Management 74
Henri Fayol
Principles of Bureaucracy 76
Max Weber
Communication Implications of Scientific Management Theories
in Contemporary Organizations 77
The Human Behavior School 78
Major Human Behavior Theories 78
Mary Parker Follett • Elton Mayo • Douglas McGregor
• Rensis Likert
Communication Implications of Human Behavior Theories in Contemporary
Organizations 82
Integrated Perspectives Viewpoints 83
Process and Environmental Approaches 83
Herbert Simon • Eric L. Trist and Kenneth W. Bamforth • Joan
Woodward, Paul Lawrence, and Jay Lorsch • Daniel Katz and Robert
Kahn • Gareth Morgan • Margaret Wheatley • Peter Senge
Cultural Approaches 88
Edgar Schein • Terrence Deal and Allen Kennedy • Thomas Peters and
Robert Waterman • Joanne Martin and Peter Frost • Karl Weick
Communication Implications of Integrated Perspectives in Contemporary
Organizations 94
ix
x
Contents
Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives 95
Stewart Clegg • Jurgen Habermas • Marta Calás and Linda Smircich
• Karen Ashcraft
Communication Implications of Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives
in Contemporary Organizations 98
Chapter Highlights 99
Workshop 99
■
■
The “What Do You Mean I Am Not Promoted?” Case 101
The “We Never Had to Advertise Before” Case 101
Tips for Effective Communication 102
References and Suggested Readings 102
4
Organizational Communication: Values and Ethical
Communication Behaviors 105
■
The Presidential Fact-Finding (Witch Hunt?) Case 106
Introduction 107
Values In Organizational Communication 108
Organizational Value Systems 108
Organizational Values, Globalization, and Diversity 110
Individual Values 111
Appraising Your Individual Value System 115
Ethics In Organizational Communication 115
The Abuse of Ethics 115
Defining Ethics 116
Making Ethical Decisions 117
Defining Ethical Communication 118
Influences for Ethical Organizational Communication 119
Evaluating Ethical Behavior 120
Organizational Conundrums 121
Value and Ethical Challenges In Organizational Communication 124
Voice and Participation 124
Representing Skills and Abilities 125
Communication Behaviors Related to Money 125
Communication Behaviors Related to Information Collection,
Dissemination, Problem Solving, and Decision Making 126
Personal Communication Behaviors 127
Communication Behaviors and Technology 127
Destructive Communication Behaviors 128
Planned and Strategic Organizational Communication 129
Courage, Responsibility, Trust, and Ethics 130
Contents
Developing Ethical Standards in Organizational
Communication 130
Ethical Dilemmas in Organizational Communication 131
Chapter Highlights 134
Workshop 134
GreenBean Coffee, Inc.—Is It Our Responsibility? Laura Quinn, Ph.d. 135
Tips for Effective Communication 136
References and Suggested Readings 136
5
Individuals in Organizations 138
■
Dave Green’s First Real Job 139
Introduction 139
Individuals In Organizations 140
The Intrapersonal Experience 142
■ Dave Green: The Intrapersonal Experience 142
Motivation 143
Abraham Maslow • Frederick Herzberg • B. F. Skinner • Gerald
Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer
Predispositions for Organizational Communication Behaviors 149
Leadership and Conflict Preferences 150
Communication Competency 150
Interpersonal Experiences 150
■
Dave Green: Interpersonal Experiences 151
Forming Interpersonal Relationships 151
Supervisors and Employees 153
Peers 157
Customers, Clients, and Vendors 160
Communication Networks and Interpersonal Relationships 161
Diversity and Interpersonal Relationships 164
Trust and Interpersonal Relationships 166
Workplace Emotion, Balance, and Interpersonal Relationships 166
Technology and Interpersonal Relationships 168
Increasing Interpersonal Effectiveness 170
Cultural Intelligence 170
Valuing Diversity 170
Personal Development: Active Listening and Descriptive Messages 174
Chapter Highlights 176
Workshop 177
John Rains’ Work Problem 177
xi
xii
Contents
Jane Moyers Doesn’t Know What Her Manager Wants 178
Phil Mayer and His Volunteer Work at Hudson Food Bank 178
The First _______Division Manager at Carson Retailers 179
Tips for Effective Communication 180
References and Suggested Readings 180
6
Groups in Organizations 185
■
Dave Green’s Small-Group Experiences 186
Introduction 186
Small-Group Experiences 187
Types of Groups 188
Primary Work Teams 189
Directional Groups 191
Quality Teams 192
Task Force Groups 193
Steering Committees 194
Focus Groups 194
Geographically Diverse Teams 194
Social Support Groups 195
Interorganizational Groups 195
Communities of Practice 196
The Team-Based Organization 196
High-Reliability Organizations 199
Group Processes 199
Workplace Democracy 199
Group Norms and Communication Roles 200
Working in Groups 202
Diverse Work Groups 202
Creativity and Collaboration 203
Virtual Groups 205
Groups, Knowledge Sharing, and
Technology Use 206
Increasing Group Participation Effectiveness 207
Negative Participation Behaviors 208
Positive Participation Behaviors 208
Chapter Highlights 209
Workshop 210
Group Communication Roles 211
The Transcript 211
Contents
Group Problem-Solving Transcript 212
Identification of Group Communication Roles 213
Tips for Effective Communication 214
References and Suggested Readings 214
7
Leadership and Management Communication
217
■ Brian
Wood Knows He Is a Good Leader: How Could Anyone
Question Him? 218
Introduction 218
The Importance of Leadership and Management Communication 219
Theories of Leadership and Management 221
Trait Approaches 221
Style Approaches 222
Situational Approaches 226
Transformational Approaches 227
Discursive Approaches 229
Distinctions between Leadership and Management 231
Leadership and Management Challenges 232
Confronting Ethics and Failures 232
Changing Organizational Forms 233
Global and Multicultural Changes 234
Chaos, Flux, and Speed 235
Inclusive-Participation Processes 235
Building Trust 236
Determinants of Leadership Effectiveness 236
Communication Competencies as Determinants of Leadership
Effectiveness 236
Predispositions for Leadership Communication 237
Strategic Communication Objectives for Leadership 237
Communication Tactics for Leadership 240
Power Bases for Leaders 240
Situational Analysis for Leadership 245
Increasing Leadership Effectiveness 246
Principled, Excellent, and Ethical Leadership 246
Identifying Constructive Communication Behaviors
for Leadership 248
Chapter Highlights 250
Workshop 250
Tips for Effective Communication 251
References and Suggested Readings 251
xiii
xiv
Contents
8
Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical
Organizational Communication Competencies 255
■
The Decisions, Problems, More Decisions Case 256
Introduction 257
Participation Challenges for Problem Solving and
Decision Making 257
Defining Problem Solving and Decision Making 258
Influences for Problem Solving and Decision Making 259
Culture 259
The Problem Issue/Decision Issue 260
Communication Competency 260
Technical Competency 261
Methods for Problem Solving and Decision Making 261
Individual Approaches 261
Leader Mandate 262
Majority Rule 262
Powerful Minority 262
Consensus 262
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving and Decision Making 263
Organizational Barriers 263
Group Task and Procedural Barriers 264
Interpersonal Barriers 265
Problem-Solving Processes 265
The Standard Agenda: A Rational Model 266
Brainstorming 266
Decision Tree Process 267
Experientially Based Processes 267
Increasing Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Effectiveness 268
Interaction Process Skills 268
Fact-Finding and Evaluation Skills 269
Information Criteria 269
Communications Technology in Organizations 270
Increasing Technology Effectiveness 273
Chapter Highlights 273
Workshop 274
The Training Manager of Food Service Industries
E-Mail Exercise 274
Tips for Effective Communication 276
References and Suggested Readings 276
Contents
9
Organizational Conflict: Communicating for
Effectiveness 278
■
The Direction the Program Is Going Is Wrong Case 279
Introduction 279
Defining and Describing Conflict
Processes 280
Defining Conflict 280
Conflict Contexts 280
Conflict Causes 282
Conflict Episodes 285
Conflict Consequences 288
The Individual in Organizational Conflict 288
Orientations/Predispositions/Styles 289
Strategic Objectives 292
Communication Tactics in Conflict 293
Emotion during Conflict 296
Groups in Organizational Conflict 298
Group Members in Conflict 298
Framing and Sensemaking 299
Procedural Conflict 299
Interpersonal Issues 299
Substantive Issues 300
