Organizational communication - Good & Bad Communicator

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Donald John Trump, the US president.

He could be a good communicator and also could be a bad one.

Related to the textbook, give 3 takeaway and example why he is a good communicator.

Also, give 3 to explain why he is not.

(For example, Trump is a good communicator because he used the proper CHANNEL to deliver his opinion. He used Twitter which is different from other presidents, balabala...)

800 words in total.

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Fundamentals of Organizational Communication This page intentionally left blank Ninth Edition Fundamentals of Organizational Communication Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak University of Colorado Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editor in Chief: Ashley Dodge Senior Acquisitions Editor: Melissa Mashburn Editorial Assistant: Courtney Turcotte SenioMarketing Coordinator: Jessica Warren Managing Editor: Denise Forlow Program Manager: Reena Dalal Project Manager: Angel Chavez/Integra Senior Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande Art Director: Jayne Conte Cover Designer: Bruce Kenselaar Cover Image: Fotolia Digital Media Project Manager: Tina Gagliostro Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Anandakrishnan Natarajan/Integra Printer/Binder: RR Donnelley/STP Harrisonburg Cover Printer: RR Donnelley/STP Harrisonburg Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shockley-Zalabak, Pamela. Fundamentals of organizational communication: knowledge, sensitivity, skills, values/ Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak.—Ninth edition.   pages cm ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98030-7 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-205-98030-9 (alk. paper) 1. Communication in organizations. I. Title. HD30.3.S55 2012 658.4'5—dc23 2014000690 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-10: 0-205-98007-4 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98007-9 Dedication To Charles Zalabak and Leatha and Jim Shockley v Brief Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 vi Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based Approach 1 Perspectives for Organizational Communication 24 Communication Implications of Major Organizational Theories 70 Organizational Communication: Values and Ethical Communication Behaviors 105 Individuals in Organizations 138 Groups in Organizations 185 Leadership and Management Communication 217 Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical Organizational Communication Competencies 255 Organizational Conflict: Communicating for Effectiveness 278 Organizational Innovation, Change, and Communication 318 Strategic Organizational Communication: Professional Applications of Organizational Communication 350 Career Options for Organizational Communication 377 Contents Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxv 1 Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based Approach 1 The Changing Nature of Organizations and Work 2 Challenges for Individuals and Organizations 2 The Communications Era 3 Communication: The Key to Organizational Excellence 4 Excellence In Communication: Communication Competency 5 Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based Approach 7 ■ The “What Business Is This of Ours?” Case 8 Understanding Human Communication 10 Defining Communication 10 Human Communication: Messages and Constitutive Processes 11 Source/Receiver 11 Encoding/Decoding 11 Message 12 Channel 12 Noise 12 Competence 13 Field of Experience 13 Communication Context 14 Realities and Effects 14 Communication as Constitutive of Shared Realities 15 Twenty-First-Century Concepts of Organizations 15 Definitions of Organizational Communication 17 Organizational Communication as Process 17 Organizational Communication as People 17 Organizational Communication as Messages 18 Organizational Communication as Meaning 18 Organizational Communication as Constitutive of Organizations 18 Self-Assessment of Personal Development Needs: Your Personal Workbook 19 vii viii Contents Chapter Highlights 20 Workshop 20 ■ ■ The Case Against Hiring Karen Groves 21 The “What Do You Mean I’m Not Getting A Raise?” Case 22 Tips for Effective Communication 22 References and Suggested Readings 23 2 Perspectives for Organizational Communication 24 ■ Justin Payroll Company’s Processing Crisis 25 Introduction 25 The Functional Tradition 28 Organizational Communication Systems: Component Parts 28 Communication Inputs 29 Communication Throughput 29 Communication Output 30 Open versus Closed Systems 30 Message Functions 30 Organizing Functions 31 Relationship Functions 31 Change Functions 32 Message Structure 32 Communication Networks 33 Communication Channels 34 Message Direction 35 Communication Load 36 Message Distortion 37 The Functional Tradition: Summary of Essential Characteristics 38 The Meaning-Centered Approach 38 Communication as Organizing and Decision Making 39 Communication as Influence 41 Identification 42 Socialization and Assimilation 43 Communication Rules 44 Power 45 Communication as Culture 46 Communication Climate 48 The Meaning-Centered Approach: Summary of Essential Characteristics 49 Twenty-First-Century Emerging Perspectives 49 Communication as Constitutive Process 50 Communication Constitutes Organization (CCO) 50 Postmodernism and Organizational Communication 52 Critical Theory and Organizational Communication 53 Contents Feminist, Race, and Class Perspectives and Organizational Communication 55 Institutions and Organizational Communication 57 Global Cultures and Organizational Communication 59 Technology and Organizational Communication 60 Twenty-First-Century Emerging Perspectives: Summary of Essential Issues 60 Practical Theory and Organizational Communication 61 Chapter Highlights 61 Workshop 63 ■ ■ The United Concepts Advertising Agency Dilemma Case 63 The “Newcomers Aren’t Welcome Here” Case 64 Tips for Effective Communication 65 References and Suggested Readings 65 3 Communication Implications of Major Organizational Theories 70 ■ The Davis Instrument Company’s Manufacturing Crisis 71 Introduction 72 The Scientific Management School 73 Principles and Basic Activities for Scientific Management 73 Frederick Taylor Principles of Management 74 Henri Fayol Principles of Bureaucracy 76 Max Weber Communication Implications of Scientific Management Theories in Contemporary Organizations 77 The Human Behavior School 78 Major Human Behavior Theories 78 Mary Parker Follett • Elton Mayo • Douglas McGregor • Rensis Likert Communication Implications of Human Behavior Theories in Contemporary Organizations 82 Integrated Perspectives Viewpoints 83 Process and Environmental Approaches 83 Herbert Simon • Eric L. Trist and Kenneth W. Bamforth • Joan Woodward, Paul Lawrence, and Jay Lorsch • Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn • Gareth Morgan • Margaret Wheatley • Peter Senge Cultural Approaches 88 Edgar Schein • Terrence Deal and Allen Kennedy • Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman • Joanne Martin and Peter Frost • Karl Weick Communication Implications of Integrated Perspectives in Contemporary Organizations 94 ix x Contents Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives 95 Stewart Clegg • Jurgen Habermas • Marta Calás and Linda Smircich • Karen Ashcraft Communication Implications of Postmodern, Critical, and Feminist Perspectives in Contemporary Organizations 98 Chapter Highlights 99 Workshop 99 ■ ■ The “What Do You Mean I Am Not Promoted?” Case 101 The “We Never Had to Advertise Before” Case 101 Tips for Effective Communication 102 References and Suggested Readings 102 4 Organizational Communication: Values and Ethical Communication Behaviors 105 ■ The Presidential Fact-Finding (Witch Hunt?) Case 106 Introduction 107 Values In Organizational Communication 108 Organizational Value Systems 108 Organizational Values, Globalization, and Diversity 110 Individual Values 111 Appraising Your Individual Value System 115 Ethics In Organizational Communication 115 The Abuse of Ethics 115 Defining Ethics 116 Making Ethical Decisions 117 Defining Ethical Communication 118 Influences for Ethical Organizational Communication 119 Evaluating Ethical Behavior 120 Organizational Conundrums 121 Value and Ethical Challenges In Organizational Communication 124 Voice and Participation 124 Representing Skills and Abilities 125 Communication Behaviors Related to Money 125 Communication Behaviors Related to Information Collection, Dissemination, Problem Solving, and Decision Making 126 Personal Communication Behaviors 127 Communication Behaviors and Technology 127 Destructive Communication Behaviors 128 Planned and Strategic Organizational Communication 129 Courage, Responsibility, Trust, and Ethics 130 Contents Developing Ethical Standards in Organizational Communication 130 Ethical Dilemmas in Organizational Communication 131 Chapter Highlights 134 Workshop 134 GreenBean Coffee, Inc.—Is It Our Responsibility? Laura Quinn, Ph.d. 135 Tips for Effective Communication 136 References and Suggested Readings 136 5 Individuals in Organizations 138 ■ Dave Green’s First Real Job 139 Introduction 139 Individuals In Organizations 140 The Intrapersonal Experience 142 ■ Dave Green: The Intrapersonal Experience 142 Motivation 143 Abraham Maslow • Frederick Herzberg • B. F. Skinner • Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer Predispositions for Organizational Communication Behaviors 149 Leadership and Conflict Preferences 150 Communication Competency 150 Interpersonal Experiences 150 ■ Dave Green: Interpersonal Experiences 151 Forming Interpersonal Relationships 151 Supervisors and Employees 153 Peers 157 Customers, Clients, and Vendors 160 Communication Networks and Interpersonal Relationships 161 Diversity and Interpersonal Relationships 164 Trust and Interpersonal Relationships 166 Workplace Emotion, Balance, and Interpersonal Relationships 166 Technology and Interpersonal Relationships 168 Increasing Interpersonal Effectiveness 170 Cultural Intelligence 170 Valuing Diversity 170 Personal Development: Active Listening and Descriptive Messages 174 Chapter Highlights 176 Workshop 177 John Rains’ Work Problem 177 xi xii Contents Jane Moyers Doesn’t Know What Her Manager Wants 178 Phil Mayer and His Volunteer Work at Hudson Food Bank 178 The First _______Division Manager at Carson Retailers 179 Tips for Effective Communication 180 References and Suggested Readings 180 6 Groups in Organizations 185 ■ Dave Green’s Small-Group Experiences 186 Introduction 186 Small-Group Experiences 187 Types of Groups 188 Primary Work Teams 189 Directional Groups 191 Quality Teams 192 Task Force Groups 193 Steering Committees 194 Focus Groups 194 Geographically Diverse Teams 194 Social Support Groups 195 Interorganizational Groups 195 Communities of Practice 196 The Team-Based Organization 196 High-Reliability Organizations 199 Group Processes 199 Workplace Democracy 199 Group Norms and Communication Roles 200 Working in Groups 202 Diverse Work Groups 202 Creativity and Collaboration 203 Virtual Groups 205 Groups, Knowledge Sharing, and Technology Use 206 Increasing Group Participation Effectiveness 207 Negative Participation Behaviors 208 Positive Participation Behaviors 208 Chapter Highlights 209 Workshop 210 Group Communication Roles 211 The Transcript 211 Contents Group Problem-Solving Transcript 212 Identification of Group Communication Roles 213 Tips for Effective Communication 214 References and Suggested Readings 214 7 Leadership and Management Communication 217 ■ Brian Wood Knows He Is a Good Leader: How Could Anyone Question Him? 218 Introduction 218 The Importance of Leadership and Management Communication 219 Theories of Leadership and Management 221 Trait Approaches 221 Style Approaches 222 Situational Approaches 226 Transformational Approaches 227 Discursive Approaches 229 Distinctions between Leadership and Management 231 Leadership and Management Challenges 232 Confronting Ethics and Failures 232 Changing Organizational Forms 233 Global and Multicultural Changes 234 Chaos, Flux, and Speed 235 Inclusive-Participation Processes 235 Building Trust 236 Determinants of Leadership Effectiveness 236 Communication Competencies as Determinants of Leadership Effectiveness 236 Predispositions for Leadership Communication 237 Strategic Communication Objectives for Leadership 237 Communication