HABITS OF MIND
By
Arthur L. Costa, Ed. D.
and
Bena Kallick, Ph.D.
Habit is a cable; we weave a thread of it each day, and at last we cannot break it.
Horace Mann
American Educator
1796-1859
By definition, a problem is any stimulus, question, task, phenomenon, or discrepancy, the explanation for which is not
immediately known. Thus, we are interested in focusing on student performance under those challenging conditions
that demand strategic reasoning, insightfulness, perseverance, creativity, and craftsmanship to resolve a complex
problem. Not only are we interested in how many answers students know, but also in knowing how to behave when they
DON'T know. Habits of Mind are performed in response to those questions and problems the answers to which are
NOT immediately known. We are interested in observing how students produce knowledge rather than how they
merely reproduce knowledge. The critical attribute of intelligent human beings is not only having information, but also
knowing how to act on it.
A "Habit of Mind” means having a disposition toward behaving intelligently when confronted with problems, the
answers to which are not immediately known. When humans experience dichotomies, are confused by dilemmas, or
come face to face with uncertainties--our most effective actions require drawing forth certain patterns of intellectual
behavior. When we draw upon these intellectual resources, the results that are produced through are more powerful, of
higher quality and greater significance than if we fail to employ those patterns of intellectual behaviors.
Employing "Habits of Mind" requires a composite of many skills, attitudes cues, past experiences and proclivities. It
means that we value one pattern of thinking over another and therefore it implies choice making about which pattern
should be employed at this time. It includes sensitivity to the contextual cues in a situation which signal this as an
appropriate time and circumstance in which the employment of this pattern would be useful. It requires a level of
skillfulness to employ and carry through the behaviors effectively over time. It suggests that as a result of each
experience in which these behaviors were employed, the effects of their use are reflected upon, evaluated, modified and
carried forth to future applications
HABITS OF MIND ATTEND TO:
•
Value:
•
•
•
•
Inclination:
Sensitivity:
Capability:
Commitment:
.
Choosing to employ a pattern of intellectual behaviors rather than other, less productive
patterns.
Feeling the tendency toward employing a pattern of intellectual behaviors.
Perceiving opportunities for, and appropriateness of employing the pattern of behavior.
Possessing the basic skills and capacities to carry through with the behaviors.
Constantly striving to reflect on and improve performance of the pattern of intellectual
behavior.
DESCRIBING HABITS OF MIND
When we no longer know what to do we have come to our real work and when we no longer know
which way to go we have begun our real journey. The mind that is not baffled is not employed. The
impeded stream is the one that sings.
Wendell Berry
What behaviors are indicative of the efficient, effective problem solver? Just what do human beings do when they
behave intelligently? Research in effective thinking and intelligent behavior by Feuerstein (1980), Glatthorn and Baron
(1985), Sternberg (1985), Perkins (1985), and Ennis (1985) indicates that there are some identifiable characteristics of
effective thinkers. These are not necessarily scientists, artists, mathematicians or the wealthy who demonstrate these
behaviors. These characteristics have been identified in successful mechanics, teachers, entrepreneurs, salespeople, and
parents—people in all walks of life.
Following are descriptions and an elaboration of 16 attributes of what human beings do when they behave intelligently.
We choose to refer to them as Habits of Mind. They are the characteristics of what intelligent people do when they are
confronted with problems, the resolution to which are not immediately apparent.
These behaviors are seldom performed in isolation. Rather, clusters of such behaviors are drawn forth and employed in
various situations. When listening intently, for example, one employs flexibility, metacognition, precise language and
perhaps questioning.
Please do not think that there are only sixteen ways in which humans display their intelligence. It should be understood
that this list is not meant to be complete. It should serve to initiate the collection of additional attributes. Although 16
Habits of Mind are described here, you, your colleagues and your students will want to continue the search for additional
Habits of Mind by adding to and elaborating on this list and the descriptions.
1. Persisting
Persistence is the twin sister of excellence.
One is a matter of quality; the other, a matter of time.