Groupthink 300
Dissent 300
Group Conflict Management Processes 301
Power and Organizational Conflict 302
Conflict with Customers and Vendors 303
Special Types of Organizational Conflict:
Sexual Harassment, Discrimination,
and Ethical Abuses 303
Productively Engaging in Conflict 307
Guidelines for Productive Conflict 307
Contribute to Supportive and Ethical Environments for Conflict 308
Monitor Your Personal Behavior and the Behavior of Others for Signs
of Destructive Conflict 310
Set a Meeting to Work on the Conflict 311
Chapter Highlights 313
Workshop 314
Tips for Effective Communication 314
References and Suggested Readings 315
xv
xvi
Contents
10
Organizational Innovation, Change, and
Communication 318
■ The
Techtron Computers “Want to Survive, Go Public, And Then
What?” Case 319
Introduction 319
The Realities of Innovation and Change 321
Barriers to Innovation and Change 323
Complacency 323
Organizational Silence 323
Knowledge or Information Deficits 324
Risk Perception 324
Uncertainty 325
Contradictions and Misalignments 325
Active and Passive Resistance 326
Organizational Leaders 326
Organizational Trust 326
Organizational Decline 327
Organizational Crisis 327
The Leadership of Innovation and Change 327
Models and Processes for Innovation and Change 329
Accelerators of Innovation and Change 329
Diffusion of Innovation 329
Stakeholder Theory 330
The Purchase Model 331
The Doctor–Patient Model 331
The Process Model 331
Appreciative Inquiry 331
Professional Responsibilities for Change 332
Gathering Input and Data 332
Data Evaluation 334
Planning and Implementing Solutions 335
Evaluating Results 336
Communicating about Change 336
Chapter Highlights 338
Workshop 339
Jane Edwards’ Problem Employee 339
The Case of the Poorly Written Manual 339
The Transition of Stanley Manufacturing 340
The Crisis at Homes for the Homeless 340
Mason Financial Is Working at Capacity 341
Contents
Changes for Hewlett Designers 341
Into the Pit and Out Again: An Organizational Turnaround, Nina Polok, Ph.d. 342
Tips for Effective Communication 348
References and Suggested Readings 348
11
Strategic Organizational Communication: Professional
Applications of Organizational Communication 350
■
The Press and the Stockholders Want to Know Case 351
Introduction 352
Describing Strategic Organizational Communication 352
Perspectives on Strategic and Organizational
Communication 353
The Organization and Its Environment 355
Multiple Publics 355
Environmental Scanning 355
The Global Environment 356
SWOT Processes 357
Strategic Organizational Communication 358
Public Relations 358
Communicating an Organization’s Image or Reputation 359
Internal Communications 360
Public Affairs and Issues Management 360
Marketing 361
Integrated Marketing Communications 362
The Marketing Mix 362
Advertising 363
Branding 364
Relationship Marketing and the Use of Marketing
Databases 364
Media Relations 365
The Media Interview 365
Risk and Crisis Communication 366
Technology and Strategic Organizational
Communication 368
Evaluating Strategic Organizational Communication 370
Ethical Issues in Strategic Organizational
Communication 370
Chapter Highlights 371
Workshop 372
Trust: Building Blocks for future Triumph, Lauren Bacon Brengarth, Ph.d. 372
xvii
xviii
Contents
Marketing Merger: Momentum or Moratorium, Lauren Bacon
Brengarth, Ph.d. 373
Tips for Effective Communication 374
References and Suggested Readings 374
12
Career Options for Organizational Communication 377
■
The “Where Do We Go from Here?” Case 378
Introduction 378
Choosing a Communication Career 379
Knowledge for Employment Matching 380
Sensitivity for Employment Matching 380
Skills for Employment Matching 381
Values for Employment Matching 382
Career Choices in Organizational Communication 382
Internal Communication 385
External Communications 385
Sales 386
Human Services 386
Education 387
Research: Information Management 387
Management 388
Consulting 388
Additional Options for Organizational Communication 389
Educational Preparation for Organizational Communication Careers 389
The Employment Search 390
The Informational Interview 390
The Employment Interview 391
Careers in the Twenty-First Century 392
Old versus New Career Paradigms: The Boundaryless Career 393
Twenty-First-Century Organizational Forms and Career Skills 395
Networked Organization 395
Cellular Organization 395
Team-Based Careers 396
Chapter Highlights 396
Workshop 397
Tips for Effective Communication 398
References and Suggested Readings 398
Contents
Appendix Putting It All Together 400
Hockaday Responders: Teams across Time and Space 400
The Broad Context for Hockaday Responders 400
The People 401
The Customers 402
The Media 402
The Case 402
Individual Reactions 406
What Happened Next 407
Your Personal Development Workbook 411
Self-Assessment of Personal development needs 411
Three Approaches to describing Personal Values 414
Statements describing Leaders and Leadership 416
Personal Profile of Conflict Predispositions, Strategies, and Tactics 418
Self-Analysis for Career Planning 420
Influences on Career Choices 421
Identification of Achievement Skills and Values 421
Describing a Desired Lifestyle 423
Identifying Current Status of Career Planning 423
Work Sheet of Self-Analysis Activities for Career Planning 424
Final Self-Assessment of Personal Development Needs 428
Cases and Essays 431
“Is Harry Too Social to be Promoted?” Case 431
My Twitter Account Is Driving Me Crazy 432
The Spending More to Save More Presentation Case 432
I Can’t Believe Our Entire World Is Wired 433
“The Middlesex Insurance Company” Case 434
“The Coronado Company’s Quality Defects” Case 435
“What Do You Mean I’m Not Going to Graduate?” Case 436
How Did This Harm Occur? 436
Granite City’s Homeless Shelter: Doing More with Less 437
The Case of the Invisible Manager 438
Dennison Computer Corporation—A Lesson in Organizational Culture 439
China, India, and Oklahoma City: Working Together, But How? 441
Don Augustine’s Disappointed Staff 442
Dora Cartwright’s Leadership Dilemma 443
Kathy’s Stubborn, Smart Streak 444
Brian James Doesn’t Know What to Believe 444
I Am Tired and Stressed 445
I Thought I Gave Them Everything 445
Ann Cartwright, Vice President of Drummond Industries 446
xix
xx
Contents
The Rule Here Is to Do What Management Wants 447
I Thought We Were a Team 447
The Internal Communications Dilemma 448
The Reluctant Team Member 448
What Happened to the Value of Networking? 449
The “Walking the Talk” Manager 450
Career and Personal Needs Just Don’t Mix 451
The Competitive Leak Is More Than a Crisis 451
The CEO Puts Her Foot in Her Mouth 452
The Only U.S. Communicator on the Team 452
Working Across Time and Space 453
Are We A High-Reliability Team or Not? 454
To Blog or Not 454
What Is the Truth at NOEA? 455
People, Planet, and Profit: Sustainability and the Triple Bottom Line,
Laura Quinn, Ph.d. 456
Leadership That Transforms, Michael Hackman, Ph.d. and Craig
Johnson, Ph.d. 459
Author Index 463
Subject Index 468
Preface
We are in a turbulent time with rapid change in the institutions and organizations with
which we are most familiar. Fundamentals of Organizational Communication: Knowledge,
Sensitivity, Skills, Values was written to help readers experience twenty-first-century
organizational challenges within the context of learning about communication and
organizations.
The ninth edition of this book presents the concepts of organizational communication
within a unique competency-based approach that incorporates personal knowledge, interpersonal sensitivity, communication skills, and ethical values. It blends theory, practice,
and analysis with an emphasis on knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values.
Why a competency-based approach? The answer is simple: organizing material by
competency components is academically relevant, individually practical, and important
to organizations. Favorable responses to earlier editions from both students and faculty
support the competency-based mix of theory and application. In addition, studies in
the United States of America and internationally describe both human and technological communication as the keys to excellence in the twenty-first century. Numerous
employer surveys have found that accurately processing large volumes of information
within organizations, although necessary, is not sufficient for excellence; employers
need individuals who take personal responsibility for building relationships that contribute to trust, quality communication, innovation, and change.