Tactics for Leadership 240 Power Bases for Leaders 240 Situational Analysis for Leadership 245 Increasing Leadership Effectiveness 246 Principled, Excellent, and Ethical Leadership 246 Identifying Constructive Communication Behaviors for Leadership 248 Chapter Highlights 250 Workshop 250 Tips for Effective Communication 251 References and Suggested Readings 251 xiii xiv Contents 8 Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical Organizational Communication Competencies 255 ■ The Decisions, Problems, More Decisions Case 256 Introduction 257 Participation Challenges for Problem Solving and Decision Making 257 Defining Problem Solving and Decision Making 258 Influences for Problem Solving and Decision Making 259 Culture 259 The Problem Issue/Decision Issue 260 Communication Competency 260 Technical Competency 261 Methods for Problem Solving and Decision Making 261 Individual Approaches 261 Leader Mandate 262 Majority Rule 262 Powerful Minority 262 Consensus 262 Barriers to Effective Problem Solving and Decision Making 263 Organizational Barriers 263 Group Task and Procedural Barriers 264 Interpersonal Barriers 265 Problem-Solving Processes 265 The Standard Agenda: A Rational Model 266 Brainstorming 266 Decision Tree Process 267 Experientially Based Processes 267 Increasing Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Effectiveness 268 Interaction Process Skills 268 Fact-Finding and Evaluation Skills 269 Information Criteria 269 Communications Technology in Organizations 270 Increasing Technology Effectiveness 273 Chapter Highlights 273 Workshop 274 The Training Manager of Food Service Industries E-Mail Exercise 274 Tips for Effective Communication 276 References and Suggested Readings 276 Contents 9 Organizational Conflict: Communicating for Effectiveness 278 ■ The Direction the Program Is Going Is Wrong Case 279 Introduction 279 Defining and Describing Conflict Processes 280 Defining Conflict 280 Conflict Contexts 280 Conflict Causes 282 Conflict Episodes 285 Conflict Consequences 288 The Individual in Organizational Conflict 288 Orientations/Predispositions/Styles 289 Strategic Objectives 292 Communication Tactics in Conflict 293 Emotion during Conflict 296 Groups in Organizational Conflict 298 Group Members in Conflict 298 Framing and Sensemaking 299 Procedural Conflict 299 Interpersonal Issues 299 Substantive Issues 300 Groupthink 300 Dissent 300 Group Conflict Management Processes 301 Power and Organizational Conflict 302 Conflict with Customers and Vendors 303 Special Types of Organizational Conflict: Sexual Harassment, Discrimination, and Ethical Abuses 303 Productively Engaging in Conflict 307 Guidelines for Productive Conflict 307 Contribute to Supportive and Ethical Environments for Conflict 308 Monitor Your Personal Behavior and the Behavior of Others for Signs of Destructive Conflict 310 Set a Meeting to Work on the Conflict 311 Chapter Highlights 313 Workshop 314 Tips for Effective Communication 314 References and Suggested Readings 315 xv xvi Contents 10 Organizational Innovation, Change, and Communication 318 ■ The Techtron Computers “Want to Survive, Go Public, And Then What?” Case 319 Introduction 319 The Realities of Innovation and Change 321 Barriers to Innovation and Change 323 Complacency 323 Organizational Silence 323 Knowledge or Information Deficits 324 Risk Perception 324 Uncertainty 325 Contradictions and Misalignments 325 Active and Passive Resistance 326 Organizational Leaders 326 Organizational Trust 326 Organizational Decline 327 Organizational Crisis 327 The Leadership of Innovation and Change 327 Models and Processes for Innovation and Change 329 Accelerators of Innovation and Change 329 Diffusion of Innovation 329 Stakeholder Theory 330 The Purchase Model 331 The Doctor–Patient Model 331 The Process Model 331 Appreciative Inquiry 331 Professional Responsibilities for Change 332 Gathering Input and Data 332 Data Evaluation 334 Planning and Implementing Solutions 335 Evaluating Results 336 Communicating about Change 336 Chapter Highlights 338 Workshop 339 Jane Edwards’ Problem Employee 339 The Case of the Poorly Written Manual 339 The Transition of Stanley Manufacturing 340 The Crisis at Homes for the Homeless 340 Mason Financial Is Working at Capacity 341 Contents Changes for Hewlett Designers 341 Into the Pit and Out Again: An Organizational Turnaround, Nina Polok, Ph.d. 342 Tips for Effective Communication 348 References and Suggested Readings 348 11 Strategic Organizational Communication: Professional Applications of Organizational Communication 350 ■ The Press and the Stockholders Want to Know Case 351 Introduction 352 Describing Strategic Organizational Communication 352 Perspectives on Strategic and Organizational Communication 353 The Organization and Its Environment 355 Multiple Publics 355 Environmental Scanning 355 The Global Environment 356 SWOT Processes 357 Strategic Organizational Communication 358 Public Relations 358 Communicating an Organization’s Image or Reputation 359 Internal Communications 360 Public Affairs and Issues Management 360 Marketing 361 Integrated Marketing Communications 362 The Marketing Mix 362 Advertising 363 Branding 364 Relationship Marketing and the Use of Marketing Databases 364 Media Relations 365 The Media Interview 365 Risk and Crisis Communication 366 Technology and Strategic Organizational Communication 368 Evaluating Strategic Organizational Communication 370 Ethical Issues in Strategic Organizational Communication 370 Chapter Highlights 371 Workshop 372 Trust: Building Blocks for future Triumph, Lauren Bacon Brengarth, Ph.d. 372 xvii xviii Contents Marketing Merger: Momentum or Moratorium, Lauren Bacon Brengarth, Ph.d. 373 Tips for Effective Communication 374 References and Suggested Readings 374 12 Career Options for Organizational Communication 377 ■ The “Where Do We Go from Here?” Case 378 Introduction 378 Choosing a Communication Career 379 Knowledge for Employment Matching 380 Sensitivity for Employment Matching 380 Skills for Employment Matching 381 Values for Employment Matching 382 Career Choices in Organizational Communication 382 Internal Communication 385 External Communications 385 Sales 386 Human Services 386 Education 387 Research: Information Management 387 Management 388 Consulting 388 Additional Options for Organizational Communication 389 Educational Preparation for Organizational Communication Careers 389 The Employment Search 390 The Informational Interview 390 The Employment Interview 391 Careers in the Twenty-First Century 392 Old versus New Career Paradigms: The Boundaryless Career 393 Twenty-First-Century Organizational Forms and Career Skills 395 Networked Organization 395 Cellular Organization 395 Team-Based Careers 396 Chapter Highlights 396 Workshop 397 Tips for Effective Communication 398 References and Suggested Readings 398 Contents Appendix Putting It All Together 400 Hockaday Responders: Teams across Time and Space 400 The Broad Context for Hockaday Responders 400 The People 401 The Customers 402 The Media 402 The Case 402 Individual Reactions 406 What Happened Next 407 Your Personal Development Workbook 411 Self-Assessment of Personal development needs 411 Three Approaches to describing Personal Values 414 Statements describing Leaders and Leadership 416 Personal Profile of Conflict Predispositions, Strategies, and Tactics 418 Self-Analysis for Career Planning 420 Influences on Career Choices 421 Identification of Achievement Skills and Values 421 Describing a Desired Lifestyle 423 Identifying Current Status of Career Planning 423 Work Sheet of Self-Analysis Activities for Career Planning 424 Final Self-Assessment of Personal Development Needs 428 Cases and Essays 431 “Is Harry Too Social to be Promoted?” Case 431 My Twitter Account Is Driving Me Crazy 432 The Spending More to Save More Presentation Case 432 I Can’t Believe Our Entire World Is Wired 433 “The Middlesex Insurance Company” Case 434 “The Coronado Company’s Quality Defects” Case 435 “What Do You Mean I’m Not Going to Graduate?” Case 436 How Did This Harm Occur? 436 Granite City’s Homeless Shelter: Doing More with Less 437 The Case of the Invisible Manager 438 Dennison Computer Corporation—A Lesson in Organizational Culture 439 China, India, and Oklahoma City: Working Together, But How? 441 Don Augustine’s Disappointed Staff 442 Dora Cartwright’s Leadership Dilemma 443 Kathy’s Stubborn, Smart Streak 444 Brian James Doesn’t Know What to Believe 444 I Am Tired and Stressed 445 I Thought I Gave Them Everything 445 Ann Cartwright, Vice President of Drummond Industries 446 xix xx Contents The Rule Here Is to Do What Management Wants 447 I Thought We Were a Team 447 The Internal Communications Dilemma 448 The Reluctant Team Member 448 What Happened to the Value of Networking? 449 The “Walking the Talk” Manager 450 Career and Personal Needs Just Don’t Mix 451 The Competitive Leak Is More Than a Crisis 451 The CEO Puts Her Foot in Her Mouth 452 The Only U.S. Communicator on the Team 452 Working Across Time and Space 453 Are We A High-Reliability Team or Not? 454 To Blog or Not 454 What Is the Truth at NOEA? 455 People, Planet, and Profit: Sustainability and the Triple Bottom Line, Laura Quinn, Ph.d. 456 Leadership That Transforms, Michael Hackman, Ph.d. and Craig Johnson, Ph.d. 459 Author Index 463 Subject Index 468 Preface We are in a turbulent time with rapid change in the institutions and organizations with which we are most familiar. Fundamentals of Organizational Communication: Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values was written to help readers experience twenty-first-century organizational challenges within the context of learning about communication and organizations. The ninth edition of this book presents the concepts of organizational communication within a unique competency-based approach that incorporates personal knowledge, interpersonal sensitivity, communication skills, and ethical values. It blends theory, practice, and analysis with an emphasis on knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values. Why a competency-based approach? The answer is simple: organizing material by competency components is academically relevant, individually practical, and important to organizations. Favorable responses to earlier editions from both students and faculty support the competency-based mix of theory and application. In addition, studies in the United States of America and internationally describe both human and technological communication as the keys to excellence in the twenty-first century. Numerous employer surveys have found that accurately processing large volumes of information within organizations, although necessary, is not sufficient for excellence; employers need individuals who take personal responsibility for building relationships that contribute to trust, quality communication, innovation, and change. New to This Edition The twenty-first century presents unprecedented challenges and opportunities, particularly for the discipline of organizational communication. The changes in the ninth edition of Fundamentals of Organizational Communication directly address the rapid changes in the field and provide students with the most current information available from which to make both academic and professional choices. A brief overview of some of the most important changes to the ninth edition includes: • Sixty-five total cases; 14 new cases including a complex case, Hockaday Responders, which can be used for application of material from all 12 book chapters • New research reviewed and included in all chapters • New Your Personal Development Workbook for students to have all self-assessments and development assignments in one location • Expanded discussion of socialization and assimilation (Chapter 2) • New discussion of class theories (Chapter 2) • Expanded discussion of Communication Constitutes Organization (CCO) (Chapter 2) • Expanded discussions of the importance of trust throughout the text • New discussion of importance of voice and participation for ethical communication (Chapter 4) • Expanded discussion of supervisor–employee relationships (Chapter 5) • Expanded discussion of teleworker experiences (Chapter 5) xxi xxii Preface • • • • • • • • • New discussion of interorgnaizational groups (Chapter 6) New discussion of groups, knowledge sharing, and technology use (Chapter 6) Expanded discussion of ethics, failure, chaos, and flux (Chapter 7) Expanded discussion of technology use by groups (Chapter 8) New discussion of employee dissent (Chapter 9) Revised guidelines for productive conflict (Chapter 9) New focus on organizational innovation (Chapter 10) New discussion of accelerators of innovation and change (Chapter 10) Recasting of strategic communication to include risk and crisis communication (Chapter 11) • New information for informational and employment interview preparation (Chapter 12) The Competency Framework Knowledge Theoretical concepts important to the study of organizational communication are presented so that students can develop personal knowledge. Knowledge competencies are what we come to know about the theory and principles of a particular field of study, in this case organizational communication. Knowledge competencies support sensitivity in organizational life, guide our development of skills, and assist us in understanding the application of ethical standards and our personal values in organizational settings. To this end, this book examines various frameworks for understanding organizational communication, communication implications of major organizational theories, and communication processes in organizations. Sensitivity The sensitivity component in the competency framework refers to our ability to sense or become aware of a variety of organizational meanings and feelings. It is related to our ability and willingness to understand what others are feeling and doing. To help students develop the sensitivity competency, this book encourages them to study and analyze various roles and relationships within organizations. Individual sensitivity can be developed by analyzing the impact of personal behaviors in organizational settings, such as individuals in organizations, dyadic relationships (specifically supervisor–employee relationships), group processes, conflict, and leadership and management communication, each examined in the text. In addition, the text emphasizes the importance of the sensitivity component for our increasingly diverse, multicultural, and global organizational world. Skills The skills component of the framework focuses on developing important analytical capabilities as well as the ability to communicate effectively in a variety of settings. It is designed to help students develop both initiating and receiving communication skills. Key organizational communication skills (e.g., problem solving, decision Preface making, fact-finding, interviewing, and using communications technologies) are identified, and analysis and practice opportunities appropriate for each are provided. Also, analysis opportunities provided in case studies and research opportunities contribute to students’ skill development. Values The values component in the competency framework is key to the integration of knowledge, sensitivity, and skills. To understand the realities of organizational life, we must first examine how individual and organizational values or ethics can shape organizational communication behavior. Students develop values and ethics through case studies that present ethical dilemmas and value issues in organizational settings. We adopt different value positions and ethical perspectives to analyze cases, recommend courses of action, and predict outcomes. Features of Fundamentals of Organizational Communication Each chapter of Fundamentals of Organizational Communication attempts to contribute to competency development through the constant interaction of theory, practice, and analysis. Chapters begin with a statement of objectives and a short case study illustrating the concepts to be studied. Key terms and concepts are identified in margins, and chapters end with highlights, communication tips, and a workshop posing questions and issues in each of the competency areas: knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values. The Putting It All Together section includes Your Personal Development Workbook and provides additional cases and essays for analysis. Chapters 1 through 3 develop students’ knowledge through an understanding of what contributes to comprehensive communication competency and how we can understand this phenomenon called organizational communication. These chapters emphasize major organizational theories and their communication implications. Chapter 4 focuses on the interaction of personal, organizational, and professional ethics and values. It presents the values component of communication competency, placing particular emphasis on how organizational values contribute to organizational culture and effectiveness. Chapters 5 through 9 develop the sensitivity component of communication competency. These chapters describe individuals in organizations and their intrapersonal, interpersonal, and small-group experiences. In addition, they emphasize the increasing diversity and multiculturalism of organizations as well as the study of conflict and leadership. Research indicates that conflict and leadership may well be the focal processes for effective communication in organizations. Texts in organizational communication frequently treat these topics mechanically, without emphasizing underlying subtleties such as organizational climate or the complex interactions of individual predispositions, strategies, and tactics. This book supports understanding of individual preferences in these crucial areas of organizational behavior by using self-assessment instruments. xxiii xxiv Preface Chapters 10 through 12 develop competency in the skills component, identifying key applications and career options for organizational communication skills and making specific suggestions for skill development. The Putting It All Together section contributes to the comprehensive development of all four competency components through an interaction of theory, practice, and analysis. Materials in the appendix are to be used in conjunction with all chapters and as supplements to the concepts learned through practical and realistic examples. This text is available in a variety of formats—digital and print. To learn more about our programs, pricing options, and customization, visit www.pearsonhighered.com. Supplemental Resources For Instructors Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For each chapter in the text, the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank provides a ­chapter focus, learning objectives, key terms, and discussion activities and exercises. The Test Bank portion offers hundreds of test questions in multiple-choice, true/false, ­short-answer, and essay formats. Available only online on our Instructor’s Resource Center at www. ablongman.com/irc (please contact your Pearson representative for an access code). Computerized Test Bank The user-friendly interface enables instructors to view, edit, and add questions; transfer questions into tests; and print tests in a variety of fonts. Search and Sort features allow instructors to locate questions quickly and arrange them in a preferred order. Available only online on our Instructor’s Resource Center at www.ablongman.com/irc. (please contact your Pearson representative for an access code). PowerPoint Presentation Package A PowerPoint presentation provides lecture slides based on key concepts in the text. Available only online on our Instructor’s Resource Center at www.ablongman.com/ irc (please contact your Pearson representative for an access code). Acknowledgments I wrote this book for four primary reasons: my experiences with students who appreciate the importance of the study of organizational communication, my research interests in organizational communication, my years of organizational experience in both the private and public sectors, and my fundamental belief that organizations and the discipline of organizational communication must undergo significant change as the world around us changes. When taken together, these experiences and beliefs have been invaluable to me in relating theory to practice and in projecting competency needs for the future. I am grateful for the help and support of many individuals in the development of this manuscript. My colleagues from the Aspen Engaged Scholars Conference along with my colleagues in the Department of Communication at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs (Sherry Morreale, Lauren Brengarth, and Mike Hackman), have stimulated my thinking. I also want to thank the many special students at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, who reviewed and critiqued most of the exercises and cases contained in the text. I also am grateful to the following individuals who reviewed the manuscript and provided helpful suggestions: Amy Gall, Saint Louis Christian College; Beth Goodier, College of Charleston; Dora E. Saavedra, University of Texas, Pan American; and Jeff Stafford, Eastern Washington University. On a personal note, I wrote this book with the continuing guidance, love, and s­ upport of my family. My father and mother, Jim and Leatha Shockley, provided the foundation for a special pursuit of learning. Without my husband, Charles, the p ­ rofessional years ­simply would not have occurred. His continuous love and encouragement made all dreams ­possible. Our daughter and granddaughter, Yvonne and Carissa, continue in his light. This book was written for students who want to change and improve organizations and themselves, who are willing to risk excellence, and who love engaging in human communication. Therefore, to students (past, present, and future) and to my family (Charles, Yvonne, Carissa, Mom, and Dad), I dedicate this book. xxv This page intentionally left blank Chapter 1 Organizational Communication A Competency-Based Approach D e v e l o p i n g C o m p eten c ies Th r o u g h … Knowledge Describing communication in the information-rich world Defining and describing communication competency Defining and describing the human communication process Identifying descriptions of organizations Surveying definitions of organizational communication Sensitivity Understanding communication as a key to organizational excellence Developing awareness of our personal communication competencies Understanding human communication as attempting to create shared realities, shared meanings Distinguishing among interpersonal, small-group, and organizational communication Skills Assessing personal development needs Practicing analysis capabilities Values Understanding communication competency as a personal and organizational need Clarifying a contemporary “good communicator” theme Understanding communication as fundamental to the process of organizing Evaluating communication for ethics and effectiveness 1 2 C hap t e r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication The Changing Nature of Organizations and Work We are in one of the more turbulent periods in history. This statement is not p ­ rofound but is real nevertheless. Our twenty-first-century world is more complex, and the knowledge we bring to bear on our problems often adds to confusion and disagreement. We have unprecedented opportunities and unprecedented ­problems. Most of us seek a firm direction that is outmoded. Uncertainty and change have become the norm. We need new thinking, new criticisms, new knowledge, new ­approaches, and new understandings. Creativity and innovation are more ­important than ever. Nowhere is the current turbulence more evident than in contemporary organizations. Increased economic pressures, globalization, rapidly diversifying employee and customer bases, changing technology, societal needs, an increasing a­ wareness of organizational relationships to society in general, and a host of other f­actors ­contribute to new organization types, new relationships between organizations and e­ mployees, and a growing acknowledgment of the complexity of all organizational life. The virtual organization, e-commerce, high-performing teams, contract ­ employment, increased contact with a culturally diverse world, and home-based work are but a few of the changes with impacts on interpersonal relationships, group interactions, management and leadership, personal and professional ethics, time management, and ­nonwork life. What many have called the old social contract—mutual loyalty and support between employees and their employers—has been replaced by frequent shifts from one employer to another, increased global competition, downsizing in workforces, part-time employment, flatter organizations, and a generally changing relationship between management and