Marabel Morgan,
The Electric Woman
Efficacious people stick to a task until it is completed. They don't give up easily. They
are able to analyze a problem, to develop a system, structure, or strategy to attack a
problem. They employ a range and have repertoire of alternative strategies for problem
solving. They collect evidence to indicate their problem-solving strategy is working, and
if one strategy doesn't work, they know how to back up and try another. They
recognize when a theory or idea must be rejected and another employed. They have
systematic methods of analyzing a problem which include knowing how to begin,
knowing what steps must be performed, and what data need to be generated or
collected. Because they are able to sustain a problem solving process over time, they are
comfortable with ambiguous situations.
Students often give up in despair when the answer to a problem is not immediately known. They sometimes crumple
their papers and throw them away saying, "I can't do this," "It's too hard," or, they write down any answer to get the task
over with as quickly as possible. Some have attention deficits; they have difficulty staying focused for any length of
time, they are easily distracted, they lack the ability to analyze a problem, to develop a system, structure, or strategy of
problem attack. They may give up because they have a limited repertoire of problem solving strategies. If their strategy
doesn't work, they give up because they have no alternatives.
2. Managing Impulsivity
"....goal directed self-imposed delay of gratification is perhaps the essence of emotional self-regulation:
the ability to deny impulse in the service of a goal, whether it be building a business, solving an
algebraic equation, or pursuing the Stanley cup.
Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence (1995) p. 83
Effective problem solvers have a sense of deliberativeness: They think before they act.
They intentionally form a vision of a product, plan of action, goal or a destination before
they begin. They strive to clarify and understand directions, develop a strategy for
approaching a problem and withhold immediate value judgments about an idea before
fully understanding it. Reflective individuals consider alternatives and consequences of
several possible directions prior to taking action. They decrease their need for trial and
error by gathering information, taking time to reflect on an answer before giving it,
making sure they understand directions, and listening to alternative points of view.
Often students blurt the first answer that comes to mind. Sometimes they shout out an
answer, start to work without fully understanding the directions, lack an organized plan
or strategy for approaching a problem or make immediate value judgments about an idea—criticizing or praising it—
before fully understanding it. They may take the first suggestion given or operate on the first idea that comes to mind
rather than considering alternatives and consequences of several possible directions.
3. Listening To Others—With Understanding and Empathy
Listening is the beginning of understanding.....
Wisdom is the reward for a lifetime of listening.
Let the wise listen and add to their learning and let the discerning get guidance –
Proverbs 1:5
Highly effective people spend an inordinate amount of time and energy listening
(Covey, 1989). Some psychologists believe that the ability to listen to another person,
to empathize with, and to understand their point of view is one of the highest forms of
intelligent behavior. Being able to paraphrase another person's ideas, detecting
indicators (cues) of their feelings or emotional states in their oral and body language
(empathy), accurately expressing another person's concepts, emotions and problems—
all are indications of listening behavior (Piaget called it "overcoming ego-centrism").
They are able to see through the diverse perspectives of others. They gently attend to
another person demonstrating their understanding of and empathy for an idea or
feeling by paraphrasing it accurately, building upon it, clarifying it, or giving an example
of it.
Senge and his colleagues (1994) suggest that to listen fully means to pay close attention to what is being said
beneath the words. You listen not only to the "music", but also to the essence of the person speaking. You
listen not only for what someone knows, but also for what he or she is trying to represent. Ears operate at the
speed of sound, which is far slower than the speed of light the eyes take in. Generative listening is the art of
developing deeper silences in yourself, so you can slow your mind's hearing to your ears' natural speed, and
hear beneath the words to their meaning.
We spend 55 percent of our lives listening yet it is one of the least taught skills in schools. We often say we are listening
but in actuality, we are rehearsing in our head what we are going to say next when our partner is finished. Some students
ridicule, laugh at, or put down other students' ideas. They interrupt are unable to build upon, consider the merits of, or
operate on another person's ideas. We want our students to learn to devote their mental energies to another person and
invest themselves in their partner's ideas.
We wish students to learn to hold in abeyance their own values, judgments, opinions, and prejudices in order to listen to
and entertain another person’s thoughts. This is a very complex skill requiring the ability to monitor one's own thoughts
while, at the same time, attending to the partner's words. This does not mean that we can't disagree with some one. A
good listener tries to understand what the other person is saying. In the end he may disagree sharply, but because he
disagrees, he wants to know exactly what it is he is disagreeing with.
4. Thinking Flexibly
If you never change your mind, why have one?