New to This Edition
The twenty-first century presents unprecedented challenges and opportunities, particularly for the discipline of organizational communication. The changes in the ninth
edition of Fundamentals of Organizational Communication directly address the rapid
changes in the field and provide students with the most current information available
from which to make both academic and professional choices. A brief overview of some
of the most important changes to the ninth edition includes:
• Sixty-five total cases; 14 new cases including a complex case, Hockaday Responders,
which can be used for application of material from all 12 book chapters
• New research reviewed and included in all chapters
• New Your Personal Development Workbook for students to have all self-assessments
and development assignments in one location
• Expanded discussion of socialization and assimilation (Chapter 2)
• New discussion of class theories (Chapter 2)
• Expanded discussion of Communication Constitutes Organization (CCO) (Chapter 2)
• Expanded discussions of the importance of trust throughout the text
• New discussion of importance of voice and participation for ethical communication
(Chapter 4)
• Expanded discussion of supervisor–employee relationships (Chapter 5)
• Expanded discussion of teleworker experiences (Chapter 5)
xxi
xxii
Preface
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
New discussion of interorgnaizational groups (Chapter 6)
New discussion of groups, knowledge sharing, and technology use (Chapter 6)
Expanded discussion of ethics, failure, chaos, and flux (Chapter 7)
Expanded discussion of technology use by groups (Chapter 8)
New discussion of employee dissent (Chapter 9)
Revised guidelines for productive conflict (Chapter 9)
New focus on organizational innovation (Chapter 10)
New discussion of accelerators of innovation and change (Chapter 10)
Recasting of strategic communication to include risk and crisis communication
(Chapter 11)
• New information for informational and employment interview preparation
(Chapter 12)
The Competency Framework
Knowledge
Theoretical concepts important to the study of organizational communication are presented so that students can develop personal knowledge. Knowledge competencies are
what we come to know about the theory and principles of a particular field of study, in
this case organizational communication. Knowledge competencies support sensitivity
in organizational life, guide our development of skills, and assist us in understanding
the application of ethical standards and our personal values in organizational settings.
To this end, this book examines various frameworks for understanding organizational
communication, communication implications of major organizational theories, and
communication processes in organizations.
Sensitivity
The sensitivity component in the competency framework refers to our ability to sense
or become aware of a variety of organizational meanings and feelings. It is related to
our ability and willingness to understand what others are feeling and doing. To help
students develop the sensitivity competency, this book encourages them to study and
analyze various roles and relationships within organizations. Individual sensitivity
can be developed by analyzing the impact of personal behaviors in organizational
settings, such as individuals in organizations, dyadic relationships (specifically supervisor–employee relationships), group processes, conflict, and leadership and management communication, each examined in the text. In addition, the text emphasizes the
importance of the sensitivity component for our increasingly diverse, multicultural,
and global organizational world.
Skills
The skills component of the framework focuses on developing important analytical
capabilities as well as the ability to communicate effectively in a variety of settings.
It is designed to help students develop both initiating and receiving communication skills. Key organizational communication skills (e.g., problem solving, decision
Preface
making, fact-finding, interviewing, and using communications technologies) are
identified, and analysis and practice opportunities appropriate for each are provided. Also, analysis opportunities provided in case studies and research opportunities contribute to students’ skill development.
Values
The values component in the competency framework is key to the integration of
knowledge, sensitivity, and skills. To understand the realities of organizational life,
we must first examine how individual and organizational values or ethics can shape
organizational communication behavior. Students develop values and ethics through
case studies that present ethical dilemmas and value issues in organizational settings.
We adopt different value positions and ethical perspectives to analyze cases, recommend courses of action, and predict outcomes.
Features of Fundamentals of Organizational
Communication
Each chapter of Fundamentals of Organizational Communication attempts to contribute to competency development through the constant interaction of theory, practice,
and analysis. Chapters begin with a statement of objectives and a short case study
illustrating the concepts to be studied. Key terms and concepts are identified in margins, and chapters end with highlights, communication tips, and a workshop posing
questions and issues in each of the competency areas: knowledge, sensitivity, skills,
and values. The Putting It All Together section includes Your Personal Development
Workbook and provides additional cases and essays for analysis.
Chapters 1 through 3 develop students’ knowledge through an understanding
of what contributes to comprehensive communication competency and how we can
understand this phenomenon called organizational communication. These chapters
emphasize major organizational theories and their communication implications.
Chapter 4 focuses on the interaction of personal, organizational, and professional
ethics and values. It presents the values component of communication competency,
placing particular emphasis on how organizational values contribute to organizational
culture and effectiveness.
Chapters 5 through 9 develop the sensitivity component of communication competency. These chapters describe individuals in organizations and their intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and small-group experiences. In addition, they emphasize the increasing diversity and multiculturalism of organizations as well as the study of conflict
and leadership. Research indicates that conflict and leadership may well be the focal
processes for effective communication in organizations. Texts in organizational communication frequently treat these topics mechanically, without emphasizing underlying subtleties such as organizational climate or the complex interactions of individual
predispositions, strategies, and tactics. This book supports understanding of individual
preferences in these crucial areas of organizational behavior by using self-assessment
instruments.
xxiii
xxiv
Preface
Chapters 10 through 12 develop competency in the skills component, identifying
key applications and career options for organizational communication skills and making specific suggestions for skill development.
The Putting It All Together section contributes to the comprehensive development
of all four competency components through an interaction of theory, practice, and
analysis. Materials in the appendix are to be used in conjunction with all chapters and
as supplements to the concepts learned through practical and realistic examples.
This text is available in a variety of formats—digital and print. To learn more about
our programs, pricing options, and customization, visit www.pearsonhighered.com.
Supplemental Resources For Instructors
Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank
For each chapter in the text, the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank provides a chapter
focus, learning objectives, key terms, and discussion activities and exercises. The Test
Bank portion offers hundreds of test questions in multiple-choice, true/false, short-answer,
and essay formats. Available only online on our Instructor’s Resource Center at www.
ablongman.com/irc (please contact your Pearson representative for an access code).
Computerized Test Bank
The user-friendly interface enables instructors to view, edit, and add questions; transfer
questions into tests; and print tests in a variety of fonts. Search and Sort features allow
instructors to locate questions quickly and arrange them in a preferred order. Available
only online on our Instructor’s Resource Center at www.ablongman.com/irc. (please
contact your Pearson representative for an access code).
PowerPoint Presentation Package
A PowerPoint presentation provides lecture slides based on key concepts in the text.
Available only online on our Instructor’s Resource Center at www.ablongman.com/
irc (please contact your Pearson representative for an access code).
Acknowledgments
I wrote this book for four primary reasons: my experiences with students who appreciate
the importance of the study of organizational communication, my research interests in
organizational communication, my years of organizational experience in both the private
and public sectors, and my fundamental belief that organizations and the discipline of
organizational communication must undergo significant change as the world around us
changes. When taken together, these experiences and beliefs have been invaluable to me
in relating theory to practice and in projecting competency needs for the future.
I am grateful for the help and support of many individuals in the development
of this manuscript. My colleagues from the Aspen Engaged Scholars Conference
along with my colleagues in the Department of Communication at the University of
Colorado, Colorado Springs (Sherry Morreale, Lauren Brengarth, and Mike Hackman),
have stimulated my thinking. I also want to thank the many special students at the
University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, who reviewed and critiqued most of the
exercises and cases contained in the text.
I also am grateful to the following individuals who reviewed the manuscript and
provided helpful suggestions: Amy Gall, Saint Louis Christian College; Beth Goodier,
College of Charleston; Dora E. Saavedra, University of Texas, Pan American; and Jeff
Stafford, Eastern Washington University.
On a personal note, I wrote this book with the continuing guidance, love, and s upport
of my family. My father and mother, Jim and Leatha Shockley, provided the foundation
for a special pursuit of learning. Without my husband, Charles, the p
rofessional years
simply would not have occurred. His continuous love and encouragement made all dreams
possible. Our daughter and granddaughter, Yvonne and Carissa, continue in his light.
This book was written for students who want to change and improve organizations and themselves, who are willing to risk excellence, and who love engaging in
human communication. Therefore, to students (past, present, and future) and to my
family (Charles, Yvonne, Carissa, Mom, and Dad), I dedicate this book.
xxv
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Organizational Communication
A Competency-Based Approach
D e v e l o p i n g C o m p eten c ies Th r o u g h …
Knowledge Describing communication in the information-rich world
Defining and describing communication competency
Defining and describing the human communication process
Identifying descriptions of organizations
Surveying definitions of organizational communication
Sensitivity Understanding communication as a key to organizational excellence
Developing awareness of our personal communication
competencies
Understanding human communication as attempting to create
shared realities, shared meanings
Distinguishing among interpersonal, small-group, and organizational
communication
Skills
Assessing personal development needs
Practicing analysis capabilities
Values Understanding communication competency as a personal and
organizational need
Clarifying a contemporary “good communicator” theme
Understanding communication as fundamental to the process
of organizing
Evaluating communication for ethics and effectiveness
1
2 C hap t e r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
The Changing Nature of Organizations and Work
We are in one of the more turbulent periods in history. This statement is not p
rofound
but is real nevertheless. Our twenty-first-century world is more complex, and the
knowledge we bring to bear on our problems often adds to confusion and disagreement. We have unprecedented opportunities and unprecedented problems. Most of
us seek a firm direction that is outmoded. Uncertainty and change have become the
norm. We need new thinking, new criticisms, new knowledge, new approaches, and
new understandings. Creativity and innovation are more important than ever.
