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• This will be a second step of my final paper, which is literature review. • It should be three pages in APA format • The final paper is about THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON SOIL, I will attach different articles that you will use for this literature review and also an experiment. • • • Please avoid plagiarism. • Make it as simple as you can. • This paper worth 20% of my final grade. This is a draft of the literature review portion of your paper. Using the references you found how do you support what we did in the experiment. This should be between 2-3 pages at minimum. (Remember this should be 3 pages of your final paper) Remember our overall question is what are the impacts of human activity on soil? Your literature review will examine previous studies of human activities' impacts on soil. Hindawi Publishing Corporation Applied and Environmental Soil Science Volume 2012, Article ID 619548, 2 pages doi:10.1155/2012/619548 Editorial Impact of Human Activities on Soil Contamination Fernando José Garbuio,1 Jeffrey L. Howard,2 and Larissa Macedo dos Santos3 1 Departamento de Ciência do Solo, Instituto Federal Catarinense, Santa Rosa do Sul, SC 48202, Brazil of Geology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA 3 Department of Chemistry, Federal Technological University of Paraná, Pato Branco, PR, Brazil 2 Department Correspondence should be addressed to Fernando José Garbuio, fgarbuio@yahoo.com.br Received 17 December 2012; Accepted 17 December 2012 Copyright © 2012 Fernando José Garbuio et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The impacts of human activities on soil contamination are many and varied. The extent of human impact is now so pervasive and profound that there is currently much discussion about the “Anthropocene”, a new geologic era characterized by anthropogenic disturbances of the geologic record. Many of the problems recognized during the 1970s linger on, including the effects of acid rain and airborne deposition of soot, fly ash, and other potentially toxic particulates. Further, the scope of the problem has grown significantly with economic growth in previously less developed nations such as China and India. The effects of human activities vary with land use, ranging from agricultural wastes such as farm animal sewerage and fertilizer runoff, to commercial and industrial wastes of every conceivable type and magnitude. Over the years, the list of toxic contaminates has also grown, so that it not only includes heavy metals, radionuclides, and organic compounds of anthropogenic origin, but pharmaceuticals, explosives, and previously unknown biological pathogens. The field of soil remediation has also grown tremendously over the past few decades. The goal of this special issue is to further explore the effects of human activities on soil contamination. Topics to be examined include the nature and extent of soil contamination, state of the art methodologies for studying soil and related groundwater contamination, and innovative techniques for remediation. This special issue initially contains five articles, with plans for future publication of additional papers. The papers deal with heavy metals and toxic organics, as well as soil acidification and the effects of military explosives on soil. In the paper “Occurrence of vanadium in Belgian and European alluvial soils,” V. Cappuyns and E. Slabbinck bring attention to the possible effects of V as a soil contaminant. They document the nature and extent of V contamination in alluvial soils developed in three industrialized drainage basins in Belgium, and from other areas in Europe. Their results suggest that the mobility of V is low, but nevertheless worthy of further investigation. B. V. Kjellerup et al. examine the effects of biodecomposition by bacteria as a remedial tool for PCB contamination in the paper entitled “Spatial distribution of PCB dechlorinating bacteria and activities in contaminated soil.” Their results support the use of the method for remediating sediments, whereas use in contaminated soils faces further challenges. In the paper called “Acidification and nitrogen eutrophication of Austrian forest soils” R. Jandl et al. reevaluate the effects of acidic deposition and nitrogen on forests soils. Interestingly, pH has risen in the soils studied as a result of air pollution mitigation and nitrate leaching into the groundwater is not found to be a large-scale problem. The high levels of nitrogen deposition have actually led to an unexpected increase in the forest productivity. J. Pichtel reviews the effects of military explosive wastes on soils in the article entitled “Distribution and fate of military explosives and propellants in soil: a review.” He shows that soils worldwide are contaminated by the chemically active components of explosives and propellants. These compounds undergo varying degrees of chemical and biochemical transformation and appear to be common groundwater contaminants. Thus, there appears to be an urgent need to identify and remove such hazards from contaminated soils. In the paper “A critical evaluation of single extractions from the SMT program to determine trace element mobility in sediments,” V. Cappuyns compares two commonly applied single extraction procedures, ammonium-EDTA and acetic acid, for evaluating heavy metal contamination in 2 Applied and Environmental Soil Science soils. The results underscore the difficulties of relating single extractions to phytoavailability, and thus the need for further