workers. Critics of the changing nature of our work lives call for increased workplace democracy, whereas its advocates defend the changes as necessary for survival. Challenges for Individuals and Organizations The environments individuals and organizations encounter are complex, f­ragile, turbulent, and uncertain. The opportunities for innovation and change are enormous. J. F. Rischard (2002) describes the challenges individuals and organizations face as problems of sharing our planet, our humanity, and a global rule book. Rischard ­identifies global warming, biodiversity, deforestation, poverty, ­education, the digital divide, e-commerce rules, international labor and migration rules, the global financial architecture, and several other problems as issues so ­pressing they must be addressed in the next twenty years by individuals and organizations including for-profit, not-­­ for-profit, governmental, and educational institutions. War, ­terrorism, global ­warming, and accelerating rates of change add to what appears to be a ­growing list. Individuals and organizations experience increasingly diverse e­ nvironments ­characterized by age, gender, race, social class, and cultural d ­ ifferences. For ­individuals the requirement to continually learn and build new ­competencies has never been greater. Individuals continually face challenges between complex ­organization requirements and personal and family life. Individuals and ­organizations are asked to engage these challenges and differences to create o ­ pportunities, generate innovation, and contribute to productive change. C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication 3 The Communications Era Regardless of the position taken about the changing nature of organizations and work, few disagree the communications era surrounds us. We live, work, and play in complex communications environments. Sophisticated communications technologies have changed the way we do everything. The rapid development and use of communications technologies have contributed to individuals, organizations, and the entire world becoming more interconnected than at any previous point in human history. All of us are experiencing a unique time in history with two unprecedented shifts— globalization and the nature of innovation—driving changes impacting all aspects of our lives. Innovation can occur anywhere, and participation in the c­ reation of new products and processes is no longer limited to superpowers and highly developed countries. The United States of America, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom have all seen white-collar jobs move to countries such as India, China, and Russia. Millions of routine jobs have disappeared, while new and more stimulating jobs requiring communications expertise are created. With more than half of America’s workforce and gross national product in knowledge industries, virtually all agree we are in a Information society Environment postindustrial information society moving to a conceptual age. in which more jobs create, process, Daniel Pink (2005), who describes the shift from the information or distribute information than directly to the conceptual age, suggests, “The future belongs to a very difproduce goods. The environment is ferent kind of person with a very different kind of mind—creators characterized by mass production and empathizers, pattern ­recognizers, and meaning makers. These of information, which requires the people—artists, ­inventors, designers, storytellers, caregivers, conconstant learning of new activities solers, big picture thinkers—will now reap society’s richest rewards and processes. and share its greatest joys” (p. 1). Thomas Friedman (2006) believes “we are now connecting all the knowledge centers on the Conceptual age Environment planet together into a single global network, which—if politics and in which inventive, empathic, ­bigterrorism do not get in the way—could usher in an amazing era of picture capabilities are required for the most fulfilling jobs. Written and prosperity, ­innovation, and collaboration, by companies, commuoral communication, inquiry, critical nities, and individuals” (p. 8). and creative thinking, quantitative As an individual you are likely to spend most of your workliteracy, cultural knowledge, teamwork, ing life employed in a “knowledge/information” or “conceptual” synthesis of learning, and strong job. You are more likely to create, process, or distribute informapersonal ethics are highly valued. tion than you are to be directly involved in the production of goods. There is a greater need for salespeople, teachers, ­lawyers, financial analysts, media producers, bankers, consultants, scientists, engineers, ­doctors, architects, writers, information managers, editors, and social workers and a decreased need for manufacturing assembly workers, service support workers, miners, toolmakers, machinists, builders, and welders. One of the most important characteristics of the “communications” era is the rapid change associated with mass production of information, change requiring us all to be constantly involved in the learning of new activities and processes. Most of us have already experienced rapid change brought about by new technologies. For example, although checks can still be written by hand, many of us pay our bills online or with plastic cards and use computer terminals to deposit money in or withdraw money from our bank accounts. We can still go to the movies, or we can bring 4 C hap t e r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication movies to our homes through discs, satellites, and Internet connections. We can write letters and memos to send through “regular” mail, or we can use sophisticated electronic systems to send and receive all types of correspondence and files rapidly. We use our cellular phones for talking with others but also as our Web connections, cameras (both still and video), instant messaging devices, calculators, clocks, e-mail processors, televisions, and a host of other functions. Social networking of all types increasingly is prevalent in both our personal and organizational environments. Fiber-optic connections, wireless networks, and global telecommunications and computer networks have literally changed the ways in which we do research, changed those with whom we can stay in constant contact, and altered notions of time and space. We are connected daily with both close friends and strangers. Most students reading this book are in traditional classrooms with “live” instructors. For some ­students now, and for more in the future, however, “live” means that the ­instructor is located at a remote site equipped with audio, video, and c­ omputer interconnects ­ ­ supported by e-books. Convergence is the term of the day, with ­computing, ­wireless technologies, and more traditional media such as television converging into ­integrated tools for work, school, family, and leisure environments. We have so much information that, for individuals and organizations, the ­challenge is how to deal with our information alternatives. This daily increase in information (based on innovations in communications and computer technology) brings with it rapid change in activities, processes, and products. Workers in the communications era of microelectronics, computers, and telecommunications have an abundance of information for decision making and a growing concern for information overload. Research suggests virtually all knowledge ­workers use e-mail and voicemail, with use of mobile phones, conference calls, corporate intranets, IM/text messaging, corporate Web sites, information portals, and corporate extranets commonplace. Social media have become a cultural phenomenon in all aspects of our lives. We are connected around the clock as work and personal time merge for many. We can routinely communicate across both geography and organizational levels. It is not unusual, for example, for employees of an organization in Boston to interact with their counterparts in Los Angeles, whom they have never met, while both groups prepare a portion of a single report or recommendation. And for a growing number of individuals, this report can be generated without ever leaving their homes as they “telecommute” from automated home workstations to offices around the globe. The complexity of all organizational life and the rapid increase in communications technologies place increasing demands on our individual communication abilities. These demands are best met with the perspective that becoming and staying competent is an ongoing process requiring lifelong learning. Communication: The Key to Organizational Excellence Organizational excellence Ability of people to work together and utilize technology for the creative solving of increasingly complex problems. In this complex and information-rich conceptual society, the key to organizational excellence is communication excellence. Communication systems within organizations—both human C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication and technological—are responsible for solving increasingly complex problems ­creatively. People using the machines of the communications era must coordinate large volumes of information for the performance of new and dynamic tasks. There is widespread recognition, however, that excellence in organizational problem solving is more than the efficient management of large volumes of facts. ­ Organizational excellence stems from the dedicated commitment of people, people who are motivated to work together and who share similar values and visions about the results of their efforts. Viewing communications as the key to organizational excellence is not new. As early as 1938, Chester Barnard, in his now-famous work The Functions of the Executive, described as a primary responsibility of executives the d ­evelopment and maintenance of a system of communication. Research since then has linked organizational communication to managerial effectiveness, the integration of ­ work units across organizational levels, characteristics of effective supervision, job and communication satisfaction, innovation, adaptability, creativity, and overall ­organizational effectiveness and performance. In fact, numerous scholars have gone as far as to suggest that organizations are essentially complex communication processes that create and change events. For both the industrial society of the past and the information and conceptual societies of today and tomorrow, there is broad ­agreement about the centrality of organizational communication and that organizational communication plays a significant part in contributing to or detracting from organizational excellence. With this emphasis on the complex, fast-paced information conceptual ­society and the importance of human communication, questions arise concerning what skills and abilities organizations need from their future employees. How should ­individuals prepare themselves for the information responsibilities and ­opportunities that almost inevitably will be a part of the future? What does it take to contribute to organizational communication excellence? Put simply, organizations of today and tomorrow need competent communicators at all organizational levels. With more complex decisions, rapid change, more information, and less certainty about what the decisions should be, ­excellence in a conceptual world depends on the abilities, commitment, and creativity of all ­organizational members. As a result, students, communication teachers and researchers, and active organizational members must work together to understand what contributes to organizational communication competency and how best to develop personal potential. It is our collective expertise which will detract from or contribute to excellence. Excellence In Communication: Communication Competency Quintilian, an early Latin rhetorician, is credited with introducing the ideal of the “good man speaking well,” an ideal that is not as far removed from contemporary concepts of organizational communication competency as history might suggest. In fact, Michael Hackman and Craig Johnson (2004) identified a contemporary “good communicator” theme when reviewing research from personnel administrators throughout the United States of America. Today’s organizations need people 5 6 C hap t e r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication who can speak well, listen, write, persuade others, demonstrate interpersonal