Nowhere is the current turbulence more evident than in contemporary organizations. Increased economic pressures, globalization, rapidly diversifying employee and
customer bases, changing technology, societal needs, an increasing a wareness of organizational relationships to society in general, and a host of other factors contribute
to new organization types, new relationships between organizations and e mployees,
and a growing acknowledgment of the complexity of all organizational life. The
virtual organization, e-commerce, high-performing teams, contract
employment,
increased contact with a culturally diverse world, and home-based work are but a
few of the changes with impacts on interpersonal relationships, group interactions,
management and leadership, personal and professional ethics, time management, and
nonwork life.
What many have called the old social contract—mutual loyalty and support
between employees and their employers—has been replaced by frequent shifts from
one employer to another, increased global competition, downsizing in workforces,
part-time employment, flatter organizations, and a generally changing relationship
between management and workers. Critics of the changing nature of our work lives
call for increased workplace democracy, whereas its advocates defend the changes as
necessary for survival.
Challenges for Individuals and Organizations
The environments individuals and organizations encounter are complex, fragile, turbulent, and uncertain. The opportunities for innovation and change are enormous.
J. F. Rischard (2002) describes the challenges individuals and organizations face as
problems of sharing our planet, our humanity, and a global rule book. Rischard
identifies global warming, biodiversity, deforestation, poverty, education, the digital
divide, e-commerce rules, international labor and migration rules, the global financial
architecture, and several other problems as issues so pressing they must be addressed
in the next twenty years by individuals and organizations including for-profit, not-
for-profit, governmental, and educational institutions. War, terrorism, global warming,
and accelerating rates of change add to what appears to be a growing list. Individuals
and organizations experience increasingly diverse e nvironments characterized by age,
gender, race, social class, and cultural d
ifferences. For individuals the requirement to
continually learn and build new competencies has never been greater. Individuals continually face challenges between complex organization requirements and personal and
family life. Individuals and organizations are asked to engage these challenges and
differences to create o
pportunities, generate innovation, and contribute to productive
change.
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
3
The Communications Era
Regardless of the position taken about the changing nature of organizations and
work, few disagree the communications era surrounds us. We live, work, and play
in complex communications environments. Sophisticated communications technologies have changed the way we do everything. The rapid development and use of
communications technologies have contributed to individuals, organizations, and
the entire world becoming more interconnected than at any previous point in human
history.
All of us are experiencing a unique time in history with two unprecedented shifts—
globalization and the nature of innovation—driving changes impacting all aspects of
our lives. Innovation can occur anywhere, and participation in the c reation of new products and processes is no longer limited to superpowers and highly developed countries.
The United States of America, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom have all seen
white-collar jobs move to countries such as India, China, and Russia. Millions of routine
jobs have disappeared, while new and more stimulating jobs requiring communications
expertise are created. With more than half of America’s workforce and gross national
product in knowledge industries, virtually all agree we are in a
Information society Environment
postindustrial information society moving to a conceptual age.
in which more jobs create, process,
Daniel Pink (2005), who describes the shift from the information
or distribute information than directly
to the conceptual age, suggests, “The future belongs to a very difproduce goods. The environment is
ferent kind of person with a very different kind of mind—creators
characterized by mass production
and empathizers, pattern recognizers, and meaning makers. These
of information, which requires the
people—artists, inventors, designers, storytellers, caregivers, conconstant learning of new activities
solers, big picture thinkers—will now reap society’s richest rewards
and processes.
and share its greatest joys” (p. 1). Thomas Friedman (2006)
believes “we are now connecting all the knowledge centers on the
Conceptual age Environment
planet together into a single global network, which—if politics and
in which inventive, empathic, bigterrorism do not get in the way—could usher in an amazing era of
picture capabilities are required for
the most fulfilling jobs. Written and
prosperity, innovation, and collaboration, by companies, commuoral communication, inquiry, critical
nities, and individuals” (p. 8).
and creative thinking, quantitative
As an individual you are likely to spend most of your workliteracy, cultural knowledge, teamwork,
ing life employed in a “knowledge/information” or “conceptual”
synthesis of learning, and strong
job. You are more likely to create, process, or distribute informapersonal ethics are highly valued.
tion than you are to be directly involved in the production of
goods. There is a greater need for salespeople, teachers, lawyers,
financial analysts, media producers, bankers, consultants, scientists, engineers, doctors,
architects, writers, information managers, editors, and social workers and a decreased
need for manufacturing assembly workers, service support workers, miners, toolmakers, machinists, builders, and welders.
One of the most important characteristics of the “communications” era is the
rapid change associated with mass production of information, change requiring us
all to be constantly involved in the learning of new activities and processes. Most
of us have already experienced rapid change brought about by new technologies.
For example, although checks can still be written by hand, many of us pay our bills
online or with plastic cards and use computer terminals to deposit money in or withdraw money from our bank accounts. We can still go to the movies, or we can bring
4 C hap t e r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
movies to our homes through discs, satellites, and Internet connections. We can
write letters and memos to send through “regular” mail, or we can use sophisticated
electronic systems to send and receive all types of correspondence and files rapidly.
We use our cellular phones for talking with others but also as our Web connections,
cameras (both still and video), instant messaging devices, calculators, clocks, e-mail
processors, televisions, and a host of other functions. Social networking of all types
increasingly is prevalent in both our personal and organizational environments.
Fiber-optic connections, wireless networks, and global telecommunications
and computer networks have literally changed the ways in which we do research,
changed those with whom we can stay in constant contact, and altered notions
of time and space. We are connected daily with both close friends and strangers.
Most students reading this book are in traditional classrooms with “live” instructors. For some students now, and for more in the future, however, “live” means that
the instructor is located at a remote site equipped with audio, video, and c omputer
interconnects
supported by e-books. Convergence is the term of the day, with
computing, wireless technologies, and more traditional media such as television converging into integrated tools for work, school, family, and leisure environments.
We have so much information that, for individuals and organizations, the
challenge is how to deal with our information alternatives. This daily increase in
information (based on innovations in communications and computer technology)
brings with it rapid change in activities, processes, and products.
Workers in the communications era of microelectronics, computers, and telecommunications have an abundance of information for decision making and a growing
concern for information overload. Research suggests virtually all knowledge workers
use e-mail and voicemail, with use of mobile phones, conference calls, corporate
intranets, IM/text messaging, corporate Web sites, information portals, and corporate
extranets commonplace. Social media have become a cultural phenomenon in all
aspects of our lives. We are connected around the clock as work and personal time
merge for many. We can routinely communicate across both geography and organizational levels. It is not unusual, for example, for employees of an organization in
Boston to interact with their counterparts in Los Angeles, whom they have never met,
while both groups prepare a portion of a single report or recommendation. And for
a growing number of individuals, this report can be generated without ever leaving
their homes as they “telecommute” from automated home workstations to offices
around the globe.
The complexity of all organizational life and the rapid increase in communications technologies place increasing demands on our individual communication
abilities. These demands are best met with the perspective that becoming and staying
competent is an ongoing process requiring lifelong learning.
Communication: The Key to Organizational
Excellence
Organizational excellence Ability
of people to work together and utilize
technology for the creative solving of
increasingly complex problems.
In this complex and information-rich conceptual society, the
key to organizational excellence is communication excellence.
Communication systems within organizations—both human
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
and technological—are responsible for solving increasingly complex problems
creatively. People using the machines of the communications era must coordinate
large volumes of information for the performance of new and dynamic tasks.
There is widespread recognition, however, that excellence in organizational problem
solving is more than the efficient management of large volumes of facts.
Organizational excellence stems from the dedicated commitment of people, people
who are motivated to work together and who share similar values and visions about
the results of their efforts.
Viewing communications as the key to organizational excellence is not new.
As early as 1938, Chester Barnard, in his now-famous work The Functions of the
Executive, described as a primary responsibility of executives the d
evelopment
and maintenance of a system of communication. Research since then has linked
organizational communication to managerial effectiveness, the integration of
work units across organizational levels, characteristics of effective supervision, job
and communication satisfaction, innovation, adaptability, creativity, and overall
organizational effectiveness and performance. In fact, numerous scholars have gone
as far as to suggest that organizations are essentially complex communication processes that create and change events. For both the industrial society of the past and
the information and conceptual societies of today and tomorrow, there is broad
agreement about the centrality of organizational communication and that organizational communication plays a significant part in contributing to or detracting from
organizational excellence.
With this emphasis on the complex, fast-paced information conceptual society
and the importance of human communication, questions arise concerning what
skills and abilities organizations need from their future employees. How should
individuals prepare themselves for the information responsibilities and opportunities
that almost inevitably will be a part of the future? What does it take to contribute to
organizational communication excellence?