Edward deBono
An amazing discovery about the human brain is its plasticity--its ability to "rewire",
change and even repair itself to become smarter. Flexible people are the ones with the
most control. They have the capacity to change their mind as they receive additional
data. They engage in multiple and simultaneous outcomes and activities, draw upon a
repertoire of problem solving strategies and can practice style flexibility, knowing when
it is appropriate to be broad and global in their thinking and when a situation requires
detailed precision. They create and seek novel approaches and have a well-developed
sense of humor. They envision a range of consequences.
Flexible people can approach a problem from a new angle using a novel approach
{deBono (1970) refers to this as lateral thinking.} They consider alternative points of
view or deal with several sources of information simultaneously. Their minds are open to change based on additional
information and data or reasoning, which contradicts their beliefs. Flexible people know that they have and can develop
options and alternatives to consider. They understand mean-ends relationships being able to work within rules, criteria
and regulations and they can predict the consequences of flouting them. They understand not only the immediate
reactions but are also able to perceive the bigger purposes that such constraints serve. Thus, flexibility of mind is
essential for working with social diversity, enabling an individual to recognize the wholeness and distinctness of other
people's ways of experiencing and making meaning.
Flexible thinkers are able to shift, at will, through multiple perceptual positions. One perceptual orientation is what Jean
Piaget called, egocentrism--perceiving from our own point of view. By contrast, allocentrism is the position in which we
perceive through another persons' orientation. We operate from this second position when we empathize with other's
feelings, predict how others are thinking, and anticipate potential misunderstandings.
Another perceptual position is "macro-centric". It is similar to looking down from a balcony at ourselves and our
interactions with others. This bird’s-eye view is useful for discerning themes and patterns from assortments of
information. It is intuitive, holistic and conceptual. Since we often need to solve problems with incomplete
information, we need the capacity to perceive general patterns and jump across gaps of incomplete knowledge or when
some of the pieces are missing.
Yet another perceptual orientation is micro-centric--examining the individual and sometimes minute parts that make up
the whole. This "worm’s-eye view", without which science, technology, and any complex enterprise could not function,
involves logical analytical computation searching for causality in methodical steps. It requires attention to detail,
precision, and orderly progressions.
Flexible thinkers display confidence in their intuition. They tolerate confusion and ambiguity up to a point, and are
willing to let go of a problem trusting their subconscious to continue creative and productive work on it. Flexibility is
the cradle of humor, creativity and repertoire. While there are many possible perceptual positions--past, present, future,
egocentric, allocentric, macro centric, visual, auditory, kinesthetic--the flexible mind is activated by knowing when to
shift perceptual positions.
Some students have difficulty in considering alternative points of view or dealing with more than one classification
system simultaneously. THEIR way to solve a problem seems to be the ONLY way. They perceive situations from a
very ego-centered point of view: "My way or the highway!" Their mind is made up; "Don't confuse me with facts, that's
it."
5. Thinking About our Thinking (Metacognition)
When the mind is thinking it is talking to itself
Plato
Occurring in the neocortex, metacognition is our ability to know what we know and
what we don't know. It is our ability to plan a strategy for producing what information
is needed, to be conscious of our own steps and strategies during the act of problem
solving, and to reflect on and evaluate the productiveness of our own thinking. While
"inner language," thought to be a prerequisite, begins in most children around age five,
metacognition is a key attribute of formal thought flowering about age eleven.
Probably the major components of metacognition are developing a plan of action,
maintaining that plan in mind over a period of time, then reflecting back on and
evaluating the plan upon its completion. Planning a strategy before embarking on a
course of action assists us in keeping track of the steps in the sequence of planned behavior at the conscious awareness
level for the duration of the activity. It facilitates making temporal and comparative judgments, assessing the readiness
for more or different activities, and monitoring our interpretations, perceptions, decisions and behaviors. An example of
this would be what superior teachers do daily: developing a teaching strategy for a lesson, keeping that strategy in mind
throughout the instruction, then reflecting back upon the strategy to evaluate its effectiveness in producing the desired
student outcomes.