skills, gather information, and exhibit small-group problem-solving expertise. In other words, organizations in our complex and turbulent world need flexible and creative people who have diverse and well-developed communication abilities. Yet how do we ­determine if we are competent o ­ rganizational ­communicators? Who decides? On what do we base our conclusions? Communication competency Researchers differ in how they define communication compeComposed of knowledge, sensitivity, tency. Some believe that a person is competent if he or she knows skills, and values. Competence arises what is appropriate in a specific situation, whether or not that from interaction of theory, practice, behavior actually occurs. A student, for example, who realizes and analysis. that class participation is required for a high grade may choose not to participate, yet the student can be considered competent because of the knowledge or awareness of the appropriate behavior. Other researchers extend the competency concept beyond knowledge of appropriate behaviors to include actual language performance and the achievement of interpersonal goals. The student, from this perspective, must not only recognize appropriate participation behaviors but also participate so as to demonstrate communication competency. Fred Jablin and Patricia Sias (2001), in their comprehensive discussion of communication competency, suggested that the concept of communication competency is best understood by an ecological model that revolves around four systems: (1) the microsystem, which contains the developing organizational member and other persons in the immediate work environment (e.g., supervisors, ­coworkers, and clients); (2) the mesosystem, which represents the interrelations among ­various microsystems (e.g., what individuals learn in their project teams may ­affect their competence in the functional work groups in which they are ­members); (3) the macrosystem, which does not represent the immediate context in which an individual works, but does impinge on him or her (i.e., major divisions of the organization and the organization itself as a whole); and (4) the exosystem, which represents the overarching cultural belief system, forms of knowledge, ­social, ­technological, and political ideologies.… In brief, an ecological perspective ­emphasizes system embeddedness. That is, the actions of one element of the system affect the other elements. (pp. 836–837) Jablin and Sias specifically described how globalization and technology have changed forever notions of what is a competent communicator. It is fair to conclude they expand previous notions of communication competency to extend to groups and to the ­organization as a whole within its broad environment. Sherry Morreale (2009) suggests linkage between communication competence and ethics. Specifically, Morreale identifies issues of competence related to pursuing self-interest versus the interest of others, to engaging in information sharing versus manipulation, and to recognizing the long-term effects of communication across time and diverse relationships. Stephen Littlejohn and David Jabusch (1982) have proposed a particularly ­useful definition of communication competency for the organizational setting. They suggest that communication competency is “the ability and willingness of an individual to participate responsibly in a transaction in such a way as to maximize the outcomes of shared meanings.” This definition requires not only knowledge of appropriate behaviors but also motivation to engage in communication that results C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication in mutual understanding. In other words, communication competency involves our personal willingness and ability to communicate so that our meanings are understood and we understand the meanings of others. Finally, this definition can be applied to the group and macro-organizational levels so important in the ecological model proposed by Jablin and Sias. Regardless of differences in perspectives, organizational communication competency relates to message encoding and decoding abilities, the process of communication initiation and consumption. When we begin to think about our personal communication competency, we quickly realize that we form impressions of our own competency while making evaluations about the competency of others. We try to decide what is appropriate for us as well as for others, and we determine whether that behavior is effective in a particular circumstance. In other words, my impression of my own competency and the competency of others is related to my evaluation of whether we exhibited the “right” behaviors and achieved “desirable” results in a particular situation. Determining what is “right” and “desirable” is not always easy, however. Think for a moment about your personal experiences. Have you ever been in a situation where others thought you did a good job although you were disappointed in yourself? Who was right? Were you competent or incompetent? Can both be correct? Earlier we said that organizational excellence depends on the communication competencies of all organizational members. Specifically, we described the need for creative problem solving among diverse groups of people who often share little common information. With this emphasis on communication and technology, the real question becomes what individuals should do to prepare themselves to meet their future communication needs. In other words, how do we develop and evaluate our communication competencies? Our answer begins by returning to the Littlejohn and Jabusch approach to ­communication competency. Littlejohn and Jabusch (1982) contend competency arises out of four basic components: process understanding, interpersonal sensitivity, communication skills, and ethical responsibility. Process understanding refers to the cognitive ability to understand the dynamics of the communication event. Interpersonal sensitivity is the ability to perceive feelings and meanings. Communication skills are the ability to develop and interpret message strategies in specific situations. The ethical component of competency is the attitudinal set that governs concern for the well-being of all participants in taking responsibility for communication outcomes. Finally, Littlejohn and Jabusch believe that competence comes from the interaction of three primary elements: theory, practice, and analysis. When applied to the organizational setting, the Littlejohn and Jabusch approach can be modified and expanded to include the competency components this book seeks to develop: knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values. Organizational Communication: A Competency-Based Approach This book is designed to help you develop communication competencies for ­effective organizational communication. The goal of the book is to provide theory, practice, and analysis opportunities that contribute to knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and ­values important for organizational excellence. 7 8 C hap t e r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication Knowledge: the ability to understand the organizational communication ­environment. Knowledge competencies are what we come to know about a ­particular field. Knowledge is the learning of theory and principles. Knowledge competencies are fundamental to support our sensitivity to organizational life, to guide our skill development, and to assist us in understanding the application of ethical standards and our personal values in a variety of organiKnowledge competency Ability zational ­settings. Knowledge competency develops through the to understand the organizational exploration of the ­interactive process nature of human commucommunication environment. nication. We examine what organizational communication is and the major theoretical approaches for its study. We explore the roles of individuals in organizations and examine communication implications of major organizational theories. Finally, we discuss vital organizational subjects such as conflict, leadership, and strategic communication. Sensitivity: the ability to sense accurately organizational meanings and feelings. It is related to our ability and willingness to understand what ­others feel and do. Sensitivity competency develops Sensitivity competency Ability to sense organizational meanings and through the examination of our personal “theories-in-use” about feelings accurately. communication and organizations. We assess individual preferences for leadership and conflict, as well as the impact of personal ­differences and similarities within organizational settings. We place emphasis on how we come to understand our complex organizational environments. Skills: the ability to analyze organizational situations accurately and to initiate and consume organizational messages effectively. The skills competency ­focuses on developing important analytical capabilities as well as the ability to communicate effectively in a variety of ­settings. Skills competency Ability to analyze Skills competency develops through analysis and practice organizational situations accurately and ­opportunities. Specifically, analytical skills develop by applyto initiate and consume organizational ing ­knowledge and sensitivity to case studies and individual messages effectively. experiences. We also present and practice problem-solving and conflict-management skills. Values competency Importance of taking responsibility for effective communication, thereby contributing to organizational excellence. Values: the importance of taking personal responsibility for effective communication, thereby contributing to organizational excellence. Values competency develops through discussion of personal responsibility for participation in organizational communication. We examine ethical dilemmas relating to organizational communication and the importance of values to organizational culture. Finally, we use case studies to illustrate ethical and value issues common in organizations. The “What Business Is This of Ours?” Case The following case describes a problem at Quality Engineering, a medium-sized company located in Denver, Colorado. The case is based on a real situation at Quality, although the name of the supplier in question has been changed. You will C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication use this case to think about individuals communicating and to begin to understand the concept of organizational communication. John and Mary were the only two buyers in the purchasing department of Quality Engineering. Both had been with the company for several years and were ­experienced in handling purchases for the manufacturing, research, finance, and marketing areas of Quality. Mary typically handled purchases for the manufacturing and research areas, and John was the principal buyer for the rest of the organization. At times their individual workloads required they cross departments and help each other. Their boss, Mike Anderson, the accountant for Quality, believed they were the best purchasing team with whom he had ever worked. He was proud of their efforts and willingness to cooperate with each other. He frequently commented to Quality ­management that John and Mary made money for the company by getting the best possible prices for goods and services. Mike was surprised and concerned to overhear John and Mary in a heated discussion. John: I can’t believe you are still using Anderson Printing as one of our ­suppliers. I told you last month that their last two orders for my groups were late and part of the printing had to be sent back because of errors. I told them then that I wouldn’t accept any more of their bids on our jobs. It makes me look like a fool when I hear from them that you are still ordering their products for manufacturing and research. How can we enforce good quality from our suppliers if we don’t present a united front? Mary: Just a minute. Anderson Printing has been one of our good suppliers for over ten years. I know we have had some problems with them in the past year but I don’t think we should drop them flat. They have pulled us out of a lot of jams when we needed printing in a big hurry. I never agreed to drop them from our supplier list. You just told them they were gone and expected me to support your decision. You should have talked to me about it first. I don’t care if you think you looked like a fool. We are in this together and need to make those types of decisions as a team. John: I’ll admit we should have talked about it, but Anderson made me so mad on that last deal that I just told them they were through. I expected you to support me. We both want what is best for Quality. Our reputations are good because we always get the company the best products for the lowest price. I would have supported you. Mary: Yes, I suspect you would have, but John, you can’t lose your temper like that. We need to work together on these decisions. You and I can usually work out a solution when we try hard enough. I don’t want to drop any supplier on the spur of the moment, especially when we may have trouble replacing them. John, sometimes I think we have worked together for so long that we take each other for granted. We are friends and I want it to remain that way, but that shouldn’t stop us from doing business with each other as true professionals. John: Wait a minute. Are you saying that I don’t act like a professional—? Mary: No, see what I mean? You get mad when I even suggest we might improve the way we do things. 