Put simply, organizations of today and tomorrow need competent communicators
at all organizational levels. With more complex decisions, rapid change, more information, and less certainty about what the decisions should be, excellence in a conceptual world depends on the abilities, commitment, and creativity of all organizational
members. As a result, students, communication teachers and researchers, and active
organizational members must work together to understand what contributes to organizational communication competency and how best to develop personal potential. It
is our collective expertise which will detract from or contribute to excellence.
Excellence In Communication: Communication
Competency
Quintilian, an early Latin rhetorician, is credited with introducing the ideal of the
“good man speaking well,” an ideal that is not as far removed from contemporary
concepts of organizational communication competency as history might suggest.
In fact, Michael Hackman and Craig Johnson (2004) identified a contemporary
“good communicator” theme when reviewing research from personnel administrators throughout the United States of America. Today’s organizations need people
5
6 C hap t e r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
who can speak well, listen, write, persuade others, demonstrate interpersonal skills,
gather information, and exhibit small-group problem-solving expertise. In other
words, organizations in our complex and turbulent world need flexible and creative
people who have diverse and well-developed communication abilities. Yet how do we
determine if we are competent o
rganizational communicators?
Who decides? On what do we base our conclusions?
Communication competency
Researchers differ in how they define communication compeComposed of knowledge, sensitivity,
tency. Some believe that a person is competent if he or she knows
skills, and values. Competence arises
what is appropriate in a specific situation, whether or not that
from interaction of theory, practice,
behavior actually occurs. A student, for example, who realizes
and analysis.
that class participation is required for a high grade may choose
not to participate, yet the student can be considered competent
because of the knowledge or awareness of the appropriate behavior. Other researchers
extend the competency concept beyond knowledge of appropriate behaviors to include
actual language performance and the achievement of interpersonal goals. The student,
from this perspective, must not only recognize appropriate participation behaviors but
also participate so as to demonstrate communication competency.
Fred Jablin and Patricia Sias (2001), in their comprehensive discussion of communication competency, suggested that the concept of communication competency is best
understood by an ecological model that revolves around four systems:
(1) the microsystem, which contains the developing organizational member and
other persons in the immediate work environment (e.g., supervisors, coworkers,
and clients); (2) the mesosystem, which represents the interrelations among
various microsystems (e.g., what individuals learn in their project teams may
affect their competence in the functional work groups in which they are members);
(3) the macrosystem, which does not represent the immediate context in which
an individual works, but does impinge on him or her (i.e., major divisions of
the organization and the organization itself as a whole); and (4) the exosystem,
which represents the overarching cultural belief system, forms of knowledge,
social, technological, and political ideologies.… In brief, an ecological perspective
emphasizes system embeddedness. That is, the actions of one element of the system
affect the other elements. (pp. 836–837)
Jablin and Sias specifically described how globalization and technology have changed
forever notions of what is a competent communicator. It is fair to conclude they
expand previous notions of communication competency to extend to groups and to the
organization as a whole within its broad environment. Sherry Morreale (2009) suggests
linkage between communication competence and ethics. Specifically, Morreale identifies issues of competence related to pursuing self-interest versus the interest of others, to
engaging in information sharing versus manipulation, and to recognizing the long-term
effects of communication across time and diverse relationships.
Stephen Littlejohn and David Jabusch (1982) have proposed a particularly
useful definition of communication competency for the organizational setting. They
suggest that communication competency is “the ability and willingness of an individual to participate responsibly in a transaction in such a way as to maximize
the outcomes of shared meanings.” This definition requires not only knowledge of
appropriate behaviors but also motivation to engage in communication that results
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
in mutual understanding. In other words, communication competency involves our
personal willingness and ability to communicate so that our meanings are understood and we understand the meanings of others. Finally, this definition can be
applied to the group and macro-organizational levels so important in the ecological
model proposed by Jablin and Sias. Regardless of differences in perspectives, organizational communication competency relates to message encoding and decoding
abilities, the process of communication initiation and consumption.
When we begin to think about our personal communication competency, we
quickly realize that we form impressions of our own competency while making
evaluations about the competency of others. We try to decide what is appropriate
for us as well as for others, and we determine whether that behavior is effective in
a particular circumstance. In other words, my impression of my own competency
and the competency of others is related to my evaluation of whether we exhibited the “right” behaviors and achieved “desirable” results in a particular situation.
Determining what is “right” and “desirable” is not always easy, however. Think for
a moment about your personal experiences. Have you ever been in a situation where
others thought you did a good job although you were disappointed in yourself?
Who was right? Were you competent or incompetent? Can both be correct?
Earlier we said that organizational excellence depends on the communication
competencies of all organizational members. Specifically, we described the need for
creative problem solving among diverse groups of people who often share little common information. With this emphasis on communication and technology, the real
question becomes what individuals should do to prepare themselves to meet their
future communication needs. In other words, how do we develop and evaluate our
communication competencies?
Our answer begins by returning to the Littlejohn and Jabusch approach to
communication competency. Littlejohn and Jabusch (1982) contend competency arises
out of four basic components: process understanding, interpersonal sensitivity, communication skills, and ethical responsibility. Process understanding refers to the cognitive
ability to understand the dynamics of the communication event. Interpersonal sensitivity
is the ability to perceive feelings and meanings. Communication skills are the ability to
develop and interpret message strategies in specific situations. The ethical component
of competency is the attitudinal set that governs concern for the well-being of all participants in taking responsibility for communication outcomes. Finally, Littlejohn and
Jabusch believe that competence comes from the interaction of three primary elements:
theory, practice, and analysis. When applied to the organizational setting, the Littlejohn
and Jabusch approach can be modified and expanded to include the competency components this book seeks to develop: knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values.
Organizational Communication:
A Competency-Based Approach
This book is designed to help you develop communication competencies for effective
organizational communication. The goal of the book is to provide theory, practice,
and analysis opportunities that contribute to knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and
values important for organizational excellence.
7
8 C hap t e r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
Knowledge: the ability to understand the organizational communication
environment. Knowledge competencies are what we come to know about a
particular field. Knowledge is the learning of theory and principles. Knowledge
competencies are fundamental to support our sensitivity to organizational life, to
guide our skill development, and to assist us in understanding the application of
ethical standards and our personal values in a variety of organiKnowledge competency Ability
zational settings. Knowledge competency develops through the
to understand the organizational
exploration of the interactive process nature of human commucommunication environment.
nication. We examine what organizational communication is
and the major theoretical approaches for its study. We explore
the roles of individuals in organizations and examine communication implications of major organizational theories. Finally, we discuss vital organizational
subjects such as conflict, leadership, and strategic communication.
Sensitivity: the ability to sense accurately organizational meanings
and feelings. It is related to our ability and willingness to understand what others feel and do. Sensitivity competency develops
Sensitivity competency Ability
to sense organizational meanings and
through the examination of our personal “theories-in-use” about
feelings accurately.
communication and organizations. We assess individual preferences for leadership and conflict, as well as the impact of personal
differences and similarities within organizational settings. We place emphasis on
how we come to understand our complex organizational environments.
Skills: the ability to analyze organizational situations accurately and to initiate
and consume organizational messages effectively. The skills competency
focuses on developing important analytical capabilities as well
as the ability to communicate effectively in a variety of settings.
Skills competency Ability to analyze
Skills competency develops through analysis and practice
organizational situations accurately and
opportunities. Specifically, analytical skills develop by applyto initiate and consume organizational
ing knowledge and sensitivity to case studies and individual
messages effectively.
experiences. We also present and practice problem-solving and
conflict-management skills.
Values competency Importance
of taking responsibility for effective
communication, thereby contributing
to organizational excellence.
Values: the importance of taking personal responsibility for effective communication, thereby contributing to organizational
excellence. Values competency develops through discussion of
personal responsibility for participation in organizational communication. We examine ethical dilemmas relating to organizational communication and the importance of values to organizational culture. Finally, we use case studies to illustrate ethical and
value issues common in organizations.
The “What Business Is This of Ours?” Case
The following case describes a problem at Quality Engineering, a medium-sized
company located in Denver, Colorado. The case is based on a real situation at
Quality, although the name of the supplier in question has been changed. You will
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
use this case to think about individuals communicating and to begin to understand
the concept of organizational communication.
John and Mary were the only two buyers in the purchasing department of Quality
Engineering. Both had been with the company for several years and were experienced
in handling purchases for the manufacturing, research, finance, and marketing areas
of Quality. Mary typically handled purchases for the manufacturing and research
areas, and John was the principal buyer for the rest of the organization. At times
their individual workloads required they cross departments and help each other.
Their boss, Mike Anderson, the accountant for Quality, believed they were the best
purchasing team with whom he had ever worked. He was proud of their efforts
and willingness to cooperate with each other. He frequently commented to Quality
management that John and Mary made money for the company by getting the best
possible prices for goods and services.