Intelligent people plan for, reflect on, and evaluate the quality of their own thinking skills and strategies. Metacognition
means becoming increasingly aware of one's actions and the effect of those actions on others and on the environment;
forming internal questions as one searches for information and meaning, developing mental maps or plans of action,
mentally rehearsing prior to performance, monitoring those plans as they are employed--being conscious of the need for
midcourse correction if the plan is not meeting expectations, reflecting on the plan upon completion of the
implementation for the purpose of self-evaluation, and editing mental pictures for improved performance.
Interestingly, not all humans achieve the level of formal operations (Chiabetta, 1976). And as Alexander Luria, the
Russian psychologist found, not all adults metacogitate (Whimbey, 1976). The most likely reason is that we do not take
the time to reflect on our experiences. Students often do not take the time to wonder why we are doing what we are
doing. They seldom question themselves about their own learning strategies or evaluate the efficiency of their own
performance. Some children virtually have no idea of what they should do when they confront a problem and are often
unable to explain their strategies of decision making (Sternberg and Wagner, 1982). When teachers ask, "How did you
solve that problem; what strategies did you have in mind"? or, "Tell us what went on in your head to come up with that
conclusion". Students often respond by saying, "I don't know, I just did it.'
We want our students to perform well on complex cognitive tasks. A simple example of this might be drawn from a
reading task. It is a common experience while reading a passage to have our minds "wander" from the pages. We "see"
the words but no meaning is being produced. Suddenly we realize that we are not concentrating and that we've lost
contact with the meaning of the text. We "recover" by returning to the passage to find our place, matching it with the
last thought we can remember, and, once having found it, reading on with connectedness. This inner awareness and the
strategy of recovery are components of metacognition.
6. Striving For Accuracy and Precision
A man who has committed a mistake and doesn't correct it
is committing another mistake.
Confucius
Embodied in the stamina, grace and elegance of a ballerina or a shoemaker, is the desire
for craftsmanship, mastery, flawlessness and economy of energy to produce exceptional
results. People who value accuracy, precision and craftsmanship take time to check over
their products. They review the rules by which they are to abide; they review the models
and visions they are to follow; and they review the criteria they are to employ and confirm
that their finish product matches the criteria exactly. To be craftsmanlike means knowing
that one can continually perfect one's craft by working to attain the highest possible
standards, and pursue ongoing learning in order to bring a laser like focus of energies to
task accomplishment. These people take pride in their work and have a desire for
accuracy as they take time to check over their work. Craftsmanship includes exactness,
precision, accuracy, correctness, faithfulness, and fidelity. For some people,
craftsmanship requires continuous reworking. Mario Cuomo, a great speechwriter and politician, once said that his
speeches were never done—it was only a deadline that made him stop working on them!
Some students may turn in sloppy, incomplete or uncorrected work. They are more anxious to get rid of the assignment
than to check it over for accuracy and precision. They are willing to suffice with minimum effort rather than investing
their maximum. They may be more interested in expedience rather than excellence.
7. Questioning and Posing Problems
The formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter
of mathematical or experimental skill.
To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative
imagination and marks real advances.....
Albert Einstein
One of the distinguishing characteristics between humans and other forms of life is our
inclination, and ability to FIND problems to solve. Effective problem solvers know
how to ask questions to fill in the gaps between what they know and what they don't
know. Effective questioners are inclined to ask a range of questions. For example:
requests for data to support others' conclusions and assumptions—such questions as,
"What evidence do you have.....?"
"How do you know that's true?"
"How reliable is this data source?"
They pose questions about alternative points of view:
"From whose viewpoint are we seeing, reading of hearing?"
"From what angle, what perspective are we viewing this situation?"
Students pose questions, which make causal connections and relationships:
"How are these people (events) (situations) related to each other?"
"What produced this connection?"
They pose hypothetical problems characterized by "iffy"-type questions:
"What do you think would happen IF.....?"
"IF that is true, then what might happen if....?"
Inquirers recognize discrepancies and phenomena in their environment and probe into their causes: "Why do cats
purr?" "How high can birds fly?" "Why does the hair on my head grow so fast, while the hair on my arms and legs grows
so slowly? "What would happen if we put the saltwater fish in a fresh water aquarium?" "What are some alternative
solutions to international conflicts other than wars?"