9 10 C hap te r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication John: Well, I just think friends should support each other. I know I may not have handled the Anderson thing just right, but as my friend I expected more support from you. Mary: Oh, John, there you go again! Understanding Human Communication Are John and Mary engaged in interpersonal or organizational c­ommunication, or both? Does the setting make the difference? Can we distinguish between ­interpersonal and organizational communication? When we talk about developing our personal communication competencies, is it different for our personal and organizational lives? The answers to these questions lie in understanding human communication and how organizations and human communication relate. In other words, frameworks for understanding organizational communication can be found in descriptions of human communication and organizations. Although the discussion between John and Mary is typical of human communication exchanges that occur daily in organizations, it also is typical of communication between two people regardless of the setting. In fact, the discussion between John and Mary illustrates some of the important basics necessary for understanding human communication. Defining Communication Analyzing the exchange between John and Mary will help us describe human communication. John and Mary transfer information, they elicit responses from each other, and they engage in social interaction. They are literally constituting (or bringing about) their experience of working together and making sense of what it means. Further, it is possible to say that they use symbols (words) to attempt to create shared meaning (mutual understanding). Their disagreement about how to handle problems with Anderson Printing will influence not only what happens to Anderson as a supplier to Quality Engineering but their interpersonal relationship as well. Put another way, their exchange is an example of communication behaviors creating and shaping both relationships and events through a culturally dependent process of assigning meaning to symbols. John wants Mary to share his reality that Anderson has made serious mistakes that disqualify it from providing goods and services to Quality. Furthermore, he expects Mary to accept another reality: that friends and coworkers should ­support each other’s decisions, even if decisions are made on the spur of the moment and in anger. Mary has a different set of realities that she wants John to understand. Although she agrees about recent problems with Anderson, part of her reality includes Anderson’s past service to Quality and the possible difficulty of r­ eplacing its goods and services with another supplier. She also believes that John should have included her in his decision. C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication 11 We do not know from this exchange how open or direct John and Mary intend to be with each other. We do not have enough information to determine if other agendas influence their exchange. We do know John and Mary make conscious choices about the realities they exchange. When John and Mary exchange their individual realities, their communication is an attempt to construct shared realities. Although they may not agree, their communication enables each to share the realities of the other and literally create their present reality. Human Communication: Messages and Constitutive Processes When John and Mary construct their shared realities, they Human communication engage in what we call the human communication process. Both process Attempts to construct shared John and Mary serve as sources and r­ eceivers of messages. Both realities through social interaction. engage in message encoding and decoding and in selecting verbal and nonverbal channels for message transmission. Both are influenced by their individual competence and their perception of the competence of the other. Each brings to the exchange a different set of experiences, and each may view the context of their interaction differently. Thus, all their messages are subject to distortion or noise. The effect, or what happens between John and Mary, is a result of the complex interaction of all these elements. John and Mary are literally constituting or bringing about the reality of their relationship. Source/Receiver Each individual engaged in communication with others is both a message source and a message receiver. We talk (send ­messages) while closely monitoring the nonverbal reactions of others (receiving messages). We listen (receive messages) and determine how to respond (send messages). We use technology to rapidly exchange messages without cues important in face-to-face interactions. Often message-sending and message-receiving activities occur so rapidly that they seem to be happening simultaneously. Source/Receiver Individuals send messages as sources and receive messages as receivers. The process is often so rapid as to appear simultaneous. Encoding/Decoding As a message source and receiver, each individual encodes and decodes messages. Message encoding is the process of formulating messages, choosing content and symbols to convey meaning. Message encoding is determining what we want to be understood (content) and how we believe that it can best be presented ­(choosing symbols). Message decoding is the process of assigning meaning in the role of receiver to message symbols generated by the message source. Decoding is taking what we see and hear from others and deciding how it should be interpreted or Encoding/Decoding Message encoding is the process of formulating messages, choosing content and symbols to convey meaning. Message decoding is the process of assigning meaning in the role of receiver to message symbols generated by the message source. 12 C hap te r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication understood. Both encoding and decoding are influenced by our communicative ­competence (knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values), our personal identifications (cultural, social, organizational, and other), our specific intentions (desire for clarity, openness, manipulation, deceit, control, and so forth), our past experiences, our ­perception of the competence of others, and the communication context. Message The message is the symbolic attempt to transfer meaning; it is the signal that serves as a stimulus for a receiver. Sources send ­messages consisting of auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory, or tactile stimuli in any combination of these five senses. Sources of messages intend meaning, but messages in and of themselves do not carry meaning. Meanings, or interpretations of messages, are assigned when the receiver decodes the message. Messages serve as symbols for meaning and as such are subject to situational and cultural influences. In other words, to understand a message as a source intends requires an understanding of the source’s symbol system (language and actions and intent of language and actions) in a particular situation. Message Symbolic attempt to transfer meaning; the signal that serves as a stimulus for a receiver. Channel The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted. It is the link or links between source and receiver. Channels include the five senses and any technological means used for message transmission. Channels are frequently used in combination (verbal and nonverbal, oral and written, face-to-face, and telemediated), with certain channels generally more credible than others. When verbal and nonverbal messages appear to contradict, for example, researchers tell us most ­people will find the ­nonverbal channel more credible than the verbal one. In other words, most of us believe it is more difficult to lie nonverbally than verbally. Channels can distort ­messages both technologically and in sensory reception. Indeed, the very selection of one channel over another may become a message in and of itself. Written channels, for example, are more often used than face-to-face channels for giving bad news. Evidence is growing suggesting e-mail and text messages are often more harsh than face-to-face communication. Receiving a memo or e-mail from your boss— the ­bad-news channel—may be cause for alarm even before the actual message has been read. Channel Medium through which the message is transmitted. Noise Noise Distortion or interference that contributes to discrepancies between the meaning intended by the source of a message and the meaning assigned by the receiver. Noise is the distortion or interference that contributes to discrepancies between the meaning intended by the source and the meaning assigned by the receiver. Noise can be anything: physical distractions, channel interference, communicative competence, communication context, or psychological predispositions. Noise is always present in one form or another, C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication 13 and the type or types of noise contribute to the meanings assigned to messages by receivers and to the encoding of new messages. Think for a moment about your reaction to receiving an important message from a person whose credibility you have reason to doubt. What meaning do you assign to the message based on your prior relationship with this individual? Assume next that you receive the same message from a trusted friend. Is your reaction different? What type of noise was generated by your past experiences with both individuals? How did that noise affect meaning? Competence Each individual brings knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values to communication interactions. Our ability to understand appropriate behaviors, our specific intentions, our willingness to engage in communication, and our ability to interact with others to generate shared realities all contribute to our impression of our own competence. Also, we continually evaluate and form impressions about the competence of those with whom we communicate. Our impression of our own competence and the impression we have of the competence of others contribute to both the encoding and decoding of messages. Ultimately, competence contributes to communication effects and how we evaluate the effectiveness of our interactions. Field of Experience All parties in a communication interaction bring a specific set of experiences or background to bear on the interaction. What we do in a particular situation is related to how much we know about the situation from past experiences and whether we share any common past experiences. We may behave very differently in situations in which we have considerable past experience than we would in situations that are new and unfamiliar. The Field of experience Set of specific field of experience is ­situation specific and may or may not experiences or background that all relate to broader evaluations of self-competence. In other parties in communication bring to bear words, although we may feel less competent in situations in on the interaction. which we have little past experience, that impression does not automatically transfer to other circumstances in which we have more background. Generally, it is believed that the more common the field of experience among those communicating, the easier it is to share similar meanings or to construct shared realities. Have you ever tried, for example, to explain an American sporting event to a visitor from another country where the sport is not played and has never been televised? Did you even know where to begin? Chances are that the lack of any prior experience on the part of your receiver (no common field of experience between you) required you to engage in considerable detail, making it difficult even to begin to describe the event. You can imagine that your approach would be entirely ­different if you described the same event to a longtime fan of the sport. 