Mike was surprised and concerned to overhear John and Mary in a heated
discussion.
John: I can’t believe you are still using Anderson Printing as one of our suppliers.
I told you last month that their last two orders for my groups were late and
part of the printing had to be sent back because of errors. I told them then
that I wouldn’t accept any more of their bids on our jobs. It makes me look
like a fool when I hear from them that you are still ordering their products
for manufacturing and research. How can we enforce good quality from our
suppliers if we don’t present a united front?
Mary: Just a minute. Anderson Printing has been one of our good suppliers for
over ten years. I know we have had some problems with them in the past
year but I don’t think we should drop them flat. They have pulled us out of
a lot of jams when we needed printing in a big hurry. I never agreed to drop
them from our supplier list. You just told them they were gone and expected
me to support your decision. You should have talked to me about it first. I
don’t care if you think you looked like a fool. We are in this together and
need to make those types of decisions as a team.
John: I’ll admit we should have talked about it, but Anderson made me so mad on
that last deal that I just told them they were through. I expected you to support me. We both want what is best for Quality. Our reputations are good
because we always get the company the best products for the lowest price.
I would have supported you.
Mary: Yes, I suspect you would have, but John, you can’t lose your temper like
that. We need to work together on these decisions. You and I can usually
work out a solution when we try hard enough. I don’t want to drop any
supplier on the spur of the moment, especially when we may have trouble
replacing them. John, sometimes I think we have worked together for so
long that we take each other for granted. We are friends and I want it to
remain that way, but that shouldn’t stop us from doing business with each
other as true professionals.
John: Wait a minute. Are you saying that I don’t act like a professional—?
Mary: No, see what I mean? You get mad when I even suggest we might improve the
way we do things.
9
10 C hap te r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
John: Well, I just think friends should support each other. I know I may not have
handled the Anderson thing just right, but as my friend I expected more support from you.
Mary: Oh, John, there you go again!
Understanding Human Communication
Are John and Mary engaged in interpersonal or organizational communication,
or both? Does the setting make the difference? Can we distinguish between
interpersonal and organizational communication? When we talk about developing our personal communication competencies, is it different for our personal and
organizational lives? The answers to these questions lie in understanding human
communication and how organizations and human communication relate. In other
words, frameworks for understanding organizational communication can be found
in descriptions of human communication and organizations.
Although the discussion between John and Mary is typical of human communication exchanges that occur daily in organizations, it also is typical of communication
between two people regardless of the setting. In fact, the discussion between John
and Mary illustrates some of the important basics necessary for understanding human
communication.
Defining Communication
Analyzing the exchange between John and Mary will help us describe human communication. John and Mary transfer information, they elicit responses from each
other, and they engage in social interaction. They are literally constituting (or bringing about) their experience of working together and making sense of what it means.
Further, it is possible to say that they use symbols (words) to attempt to create
shared meaning (mutual understanding). Their disagreement about how to handle
problems with Anderson Printing will influence not only what happens to Anderson
as a supplier to Quality Engineering but their interpersonal relationship as well. Put
another way, their exchange is an example of communication behaviors creating
and shaping both relationships and events through a culturally dependent process of
assigning meaning to symbols.
John wants Mary to share his reality that Anderson has made serious mistakes that
disqualify it from providing goods and services to Quality. Furthermore, he expects
Mary to accept another reality: that friends and coworkers should support each other’s decisions, even if decisions are made on the spur of the moment and in anger. Mary
has a different set of realities that she wants John to understand. Although she agrees
about recent problems with Anderson, part of her reality includes Anderson’s past
service to Quality and the possible difficulty of r eplacing its goods and services with
another supplier. She also believes that John should have included her in his decision.
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
11
We do not know from this exchange how open or direct John and Mary intend to be
with each other. We do not have enough information to determine if other agendas
influence their exchange. We do know John and Mary make conscious choices about
the realities they exchange. When John and Mary exchange their individual realities,
their communication is an attempt to construct shared realities.
Although they may not agree, their communication enables each to share the
realities of the other and literally create their present reality.
Human Communication: Messages
and Constitutive Processes
When John and Mary construct their shared realities, they
Human communication
engage in what we call the human communication process. Both
process Attempts to construct shared
John and Mary serve as sources and r eceivers of messages. Both
realities through social interaction.
engage in message encoding and decoding and in selecting verbal
and nonverbal channels for message transmission. Both are
influenced by their individual competence and their perception of the competence of
the other. Each brings to the exchange a different set of experiences, and each may
view the context of their interaction differently. Thus, all their messages are subject to
distortion or noise. The effect, or what happens between John and Mary, is a result of
the complex interaction of all these elements. John and Mary are literally constituting
or bringing about the reality of their relationship.
Source/Receiver
Each individual engaged in communication with others is both a
message source and a message receiver. We talk (send messages)
while closely monitoring the nonverbal reactions of others
(receiving messages). We listen (receive messages) and determine
how to respond (send messages). We use technology to rapidly
exchange messages without cues important in face-to-face interactions. Often message-sending and message-receiving activities
occur so rapidly that they seem to be happening simultaneously.
Source/Receiver Individuals send
messages as sources and receive
messages as receivers. The process
is often so rapid as to appear
simultaneous.
Encoding/Decoding
As a message source and receiver, each individual encodes and
decodes messages. Message encoding is the process of formulating messages, choosing content and symbols to convey meaning.
Message encoding is determining what we want to be understood
(content) and how we believe that it can best be presented
(choosing symbols). Message decoding is the process of assigning
meaning in the role of receiver to message symbols generated
by the message source. Decoding is taking what we see and
hear from others and deciding how it should be interpreted or
Encoding/Decoding Message
encoding is the process of formulating
messages, choosing content and symbols
to convey meaning. Message decoding
is the process of assigning meaning in
the role of receiver to message symbols
generated by the message source.
12 C hap te r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
understood. Both encoding and decoding are influenced by our communicative
competence (knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values), our personal identifications
(cultural, social, organizational, and other), our specific intentions (desire for clarity,
openness, manipulation, deceit, control, and so forth), our past experiences, our
perception of the competence of others, and the communication context.
Message
The message is the symbolic attempt to transfer meaning; it is the
signal that serves as a stimulus for a receiver. Sources send
messages consisting of auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory, or
tactile stimuli in any combination of these five senses. Sources of
messages intend meaning, but messages in and of themselves do not carry meaning.
Meanings, or interpretations of messages, are assigned when the receiver decodes
the message. Messages serve as symbols for meaning and as such are subject to situational and cultural influences. In other words, to understand a message as a source
intends requires an understanding of the source’s symbol system (language and actions
and intent of language and actions) in a particular situation.
Message Symbolic attempt to
transfer meaning; the signal that serves
as a stimulus for a receiver.
Channel
The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted. It is the link or links between source and receiver.
Channels include the five senses and any technological means
used for message transmission. Channels are frequently used in combination (verbal
and nonverbal, oral and written, face-to-face, and telemediated), with certain channels generally more credible than others. When verbal and nonverbal messages
appear to contradict, for example, researchers tell us most people will find the
nonverbal channel more credible than the verbal one. In other words, most of us
believe it is more difficult to lie nonverbally than verbally. Channels can distort
messages both technologically and in sensory reception. Indeed, the very selection of
one channel over another may become a message in and of itself. Written channels,
for example, are more often used than face-to-face channels for giving bad news.
Evidence is growing suggesting e-mail and text messages are often more harsh than
face-to-face communication. Receiving a memo or e-mail from your boss—
the bad-news channel—may be cause for alarm even before the actual message has
been read.
Channel Medium through which the
message is transmitted.
Noise
Noise Distortion or interference that
contributes to discrepancies between
the meaning intended by the source of
a message and the meaning assigned by
the receiver.
Noise is the distortion or interference that contributes to discrepancies between the meaning intended by the source and
the meaning assigned by the receiver. Noise can be anything:
physical distractions, channel interference, communicative
competence, communication context, or psychological predispositions. Noise is always present in one form or another,
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
13
and the type or types of noise contribute to the meanings assigned to messages
by receivers and to the encoding of new messages. Think for a moment about
your reaction to receiving an important message from a person whose credibility
you have reason to doubt. What meaning do you assign to the message based
on your prior relationship with this individual? Assume next that you receive the
same message from a trusted friend. Is your reaction different? What type of
noise was generated by your past experiences with both individuals? How did
that noise affect meaning?