Some students may be unaware of the functions, classes, syntax or intentions in questions. They may not realize that
questions vary in complexity, structure and purpose. They may pose simple questions intending to derive maximal
results. When confronted with a discrepancy, they may lack an overall strategy of search and solution finding.
8. Applying Past Knowledge to New Situations
"I've never made a mistake. I've only learned from experience."
Thomas A. Edison
Intelligent human beings learn from experience. When confronted with a new and
perplexing problem they will often draw forth experience from their past. They can
often be heard to say, "This reminds me of...." or "This is just like the time when I..."
They explain what they are doing now in terms of analogies with or references to
previous experiences. They call upon their store of knowledge and experience as
sources of data to support, theories to explain, or processes to solve each new
challenge. Furthermore, they are able to abstract meaning from one experience, carry
it forth, and apply it in a new and novel situation.
Too often students begin each new task as if it were being approached for the very
first time. Teachers are often dismayed when they invite students to recall how they
solved a similar problem previously and students don't remember. It's as if they never heard of it before, even though
they had the same type of problem just recently. It is as if each experience is encapsulated and has no relationship to
what has come before or what comes afterward. Their thinking is what psychologists refer to as an "episodic grasp of
reality" (Feuerstein 1980). That is, each event in life is a separate and discrete event with no connections to what may
have come before or with no relation to what follows. Furthermore, their learning is so encapsulated that they seem
unable to draw forth from one event and apply it in another context.
9. Thinking and Communicating with Clarity and Precision
I do not so easily think in words.... after being hard at work having arrived at results that are perfectly
clear... I have to translate my thoughts in a language that does not run evenly with them.
Francis Galton, Geneticist.
Language refinement plays a critical role in enhancing a person’s cognitive maps, and
their ability to think critically which is the knowledge base for efficacious action.
Enriching the complexity and specificity of language simultaneously produces effective
thinking.
Language and thinking are closely entwined. Like either side of a coin, they are
inseparable. When you hear fuzzy language, it is a reflection of fuzzy thinking.
Intelligent people strive to communicate accurately in both written and oral form taking
care to use precise language, defining terms, using correct names and universal labels
and analogies. They strive to avoid overgeneralizations, deletions and distortions.
Instead they support their statements with explanations, comparisons, quantification,
and evidence.
We sometimes hear students and other adults using vague and imprecise language. They describe objects or events with
words like weird, nice, or OK. They call specific objects using such non-descriptive words as stuff, junk and things. They
punctuate sentences with meaningless interjections like ya know, er and uh. They use vague or general nouns and
pronouns: "They told me to do it". "Everybody has one." "Teachers don't understand me. They use non-specific verbs:
"Let's do it." and unqualified comparatives: "This soda is better; I like it more".
10. Gathering Data through All Senses
Observe perpetually.
Henry James
The brain is the ultimate reductionist. It reduces the world to its elementary parts:
photons of light, molecules of smell, sound waves, vibrations of touch--which send
electrochemical signals to individual brain cells that store information about lines,
movements, colors, smells and other sensory inputs.
Intelligent people know that all information gets into the brain through the sensory
pathways: gustatory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic, auditory, visual, Most linguistic,
cultural, and physical learning is derived from the environment by observing or taking
in through the senses. To know a wine it must be drunk; to know a role it must be
acted; to know a game it must be played; to know a dance it must be moved; to know a
goal it must be envisioned. Those whose sensory pathways are open, alert, and acute
absorb more information from the environment than those whose pathways are withered, immune, and oblivious to
sensory stimuli.
Furthermore, we are learning more about the impact of arts and music on improved mental functioning. Forming
mental images is important in mathematics and engineering; listening to classical music seems to improve spatial
reasoning.
Social scientists solve problems through scenarios and role-playing; scientists build models; engineers use cad-cam;
mechanics learn through hands-on experimentation; artists experiment with colors and textures. Musicians experiment
by producing combinations of instrumental and vocal music.
Some students, however, go through school and life oblivious to the textures, rhythms, patterns sounds and colors
around them. Sometimes children are afraid to touch, get their hands "dirty" or feel some object might be "slimy" or
"icky". They operate within a narrow range of sensory problem solving strategies wanting only to "describe it but not
illustrate or act it", or "listen but not participate".
11. Creating, Imagining, and Innovating
"The future is not some place we are going to but one we are creating. The paths are not to be found,
but made, and the activity of making them changes both the maker and the destination."