14 C hap te r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication Communication Context The communication context is the environment for the communication interaction. Context includes not only the specific time and place of the interaction but also the roles, relationships, and status of communication participants. As such, prior interactions among participants contribute to the construction of the current communication context. It is fair to say context contributes to our specific intentions in a given circumstance. Communication intentions, as most of us have experienced, can range from full ­disclosure, openness, and clarity seeking to deception, ambiguity, manipulation, and control. Most of us recognize we communicate differently depending on how well we know people, what their formal position is in relation to us, and how visible our communication is to others. The way we express ourselves in the privacy of our own homes may differ from what we will say and do in our work environments. How we communicate in face-to-face interactions often varies from what we do with our mobile ­technology. Openly disagreeing with a friend or coworker is different from openly disagreeing with our boss. The way we express ourselves is related to whether we believe others to be more knowledgeable or ­competent than we are or whether we believe that we possess the best information in a specific setting. The way we express ourselves also reflects the expectations of the particular culture or environment in which we communicate. We can therefore say that context is both culturally and physically influenced, and as with other ­elements in the communication process, perception of context can differ from one communication participant to another. Communication context Environment for the communication interaction. Realities and Effects The communication realities or effects are the result, c­ onsequence, or outcome of the communication exchange. Effects can be observed to be directly related to communication interactions. When people have an argument and terminate relationships at the end of the argument, we witness what we would call an obvious effect. At other times, the effect is not immediately observable or is, at best, delayed in time and ­context. A student does not contribute to a group project; the project is completed and all group members receive the same grade. Nothing appears to happen until the next class project begins and members of the group ask the instructor to reassign the ­student to another team. They share a reality from a previous set of communication exchanges which influences their desire of a different future. Although less direct, this reality or effect nevertheless should be understood as an outcome of previous ­communication exchanges. In addition to being viewed in terms of results, the effect of an interaction is evaluated by communication participants for effectiveness and ethics. Did the outcomes result from the free, informed choices of all parties? Did one or more parties feel manipulated? Were all parties empathically supported? Were the best alternatives considered as a result of the interaction? It is in this evaluative area—ethics and effectiveness—that future interactions are influenced. Perceptions of whether past interactions were ethical and effective influence perceptions of the desirability of future communication. Reality or Effect Created social reality or result, consequence, or outcome of communication exchanges. C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication 15 Communication as Constitutive of Shared Realities Human communication is the process of attempting to construct shared realities, to create shared meanings. It is our attempts to Shared realities Meanings resulting from the communication process; have others understand our world as we do or as we want them attempts to have others understand to understand it and our efforts to comprehend the world of our world as we do or as we intend those around us. As Robert Craig (2007) describes, “A first-order for it to be understood and our efforts constitutive model of communication posits that communication, to comprehend the world of those rather than merely a neutral conduit for transmitting indepenaround us. dently existing information, is the primary social process through which our meaningful common world is constructed.” As a process for the construction of shared realities, human communication is culturally and contextually influenced, dynamic, and ever-changing. When this process occurs between two individuals with some type of ongoing relationship, we call the process interpersonal communication. When the process occurs among several individuals, we describe it as group communication. When large numbers of people are involved (either personally or through technological channels), we call the process public or mass media communication. Finally, we refer to the human communication process in organizations as organizational ­communication, the subject of our text. Whether in interpersonal, group, ­public, mass media/networked/telemediated, or organizational contexts, the human c­ ommunication process involves attempts to construct shared realities among ­people to generate shared meaning. Think back to the “What Business Is This of Ours?” case. What were the shared realities at Quality Engineering? Describe the fields of experience and the context of the interaction between John and Mary. What were the noise factors? Can you predict the effect of their interaction? Will they be able to work together in the future? A word of caution is appropriate at this point. Although we continue to describe human communication as the process of constructing shared realities and creating shared meanings and realities, we must remember shared meanings are always incomplete and characterized by ambiguity. The human communication process as an attempt to construct shared realities can represent openness and clarity but also be characterized by manipulation, control, or deceit. I can deliberately attempt to have you understand a situation as I understand it, hoping for a shared reality characterized by openness, but I can also deliberately attempt to have you understand a situation very differently from what I know the facts to be. Imagine I want you to share with me a reality that I choose but not one based on my more complete knowledge, experience, or awareness. My messages then generate a shared reality between us that is characterized by deceit. The important concept here is that the construction of meaning is an intentional process between us related to our knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values. Twenty-First-Century Concepts of Organizations We have defined and described the human communication process in a variety of possible contexts. Our particular interests are, of course, communication and organizations and how communication creates and influences organizational 16 C hap te r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication processes and events. We begin to explore the relationship between communication and organizations by first identifying what an organization is and what it does. The term Organization Result of the process ­organization is applied to the results of the process of orgaof organizing; dynamic system in which nizing. Organizing is an attempt to bring order out of chaos individuals engage in collective efforts or establish organizations, entities in which purposeful and for goal accomplishment. ordered activity takes place. Organizing is accomplished through purposeful activities generated as a result of communication behaviors. In other words, the process we call organizing is accomplished through human communication as individuals seek to bring order out of chaos and establish entities for purposeful activities. Amitai Etzioni (1964) described organizations as social units or groupings of people deliberately constructed and reconstructed to strive for specific goals. As such, organizations are characterized by divisions of labor for goal achievement. These efforts also are directed by relatively continuous patterns of authority and leadership. Interdependence exists among organizational components as well as with the external environment. This complex interdependence requires coordination achieved through communication. Katherine Miller (2003) identified five features she believed are possessed by all organizations: two or more people (a social collectivity), goals, coordinating activity, structure, and environmental embeddedness. Gerald Pepper (1995) provided a ­communication-based definition when he described organizations as consisting of the organizing activities of their members. Pepper argued, “Though this definition may seem circular, it really is quite descriptive of a communication explanation of organizations. The definition accounts for traditional, pyramidal organizational form just as easily as it accounts for nontraditional democratic, ‘feminist’ organizational forms, because the key to the definition is the communicative relationships among the members, rather than arbitrary components assumed to define the ­organization” (pp. 17–18). Taken as a whole, these definitions and issues help us understand organizations from their structure and from the ways they continually create and change what they do and how they do it. This process occurs through communication behaviors. Put another way, understanding what an organization is and how it works requires an understanding of the process of organizational communication.Throughout the next several chapters, we explore many different types of organizations. We examine organizations with which you have ­personal contact and involvement. We discuss traditional hierarchical organizations, profit-making organizations, and nonprofit groups. We describe organizations in which hierarchy is replaced by flatter forms and the use of technology to create virtual groups or entire organizations. We identify family-owned, social justice, and volunteer organizations. We explore partnerships, entrepreneurial opportunities, and home-based work as well as global ventures. We look at temporary, local, regional, or global organizations. For all these “types” of organization, you will come to understand human ­communication behaviors as creating and shaping both relationships and events. You will come to grasp communication as c­ onstituting organizations and social realities. C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication 17 Definitions of Organizational Communication Organizational communication Organizational communication is both similar to and distinct Process through which organizations from other types of communication. Organizational communicaare created and in turn create and tion has sources and receivers who engage in the encoding and shape events. The process can be decoding of messages. Messages are transmitted over ­channels understood as complex interactions distorted by noise. As with other forms of communication, of people, messages, meaning, realities, organizational communication is related to the competencies ­ and purpose. of individuals, their fields of experience, the communicative ­context, and the realities, effects, or results of interactions. Yet organizational communication is more than the daily interactions of individuals within organizations. It is the process through which o ­ rganizations constitute realities through creating and shaping events. Next, we describe organizational communication as a complex interaction of process, people, messages, ­meaning, and purpose. In sum, we describe organizational communication as constitutive of organizations. Organizational Communication as Process As with other forms of communication, organizational communication is best understood as an ongoing process without distinct beginnings and ends. The process includes patterns of interactions that develop among organizational members and those external to the organization and how these interactions shape organizations. Because the process is ever-changing, it can be described as evolutionary and culturally dependent. In other words, the ongoing process of creating and transmitting organizational messages reflects the shared agreements and disagreements resulting from previous message exchanges and evolves to generate new realities that create and shape events. The process can be found in all types of organizations with vastly different goals. The process occurs in developing strategy, planning, decision making, and ­executing the work of the organization. The process also occurs, however, ­during unexpected crises, changes in the external environment, encounters with ­competitors, and in a host of less visible ways. The process occurs between individuals whether ­performing daily work or socializing and includes messages to large numbers of employers, ­customers, and stakeholders. All these interactions taken together create and shape the ongoing organization. Organizational Communication as People Individuals bring to organizations sets of characteristics that influence how i­nformation is processed. Organizational communication contributes to creating relationships and assists both individuals and organizations in achieving diverse purposes. Organizational communication occurs between and among people who share both work and interpersonal relationships. Organizational communication also occurs between and among people who are geographically separated and who may speak different languages and have widely differing cultural perspectives. It is fair to say that organizational ­communication occurs across networks of people who seek to obtain a variety of objectives requiring communication interactions. 