Competence
Each individual brings knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values to communication interactions. Our ability to understand appropriate behaviors, our specific
intentions, our willingness to engage in communication, and our ability to interact with others to generate shared realities all contribute to our impression of
our own competence. Also, we continually evaluate and form impressions about
the competence of those with whom we communicate. Our impression of our
own competence and the impression we have of the competence of others contribute to both the encoding and decoding of messages. Ultimately, competence
contributes to communication effects and how we evaluate the effectiveness of
our interactions.
Field of Experience
All parties in a communication interaction bring a specific set of experiences or
background to bear on the interaction. What we do in a particular situation is
related to how much we know about the situation from past experiences and
whether we share any common past experiences. We may behave very differently
in situations in which we have considerable past experience
than we would in situations that are new and unfamiliar. The
Field of experience Set of specific
field of experience is situation specific and may or may not
experiences or background that all
relate to broader evaluations of self-competence. In other
parties in communication bring to bear
words, although we may feel less competent in situations in
on the interaction.
which we have little past experience, that impression does not
automatically transfer to other circumstances in which we
have more background.
Generally, it is believed that the more common the field of experience among
those communicating, the easier it is to share similar meanings or to construct
shared realities. Have you ever tried, for example, to explain an American sporting event to a visitor from another country where the sport is not played and has
never been televised? Did you even know where to begin? Chances are that the
lack of any prior experience on the part of your receiver (no common field of
experience between you) required you to engage in considerable detail, making it
difficult even to begin to describe the event. You can imagine that your approach
would be entirely different if you described the same event to a longtime fan of
the sport.
14 C hap te r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
Communication Context
The communication context is the environment for the communication interaction. Context includes not only the specific time and
place of the interaction but also the roles, relationships, and status
of communication participants. As such, prior interactions among
participants contribute to the construction of the current communication context. It is
fair to say context contributes to our specific intentions in a given circumstance.
Communication intentions, as most of us have experienced, can range from full
disclosure, openness, and clarity seeking to deception, ambiguity, manipulation, and
control. Most of us recognize we communicate differently depending on how well we
know people, what their formal position is in relation to us, and how visible our communication is to others. The way we express ourselves in the privacy of our own homes
may differ from what we will say and do in our work environments. How we communicate in face-to-face interactions often varies from what we do with our mobile
technology. Openly disagreeing with a friend or coworker is different from openly disagreeing with our boss. The way we express ourselves is related to whether we believe
others to be more knowledgeable or competent than we are or whether we believe that
we possess the best information in a specific setting. The way we express ourselves also
reflects the expectations of the particular culture or environment in which we communicate. We can therefore say that context is both culturally and physically influenced,
and as with other elements in the communication process, perception of context can
differ from one communication participant to another.
Communication context
Environment for the communication
interaction.
Realities and Effects
The communication realities or effects are the result, c onsequence,
or outcome of the communication exchange. Effects can be
observed to be directly related to communication interactions.
When people have an argument and terminate relationships at
the end of the argument, we witness what we would call an obvious effect. At other
times, the effect is not immediately observable or is, at best, delayed in time and
context. A student does not contribute to a group project; the project is completed
and all group members receive the same grade. Nothing appears to happen until the
next class project begins and members of the group ask the instructor to reassign the
student to another team. They share a reality from a previous set of communication
exchanges which influences their desire of a different future. Although less direct, this
reality or effect nevertheless should be understood as an outcome of previous
communication exchanges.
In addition to being viewed in terms of results, the effect of an interaction is
evaluated by communication participants for effectiveness and ethics. Did the outcomes result from the free, informed choices of all parties? Did one or more parties
feel manipulated? Were all parties empathically supported? Were the best alternatives considered as a result of the interaction? It is in this evaluative area—ethics
and effectiveness—that future interactions are influenced. Perceptions of whether
past interactions were ethical and effective influence perceptions of the desirability
of future communication.
Reality or Effect Created social
reality or result, consequence, or
outcome of communication exchanges.
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
15
Communication as Constitutive
of Shared Realities
Human communication is the process of attempting to construct
shared realities, to create shared meanings. It is our attempts to
Shared realities Meanings resulting
from the communication process;
have others understand our world as we do or as we want them
attempts to have others understand
to understand it and our efforts to comprehend the world of
our world as we do or as we intend
those around us. As Robert Craig (2007) describes, “A first-order
for it to be understood and our efforts
constitutive model of communication posits that communication,
to comprehend the world of those
rather than merely a neutral conduit for transmitting indepenaround us.
dently existing information, is the primary social process through
which our meaningful common world is constructed.” As a process for the construction of shared realities, human communication is culturally and
contextually influenced, dynamic, and ever-changing.
When this process occurs between two individuals with some type of ongoing
relationship, we call the process interpersonal communication. When the process
occurs among several individuals, we describe it as group communication. When large
numbers of people are involved (either personally or through technological channels),
we call the process public or mass media communication. Finally, we refer to the
human communication process in organizations as organizational communication,
the subject of our text. Whether in interpersonal, group, public, mass media/networked/telemediated, or organizational contexts, the human c ommunication process
involves attempts to construct shared realities among people to generate shared meaning. Think back to the “What Business Is This of Ours?” case. What were the shared
realities at Quality Engineering? Describe the fields of experience and the context of
the interaction between John and Mary. What were the noise factors? Can you predict
the effect of their interaction? Will they be able to work together in the future?
A word of caution is appropriate at this point. Although we continue to describe
human communication as the process of constructing shared realities and creating shared meanings and realities, we must remember shared meanings are always
incomplete and characterized by ambiguity. The human communication process as
an attempt to construct shared realities can represent openness and clarity but also be
characterized by manipulation, control, or deceit. I can deliberately attempt to have
you understand a situation as I understand it, hoping for a shared reality characterized
by openness, but I can also deliberately attempt to have you understand a situation
very differently from what I know the facts to be. Imagine I want you to share with me
a reality that I choose but not one based on my more complete knowledge, experience,
or awareness. My messages then generate a shared reality between us that is characterized by deceit. The important concept here is that the construction of meaning is an
intentional process between us related to our knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values.
Twenty-First-Century Concepts of Organizations
We have defined and described the human communication process in a variety of
possible contexts. Our particular interests are, of course, communication and
organizations and how communication creates and influences organizational
16 C hap te r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
processes and events. We begin to explore the relationship
between communication and organizations by first identifying what an organization is and what it does. The term
Organization Result of the process
organization is applied to the results of the process of orgaof organizing; dynamic system in which
nizing. Organizing is an attempt to bring order out of chaos
individuals engage in collective efforts
or establish organizations, entities in which purposeful and
for goal accomplishment.
ordered activity takes place. Organizing is accomplished
through purposeful activities generated as a result of communication behaviors. In other words, the process we call organizing is accomplished
through human communication as individuals seek to bring order out of chaos
and establish entities for purposeful activities.
Amitai Etzioni (1964) described organizations as social units or groupings of
people deliberately constructed and reconstructed to strive for specific goals. As
such, organizations are characterized by divisions of labor for goal achievement.
These efforts also are directed by relatively continuous patterns of authority and
leadership. Interdependence exists among organizational components as well as
with the external environment. This complex interdependence requires coordination
achieved through communication.
Katherine Miller (2003) identified five features she believed are possessed by all
organizations: two or more people (a social collectivity), goals, coordinating activity, structure, and environmental embeddedness. Gerald Pepper (1995) provided a
communication-based definition when he described organizations as consisting of
the organizing activities of their members. Pepper argued, “Though this definition
may seem circular, it really is quite descriptive of a communication explanation of
organizations. The definition accounts for traditional, pyramidal organizational
form just as easily as it accounts for nontraditional democratic, ‘feminist’ organizational forms, because the key to the definition is the communicative relationships among the members, rather than arbitrary components assumed to define the
organization” (pp. 17–18).
Taken as a whole, these definitions and issues help us understand organizations
from their structure and from the ways they continually create and change what
they do and how they do it. This process occurs through communication behaviors.
Put another way, understanding what an organization is and how it works requires
an understanding of the process of organizational communication.Throughout
the next several chapters, we explore many different types of organizations. We
examine organizations with which you have personal contact and involvement.
We discuss traditional hierarchical organizations, profit-making organizations,
and nonprofit groups. We describe organizations in which hierarchy is replaced
by flatter forms and the use of technology to create virtual groups or entire organizations. We identify family-owned, social justice, and volunteer organizations.
We explore partnerships, entrepreneurial opportunities, and home-based work as
well as global ventures. We look at temporary, local, regional, or global organizations. For all these “types” of organization, you will come to understand human
communication behaviors as creating and shaping both relationships and events.
You will come to grasp communication as c onstituting organizations and social
realities.