John Schaar, Political Scientist,
University of Santa Clara
Author, Loyalty in America
All human beings have the capacity to generate novel, original, clever or ingenious
products, solutions, and techniques—if that capacity is developed. Creative human
beings try to conceive problem solutions differently, examining alternative possibilities
from many angles. They tend to project themselves into different roles using analogies,
starting with a vision and working backward, imagining they are the objects being
considered. Creative people take risks and frequently push the boundaries of their
perceived limits (Perkins 1985). They are intrinsically rather than extrinsically
motivated, working on the task because of the aesthetic challenge rather than the
material rewards. Creative people are open to criticism. They hold up their products
for others to judge and seek feedback in an ever-increasing effort to refine their
technique. They are uneasy with the status quo. They constantly strive for greater
fluency, elaboration, novelty, parsimony, simplicity, craftsmanship, perfection, beauty, harmony, and balance.
Students, however, are often heard saying, "I can't draw," "I was never very good at art," "I can't sing a note," "I'm not
creative". Some people believe creative humans are just born that way; in their genes and chromosomes.
12. Responding with Wonderment and Awe
The most beautiful experience in the world is the experience of the mysterious."
Albert Einstein.
Describing the 200 best and brightest of the All USA College Academic Team
identified by USA Today, Tracey Wong Briggs (1999) states, “They are creative
thinkers who have a passion for what they do.” Efficacious people have not only an "I
CAN" attitude, but also an "I ENJOY" feeling. They seek problems to solve for
themselves and to submit to others. They delight in making up problems to solve on
their own and request enigmas from others. They enjoy figuring things out by
themselves, and continue to learn throughout their lifetimes.
Some children and adults avoid problems and are "turned off" to learning. They make
such comments as, "I was never good at these brain teasers," or "Go ask your father;
he's the brain in this family. "Its boring." "When am I ever going to use this stuff?"
"Who cares?" "Lighten up, teacher, thinking is hard work,” or "I don't do thinking!"
Many people never enrolled in another math class or other "hard" academic subjects after they didn't have to in high
school or college. Many people perceive thinking as hard work and therefore recoil from situations, which demand "too
much" of it.
We want our students, however to be curious; to commune with the world around them; to reflect on the changing
formations of a cloud; feel charmed by the opening of a bud; sense the logical simplicity of mathematical order.
Students can find beauty in a sunset, intrigue in the geometric of a spider web, and exhilaration at the iridescence of a
hummingbird's wings. They see the congruity and intricacies in the derivation of a mathematical formula, recognize the
orderliness and adroitness of a chemical change, and commune with the serenity of a distant constellation. We want
them feel compelled, enthusiastic and passionate about learning, inquiring and mastering.
13. Taking Responsible Risks.
There has been a calculated risk in every stage of American development--the pioneers who were not
afraid of the wilderness, businessmen who were not afraid of failure, dreamers who were not afraid of
action.
Brooks Atkinson
Flexible people seem to have an almost uncontrollable urge to go beyond established limits. They are uneasy about
comfort; they "live on the edge of their competence". They seem compelled to place themselves in situations where
they do not know what the outcome will be. They accept confusion, uncertainty, and the higher risks of failure as part
of the normal process and they learn to view setbacks as interesting, challenging and growth producing. However, they
are not behaving impulsively. Their risks are
educated. They draw on past knowledge, are thoughtful about consequences and have a
well-trained sense of what is appropriate. They know that all risks are not worth taking!
Risk taking can be considered in two categories: those who see it as a venture and those
who see it as adventure. The venture part of risk taking might be described by the
venture capitalist. When a person is approached to take the risk of investing in a new
business, she will look at the markets, see how well organized the ideas are, and study
the economic projections. If she finally decides to take the risk, it is a well considered
one.
The adventure part of risk taking might be described by the experiences from project
adventure. In this situation, there is a spontaneity, a willingness to take a chance in the moment. Once again, a person
will only take the chance if they know that there is either past history that suggests that what they are doing is not going
to be life threatening or if they believe that there is enough support in the group to protect them from harm. Ultimately,
the learning from such high-risk experiences is that people are far more able to take actions than they previously
believed.