work. Fernando José Garbuio Jeffrey L. Howard Larissa Macedo dos Santos Copyright of Applied & Environmental Soil Science is the property of Hindawi Publishing Corporation and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. Environmental Polllution $6 (1994) 5 13 © 1994 Elsevier Science Limited Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0269-7491/94/$07.00 ELSEVIER EFFECT OF SOIL pH ON AVAILABILITY TO CROPS OF METALS IN SEWAGE S L U D G E - T R E A T E D SOILS. II. C A D M I U M UPTAKE BY CROPS A N D IMPLICATIONS FOR H U M A N DIETARY INTAKE S. R. Smith Water Research Centre, Henley Road, Medmenham, Marlow, Bucks, SL7 2HD, UK (Received 24 November 1992; accepted 2 August 1993) Abstract Appropriate pH-related permissible soil-limit concentrations for cadmium in sewage sludge-treated agricultural soils were estimated from the proportional changes in concentrations of cadmium in potatoes, oats and ryegrass grown on two sludge-amended soils and at different pH values. Implications for potential human dietary intake of cadmium were also assessed Yields of crops increased with increasing soil pH, probably in response to decreasing uptake of zinc as soil pH value was raised In general cadmium concentrations in peeled potato tubers, potato peelings, oat straw and ryegrass decreased as simple linear functions of increasing soil pH over the range of pH values measured (pH 3.9-7.6). Cadmium concentrations in potato peel were particularly sensitive to changing pH conditions, whereas cadmium levels in oat grain were independent of soil pH. On the basis that a highly precautionary approach is adopted in setting soil standards for heavy metals, appropriate permissible concentrations of cadmium in sludge-treated agricultural soil which protect the human food chain were determined as 2.0 and 2.5 mg Cd kg ~for banded pH ranges of 5.0-5.5 and 5.5~5.0, respectively. INTRODUCTION The agricultural use of sewage sludge provides environmental and economic benefits through recycling to soil essential plant nutrients and also organic matter contained in the sludge. Such recycling to farmland is subject to regulation, however, to minimise risk to the environment from potentially toxic elements (PTEs), particularly heavy metals, which are also applied to soil in sewage sludge, and maximum permissible concentrations of PTEs in soil have been established to prevent environmental problems when sewage sludge is used in agriculture (CEC, 1986; DoE, 1989; SI, 1989). The permissible soil limits for the potentially phytotoxic metals nickel, copper and zinc are based on precautionary estimates of upper critical soil concentrations of these elements from plant-yield assessments (Davis & Carlton-Smith, 1984). In contrast, the development of soil limits for cadmium, a potentially zootoxic element, requires a different approach. This is because increased concentrations of such elements in crop tissues may reach levels which could be toxic to animals and man consuming them before detrimental effects on plant growth occur. Consequently, the soil limits for cadmium have been developed on the basis of the potential impact on the human diet of increasing cadmium concentrations in crops due to the application of sewage sludge to agricultural land. Several human dietary surveys of cadmium intake resuiting from sludge application to agricultural soil have been undertaken (Sherlock, 1983; Kampe, 1984). The field experiments of Carlton-Smith (1987), in particular, provide a quantitative estimate of potential human intake of cadmium from staple plant foods in relation to cadmium concentrations in sludge-treated soil. This dietary model indicated that the cadmium intake of an average consumer taking potatoes and other vegetable plant foods only from sludge-treated soil, at the maximum permissible concentration of 3.0 mg Cd kg ~ (CEC, 1986), would be approximately 34 p.g day t for a sandy loam at pH 6.5. This value is less than half the recommended maximum tolerable intake of cadmium, which has been set at 70 ~g Cd day ~ (WHO/FAO, 1972). Indeed, the dietary model showed that a soil concentration of 6.0-12.0 mg Cd kg ~ was compatible with the WHO maximum tolerable dietary intake. Also a further margin of safety exists between this recommended value and the minimum intake which is thought to cause kidney damage in the most sensitive individuals at 200 p,g Cd day 1 for 50 years (US EPA, 1979). It is almost inconceivable, however, that all the plant produce consumed by an individual would be obtained from the same area of sludge-treated land. Market dilution factors would therefore substantially reduce cadmium intakes below the amount calculated by Carlton-Smith (1987). In addition, there is evidence that metal availability to plants is increased following single large applications of sludge, which are necessary to increase the soil metal content under experimental conditions in the field, compared with small, but repeated dressings applied operationally over a long period of time (Chang et al., 1987). Similarly, CarltonSmith (1987) probably overestimated the availability to 6 S.R. Smith crops of cadmium in sludge-treated soil compared with the likely exposure occurring under operational conditions. Soil pH value is the principal soil factor controlling cadmium availability in soils (Davis & Coker, 1980; Alloway, 1990) and decreasing soil pH value increases cadmium uptake by crops. In the UK, The Sludge (Use in Agriculture) Regulations (SI, 1989) and the Code of Practice for Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge (DOE, 