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
17
Definitions of Organizational Communication
Organizational communication
Organizational communication is both similar to and distinct
Process through which organizations
from other types of communication. Organizational communicaare created and in turn create and
tion has sources and receivers who engage in the encoding and
shape events. The process can be
decoding of messages. Messages are transmitted over channels
understood as complex interactions
distorted by noise. As with other forms of communication,
of people, messages, meaning, realities,
organizational communication is related to the competencies
and purpose.
of individuals, their fields of experience, the communicative
context, and the realities, effects, or results of interactions. Yet
organizational communication is more than the daily interactions of individuals within
organizations. It is the process through which o
rganizations constitute realities through
creating and shaping events. Next, we describe organizational communication as a
complex interaction of process, people, messages, meaning, and purpose. In sum, we
describe organizational communication as constitutive of organizations.
Organizational Communication as Process
As with other forms of communication, organizational communication is best
understood as an ongoing process without distinct beginnings and ends. The process
includes patterns of interactions that develop among organizational members and
those external to the organization and how these interactions shape organizations.
Because the process is ever-changing, it can be described as evolutionary and culturally dependent. In other words, the ongoing process of creating and transmitting
organizational messages reflects the shared agreements and disagreements resulting
from previous message exchanges and evolves to generate new realities that create and
shape events.
The process can be found in all types of organizations with vastly different goals. The process occurs in developing strategy, planning, decision making,
and executing the work of the organization. The process also occurs, however,
during unexpected crises, changes in the external environment, encounters with
competitors, and in a host of less visible ways. The process occurs between individuals whether performing daily work or socializing and includes messages to large
numbers of employers, customers, and stakeholders. All these interactions taken
together create and shape the ongoing organization.
Organizational Communication as People
Individuals bring to organizations sets of characteristics that influence how information
is processed. Organizational communication contributes to creating relationships and
assists both individuals and organizations in achieving diverse purposes. Organizational
communication occurs between and among people who share both work and interpersonal relationships. Organizational communication also occurs between and among
people who are geographically separated and who may speak different languages
and have widely differing cultural perspectives. It is fair to say that organizational
communication occurs across networks of people who seek to obtain a variety of
objectives requiring communication interactions.
18 C hap te r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
Organizational Communication as Messages
Organizational communication is the creation and exchange of messages. It is the
movement or transmission of verbal and nonverbal behaviors and the sharing of
information throughout the organization. Communicators are linked together by
channels, and messages are described with such terms as frequency, amount, and type.
Concern is expressed for message fidelity, or the extent to which messages are similar
or accurate at all links through the channels. Organizational m
essages increasingly
are telemediated (using complex technologies), extending their geographic reach,
changing notions of time and space, and altering who participates in communication
processes.
Organizational Communication as Meaning
Organizational communication creates and shapes organizational events. Role
taking occurs as individuals engage in social interaction within the ever-changing
organizational context. Organizational communication is the symbolic behavior of
individuals and organizations that, when interpreted, affects all organizational activities. Organizational communication does not create a singular set of meanings for
organizational members and activities. The interactions of ever-changing b
ehaviors
often create multiple perceptions of events and multiple realities that become the
process through which organizational meanings are generated.
Organizational Communication as Constitutive
of Organizations
Organizational communication is organizing, decision making, planning, controlling,
and coordinating. Organizational communication seeks to reduce environmental
uncertainty. It is people, messages, and meaning. It is intentional and unintentional
messages explaining the workings of the organization. Organizational communication
reflects the purpose of the organization. It is the process through which individuals and
organizations attempt goal-oriented behavior in dealing with their environments.
Stanley Deetz (1994) provided an important summary perspective to our discussion
of definitions for organizational communication. Deetz suggested, “Communication,
in the view I am suggesting, refers to the social processes by which meanings, identities, psychological states, social structures, and the various means of the contact of
the organization with the environment are both produced, reproduced, or changed.
In both its constitutive and reproductive modes, communication processes are central
to how perceptions, meanings, and routines are held in common. In all interactions,
including those in organizations, perception, meaning, and data transmission are all
complex, multileveled phenomena produced out of and producing conflicting motives
and structures” (p. 90).
Can you now answer the question about the differences between organizational and other types of communication? You should be able to do so. Whereas
interpersonal and group communications occur in organizations, organizational
communication is a more comprehensive process including, but not limited to, one-
on-one and group exchanges. Competencies for organizational communication
C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication
include interpersonal abilities, but organizational communication competencies also
require effectiveness in complex and changing environments where diverse groups
of people join in purposeful activity. The goal of this book is to help you identify
and develop important competencies for organizational communication. The next
several chapters concentrate on knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values important
in interpersonal, group, and organization-wide contexts.
Let us return to our case study. Describe the interaction between John and Mary
from an organizational communication perspective. Can you identify organizational
factors influencing their exchange? Do John and Mary have a work relationship,
or are they communicating as friends? Can they be both? Is this an example of
organizational goal-directed behavior? How might their exchange affect Quality
Engineering?
It is difficult to be certain about our answers for this case. The chances are
that most of us feel the need for additional information about John and Mary and
Quality Engineering. Yet the lack of complete information is characteristic of many,
if not most, of our organizational experiences. In fact, it is probable that even with
more information we can never be certain of all the shared realities between John
and Mary. Indeed, as we begin our study of organizational communication, a key
to our personal development rests with our ability to analyze thoughtfully while
recognizing the limits of our understanding.
Self-Assessment of Personal Development
Needs: Your Personal Workbook
The last section of this book is Putting It All Together. This section contains a Personal
Development Workbook designed to provide you information about you which will
contribute to your personal and professional development. You will be entering data
into the workbook and developing personal profiles as you move through the next
eleven chapters. The information in the workbook is designed to be used by you not
only for this course but for current and future planning as well.
Figure 1.1 is the first assessment in the workbook. It is located on page 411.
The material in the next eleven chapters is designed to help you develop important competencies for organizational communication. Before you begin to study that
material, however, please complete your Self-Assessment of Personal Development
Needs. The following chapters will be more meaningful if you approach theory,
practice, and analysis opportunities with a personal assessment of your current
strengths and weaknesses. You are about to complete the first of several selfassessments contained in your workbook. Before you proceed, it is important to
understand both the strengths and weaknesses of self-assessment. Self-assessments
are generated by you about you. They can be helpful guides to understanding behavior, perceptions, and attitudes important for your communication behaviors. Selfassessment, however, is not a complete or final analysis about you. The questions
asked determine the profiles developed. Sometimes we tend to answer the way we
think we should as opposed to what we really believe or do. Important questions
or issues for you as an individual may not be considered in a particular assessment. Also, although assessments can guide development, they should not be used
19
20 C hap te r 1
▸ Organizational Communication
to develop profiles of “this is the way I am,” or “this is the way I am not.” In other
words, the self-assessments in the text should be used to stimulate your thinking
about you and your experiences, not to develop rigid categories or self-descriptive
labels.
Chapter Highlights
The information-rich conceptual world is a reality of our lives that places increasing
importance on our individual communication competencies. Organizations of today
and tomorrow must depend on people and the machines of the communications era to
solve problems creatively and to adapt to rapid change. In this fast-paced environment,
organizational excellence is directly related to effective
communication from all
members of the organization. To prepare for the communication responsibilities and
opportunities of the future, individuals need to develop broad-based communication
competency. Communication competency is best understood as a complex interaction of knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values.
Human communication is the process through which we attempt to construct
shared realities. The human communication process includes sources and receivers,
message encoding and decoding, channels, noise, communicative competence,
participants’ fields of experience, contexts, and realities and effects. The process is
evaluated for effectiveness and ethical behaviors, with these evaluations influencing
future interactions. Organizations are the products of organizing activities and can be
described as deliberately constructed social units designed to strive for specific goals.
As such, organizations are dynamic mergers of human behaviors and technological
operations. Organizational communication includes all the descriptors in the human
communication process. It is also the process through which organizations are created
and in turn create and shape events. As such, organizational communication can be
understood as a combination of process, people, messages, meaning, and purpose. In
sum, we describe organizational communication as constitutive of organizations.
Workshop
1. A major case is provided in the Putting It All Together section of this book. The case,
Hockaday Responders: Teams Across Time and Space, is designed for you to apply what
you learn in each chapter to the issues faced by Hockaday Responders. Please read the
case on page 400 and discuss in class the questions for Chapter 1 posed at the end of the
case.
2. Small groups should use The Case against Hiring Karen Groves, which follows, to
determine how communication behaviors influenced Munday’s management team to vote
against hiring Karen Groves.
3. Visit one of the numerous job-search sites on the Internet. Identify at least fifty job titles
that represent information/communication jobs. Bring your list to class for discussion.
4. Identify all the organizations of which you are a member. Include the school you currently
attend. Describe shared realities f...
Purchase answer to see full
attachment