It is only through repeated experiences that risk taking becomes educated. It often is a cross between intuition, drawing
on past knowledge and a sense of meeting new challenges.
Bobby Jindal, executive Director of the National Bipartisan Commission on the Future of Medicare states,
“The only way to succeed is to be brave enough to risk failure. “ (Briggs, 1999 p 2A)
When someone holds back from taking risks, he is confronted constantly with missed opportunities. Some students
seem reluctant to take risks. Some students hold back games, new learning, and new friendships because their fear of
failure is far greater than their experience of venture or adventure. They are reinforced by the mental voice that says, “ if
you don’t try it, you won’t be wrong” or “if you try it and you are wrong, you will look stupid”. The other voice that
might say, “if you don’t try it, you will never know” is trapped in fear and mistrust. They are more interested in knowing
whether their answer is correct or not, rather than being challenged by the process of finding the answer. They are
unable to sustain a process of problem solving and finding the answer over time, and therefore avoid ambiguous
situations. They have a need for certainty rather than an inclination for doubt
We hope that students will learn how to take intellectual as well as physical risks. Students who are capable of
being different, going against the grain of the common, thinking of new ideas and testing them with peers as well as
teachers, are more likely to be successful in this age of innovation and uncertainty.
14. Finding Humor
Where do bees wait? At the buzz stop.
Andrew, Age six
Another unique attribute of human beings is our sense of humor. Laughter
transcends all human beings. Its’ positive effects on psychological functions include
a drop in the pulse rate, the secretion of endorphins, an increased oxygen in the
blood. It has been found to liberate creativity and provoke such higher level
thinking skills as anticipation, finding novel relationships, visual imagery, and
making analogies. People who engage in the mystery of humor have the ability to
perceive situations from an original and often interesting vantagepoint. They tend
to initiate humor more often, to place greater value on having a sense of humor, to
appreciate and understand others' humor and to be verbally playful when interacting
with others. Having a whimsical frame of mind, they thrive on finding incongruity
and perceiving absurdities, ironies and satire; finding discontinuities and being able
to laugh at situations and themselves. Some students find humor in all the "wrong places"--human differences,
ineptitude, injurious behavior, vulgarity, violence and profanity. They laugh at others yet are unable to laugh at
themselves.
We want our student to acquire the characteristic of creative problem solvers, they can distinguish between situations of
human frailty and fallibility which are in need of compassion and those which are truly funny. (Dyer, 1997).
15. Thinking Interdependently
Take care of each other. Share your energies with the group. No one must feel alone, cut off, for that is when
you do not make it.
Willie Unsoeld
Renowned Mountain Climber
Human beings are social beings. We congregate in groups, find it therapeutic to be
listened to, draw energy from one another, and seek reciprocity. In groups we
contribute our time and energy to tasks that we would quickly tire of when working
alone. In fact, we have learned that one of the cruelest forms of punishment that can
be inflicted on an individual is solitary confinement.
Cooperative humans realize that all of us together are more powerful, intellectually
and/or physically, than any one individual. Probably the foremost disposition in the
post industrial society is the heightened ability to think in concert with others; to find
ourselves increasingly more interdependent and sensitive to the needs of others.
Problem solving has become so complex that no one person can go it alone. No one
has access to all the data needed to make critical decisions; no one person can consider as many alternatives as several
people can.
Some students may not have learned to work in groups; they have underdeveloped social skills. They feel isolated, they
prefer their solitude. "Leave me alone--I'll do it by my self". " They just don't like me". "I want to be alone." Some
students seem unable to contribute to group work either by being a "job hog" or conversely, letting others do all the
work.
Working in groups requires the ability to justify ideas and to test the feasibility of solution strategies on others. It also
requires the development of a willingness and openness to accept the feedback from a critical friend. Through this
interaction the group and the individual continue to grow. Listening, consensus seeking, giving up an idea to work with
someone else's, empathy, compassion, group leadership, knowing how to support group efforts, altruism--all are
behaviors indicative of cooperative human beings.
16 Learning Continuously:
Insanity is continuing to do the same thing over and over and expecting different results.
Albert Einstein
Intelligent people are in a continuous learning mode. Their confidence, in combination
with their inquisitiveness, allows them to constantly search for new and better ways.