1989) give maximum permissible concentrations of nickel, copper and zinc according to banded soil pH ranges of 5.0 < 5-5, 5-5 < 6.0, 6.0-7.0 and >7.0 which implement the EC Directive on environmental protection when sludge is used in agriculture (CEC, 1986). The limit values set for these elements in relation to soil pH were confirmed by Smith (1994) in the first paper of this series. However, no account of soil pH value is currently taken in the U K Regulations for cadmium. The purpose of this second phase of study was to assess the uptake of cadmium from sludged soil by potatoes and oats which represent staple food crops that can yield satisfactorily at soil pH values as low as 5.0 (Archer, 1988) and may therefore be sensitive to sludge-borne cadmium. Ryegrass was also included in the study for comparison with the food crops. The selected crops were grown under field conditions on two soils of intrinsically low pH adjusted by liming to provide a range of soil pH conditions. Results are discussed in relation to human dietary intake of cadmium from sludge-treated agricultural land. MATERIALS AND M E T H O D S Site selection Two field sites were selected which had received past applications of sewage sludge at Swinton, Greater Manchester, and Harrogate, North Yorkshire, with soils of intrinsically low pH (pH 4.4 and 5.1, respectively) with elevated concentrations of heavy metals generally approximating to, or exceeding, the U K soil limits (SI, 1989). A complete physico-chemical description of the soils is given by Smith (1994). However, the background concentrations of cadmium in the soils, which forms the subject of this investigation, were 9.1 mg kg -~ at Swinton and 2-77 mg kg -~ at Harrogate. Lime application and cropping treatments Lime was applied to the soils as ground calcium carbonate to achieve target pH values of pH 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 and 7-0 at Swinton in 1988. At Harrogate, ryegrass was grown in an earlier trial commencing in 1985 with target soil pH treatments of 5.3, 5-6, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5 and 8.0. In the later study at Harrogate, which commenced in 1988, the number of pH treatments was reduced and lime was applied to an adjacent area of land to achieve target soil pH values of 5.5, 6.0 and 7.0. Control plots did not receive lime treatment. The necessary lime additions to the soils were estimated on the basis of a laboratory incubation procedure. The incubation method and rates and timing of lime applica- tions to the experimental plots are described by Smith (1994). Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum cv Pentland Crown), spring oats (Arena sativa cv Rollow) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne cv Melle) were grown at Swinton on plots with dimensions of 4 m x 10 m, 4 m x 4 m and 2 m x 1 m, respectively, arranged as a Latin square for each crop. At Harrogate, potatoes and oats were grown on plots with dimensions 3 m x 8 m and 2 m x 2 m, respectively, arranged in three randomised blocks for each crop. Ryegrass was established at this site on plots (2 m x 1 m) in a completely randomised arrangement with four replicates per treatment. The crops were grown at both sites for two successive years. Cultural techniques Following initial soil cultivations (Smith, 1994), potatoes were planted with a mechanical two-row planter in ridged rows spaced 0.75 m apart, with an intra-row spacing of 0.6 m, and at a depth of 0.2 m. Four rows of potatoes were planted on the plots at Swinton, whereas only two rows were planted at Harrogate. Certified seed potatoes were used for the trials; they had been screened to remove tubers with diameters
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Running head: HUMANS ACTIVITIES’ IMPACT ON SOIL

Humans Activities’ Impact on Soil

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HUMANS ACTIVITIES’ IMPACT ON SOIL

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Humans Activities’ Impact on Soil
The effects of human activities on soil are numerous and varied. Importantly there are
many activities of humans such as deforestation, and poor farming practices such as monoculture
and use of industrial chemicals that negatively affect the quality of soil (Fernando et al.).
However, there are concerns that the application of new farming methods have economic and
environmental benefits (Smith). Additionally, the use chemicals produced by industry contains
essential nutrient and compounds that help in the healthy growth of plants (David Pimentel and
Nadia Kounang). Excitingly, these studies present varying opinions on how these chemicals and
new farming methods degrade the soil. Therefore these paper examines the studies in these
articles to propose that more research should be done on the effect of human activities on the
soil.
According to Fernando et al., the impacts caused by humans depend on land use, ranging
from fertiliser runoff and farm animal sewerage to industrial and commercial waste of every
magnitude. They primarily examine the impact of human activities on soil contamination.
Specifically, the presence of vanadium in European and Belgium soils brought the attention on
the effects of vanadium as a soil contaminant. Moreover, Fernando et al. discovered that the
extent and nature of vanadium contamination in alluvial soils was more pronounced in the
industrial basins of Belgium. Their finding suggests that vanadium has low mobility, but
requires more research. Additionally, the investigated th...


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