18 C hap te r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication Organizational Communication as Messages Organizational communication is the creation and exchange of messages. It is the movement or transmission of verbal and nonverbal behaviors and the sharing of information throughout the organization. Communicators are linked together by channels, and messages are described with such terms as frequency, amount, and type. Concern is expressed for message fidelity, or the extent to which messages are similar or accurate at all links through the channels. Organizational m ­ essages increasingly are telemediated (using complex technologies), extending their ­geographic reach, changing notions of time and space, and altering who participates in communication processes. Organizational Communication as Meaning Organizational communication creates and shapes organizational events. Role ­taking occurs as individuals engage in social interaction within the ever-changing organizational context. Organizational communication is the symbolic behavior of individuals and organizations that, when interpreted, affects all organizational activities. Organizational communication does not create a singular set of meanings for organizational members and activities. The interactions of ever-changing b ­ ehaviors often create multiple perceptions of events and multiple realities that become the process through which organizational meanings are generated. Organizational Communication as Constitutive of Organizations Organizational communication is organizing, decision making, planning, controlling, and coordinating. Organizational communication seeks to reduce environmental uncertainty. It is people, messages, and meaning. It is intentional and unintentional messages explaining the workings of the organization. Organizational communication reflects the purpose of the organization. It is the process through which individuals and organizations attempt goal-oriented behavior in dealing with their environments. Stanley Deetz (1994) provided an important summary perspective to our discussion of definitions for organizational communication. Deetz suggested, “Communication, in the view I am suggesting, refers to the social processes by which meanings, identities, psychological states, social structures, and the various means of the contact of the organization with the environment are both produced, reproduced, or changed. In both its constitutive and reproductive modes, communication processes are central to how perceptions, meanings, and routines are held in common. In all interactions, including those in organizations, perception, meaning, and data transmission are all complex, multileveled phenomena produced out of and producing conflicting motives and structures” (p. 90). Can you now answer the question about the differences between organizational and other types of communication? You should be able to do so. Whereas interpersonal and group communications occur in organizations, organizational ­ communication is a more comprehensive process including, but not limited to, one-­ on-one and group exchanges. Competencies for organizational communication C h a pter 1 ▸ Organizational Communication include interpersonal abilities, but organizational communication competencies also require effectiveness in complex and changing environments where diverse groups of people join in purposeful activity. The goal of this book is to help you identify and develop important competencies for organizational communication. The next several chapters concentrate on knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values important in interpersonal, group, and organization-wide contexts. Let us return to our case study. Describe the interaction between John and Mary from an organizational communication perspective. Can you identify organizational factors influencing their exchange? Do John and Mary have a work relationship, or are they communicating as friends? Can they be both? Is this an example of organizational goal-directed behavior? How might their exchange affect Quality Engineering? It is difficult to be certain about our answers for this case. The chances are that most of us feel the need for additional information about John and Mary and Quality Engineering. Yet the lack of complete information is characteristic of many, if not most, of our organizational experiences. In fact, it is probable that even with more information we can never be certain of all the shared realities between John and Mary. Indeed, as we begin our study of organizational communication, a key to our personal development rests with our ability to analyze thoughtfully while ­recognizing the limits of our understanding. Self-Assessment of Personal Development Needs: Your Personal Workbook The last section of this book is Putting It All Together. This section contains a Personal Development Workbook designed to provide you information about you which will contribute to your personal and professional development. You will be entering data into the workbook and developing personal profiles as you move through the next eleven chapters. The information in the workbook is designed to be used by you not only for this course but for current and future planning as well. Figure 1.1 is the first assessment in the workbook. It is located on page 411. The material in the next eleven chapters is designed to help you develop important ­competencies for organizational communication. Before you begin to study that material, however, please complete your Self-Assessment of Personal Development Needs. The following chapters will be more meaningful if you approach theory, ­practice, and analysis opportunities with a personal assessment of your current strengths and weaknesses. You are about to complete the first of several selfassessments contained in your workbook. Before you proceed, it is important to understand both the strengths and weaknesses of self-assessment. Self-assessments are generated by you about you. They can be helpful guides to understanding behavior, perceptions, and attitudes important for your communication behaviors. Selfassessment, however, is not a complete or final analysis about you. The questions asked determine the profiles developed. Sometimes we tend to answer the way we think we should as opposed to what we really believe or do. Important questions or issues for you as an individual may not be considered in a particular assessment. Also, although assessments can guide development, they should not be used 19 20 C hap te r 1 ▸ Organizational Communication to develop profiles of “this is the way I am,” or “this is the way I am not.” In other words, the self-assessments in the text should be used to stimulate your thinking about you and your experiences, not to develop rigid categories or self-descriptive labels. Chapter Highlights The information-rich conceptual world is a reality of our lives that places ­increasing importance on our individual communication competencies. Organizations of today and tomorrow must depend on people and the machines of the communications era to solve problems creatively and to adapt to rapid change. In this fast-paced ­environment, organizational excellence is directly related to effective ­ communication from all members of the organization. To prepare for the communication ­responsibilities and opportunities of the future, individuals need to develop broad-based communication competency. Communication competency is best understood as a complex interaction of knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values. Human communication is the process through which we attempt to construct shared realities. The human communication process includes sources and ­receivers, message encoding and decoding, channels, noise, communicative competence, ­participants’ fields of experience, contexts, and realities and effects. The process is evaluated for effectiveness and ethical behaviors, with these evaluations influencing future interactions. Organizations are the products of organizing activities and can be described as deliberately constructed social units designed to strive for specific goals. As such, organizations are dynamic mergers of human behaviors and technological operations. Organizational communication includes all the descriptors in the human communication process. It is also the process through which organizations are created and in turn create and shape events. As such, organizational ­communication can be understood as a combination of process, people, messages, meaning, and purpose. In sum, we describe organizational communication as constitutive of organizations. Workshop 1. A major case is provided in the Putting It All Together section of this book. The case, Hockaday Responders: Teams Across Time and Space, is designed for you to apply what you learn in each chapter to the issues faced by Hockaday Responders. Please read the case on page 400 and discuss in class the questions for Chapter 1 posed at the end of the case. 2. Small groups should use The Case against Hiring Karen Groves, which follows, to ­determine how communication behaviors influenced Munday’s management team to vote against hiring Karen Groves. 3. Visit one of the numerous job-search sites on the Internet. Identify at least fifty job titles that represent information/communication jobs. Bring your list to class for discussion. 4. Identify all the organizations of which you are a member. Include the school you currently attend. Describe shared realities f...
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Communication: President Donald Trump
Communication is arguably one of the most integral aspects of any modern-day
organization. It starts from the leadership and goes down the ladder to the lowest ranking
employees in organization. If a particular organization has established effective communication
channels and platforms, cohesion between top management and the employees is easily fostered
and this has a positive impact on productivity. Poor communication, on the other end, could have
very adverse effects on an organization’s performance. However, most organizations, both
developing and established, have not learnt the importance of communication and the impact it
could have on the general outcome of the company. This paper looks at President Donald
Trump’s communication strategies by analyzing his good and bad. The president has been
largely criticized by most people as a poor communicator but he as well has good
communication habits as the leader of the f...


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