People with this Habit of Mind are always striving for improvement, always growing,
always learning, always modifying and improving themselves. They seize problems,
situations, tensions, conflicts and circumstances as valuable opportunities to learn.
A great mystery about humans is that we confront learning opportunities with fear
rather than mystery and wonder. We seem to feel better when we know rather than
when we learn. We defend our biases, beliefs, and storehouses of knowledge rather than
inviting the unknown, the creative and the inspirational. Being certain and closed gives
us comfort while being doubtful and open gives us fear.
From an early age, employing a curriculum of fragmentation, competition and
reactiveness, students are trained to believe that deep learning means figuring out the truth rather than developing
capabilities for effective and thoughtful action. They have been taught to value certainty rather than doubt, to give
answers rather than to inquire, to know which choice is correct rather than to explore alternatives.
Our wish is for creative students and people who are eager to learn. That includes the humility of knowing that we don't
know, which is the highest form of thinking we will ever learn. Paradoxically, unless you start off with humility you will
never get anywhere, so as the first step you have to have already what will eventually be the crowning glory of all
learning: the humility to know--and admit--that you don't know and not be afraid to find out.
IN SUMMARY
Drawn from research on human effectiveness, descriptions of remarkable performers, and analyses of the characteristics
of efficacious people, we have presented descriptions of sixteen Habits of Mind. This list is not meant to be complete
but rather to serve as a starting point for further elaboration and description.
These Habits of Mind may serve as mental disciplines. When confronted with problematic situations, students, parents
and teachers might habitually employ one or more of these Habits of Mind by asking themselves, “What is the most
intelligent thing I can do right now?”
•
How can I learn from this, what are my resources, how can I draw on my past successes with problems
like this, what do I already know about the problem, what resources do I have available or need to
generate?
•
How can I approach this problem flexibly? How might I look at the situation in another way, how can I
draw upon my repertoire of problem solving strategies; how can I look at this problem from a fresh
perspective (Lateral Thinking).
•
How can I illuminate this problem to make it clearer, more precise? Do I need to check out my data
sources? How might I break this problem down into its component parts and develop a strategy for
understanding and accomplishing each step.
•
What do I know or not know; what questions do I need to ask, what strategies are in my mind now, what
am I aware of in terms of my own beliefs, values and goals with this problem. What feelings or emotions
am I aware of which might be blocking or enhancing my progress?
•
The interdependent thinker might turn to others for help. They might ask how this problem affects
others; how can we solve it together and what can I learn from others that would help me become a better
problem solver?
Taking a reflective stance in the midst of active problem solving is often difficult. For that reason, each of these Habits
of Mind is situational and transitory. There is no such thing as perfect realization of any of them. They are utopian
states toward which we constantly aspire. Csikszentmihalyi (1993, p. 23) states,
"Although every human brain is able to generate self-reflective consciousness, not everyone seems to use it
equally."
Few people, notes Kegan (1994) ever fully reach the stage of cognitive complexity, and rarely before middle age.
These Habits of Mind transcend all subject matters commonly taught in school. They are characteristic of peak
performers whether they be in homes, schools, athletic fields, organizations, the military, governments, churches or
corporations. They are what make marriages successful, learning continual, workplaces productive and democracies
enduring.
The goal of education therefore, should be to support others and ourselves in liberating, developing and habituating
these Habits of Mind more fully. Taken together, they are a force directing us toward increasingly authentic, congruent,
ethical behavior, the touchstones of integrity. They are the tools of disciplined choice making. They are the primary
vehicles in the lifelong journey toward integration. They are the “right stuff” that makes human beings efficacious.
"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit."
Aristotle
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HABITS OF MIND
Habits of Mind are dispositions displayed by intelligent people in response to problems, dilemmas, and
enigmas, the resolution of which are not immediately apparent.
1. Persisting: Stick to it! Persevering in task through
to completion; remaining focused
3. Listening with understanding and empathy:
Understand Others! Devoting mental energy to
another person's thoughts and ideas; holding in
abeyance one's own thoughts in order to perceive
another's point of view and emotions
5. Thinking about your Thinking
(Metacognition): Know your knowing! Being aware
of one's own thoughts, strategies, feelings and
actions and their effects on others.
7. Questioning and Problem Posing: How do you
know? Having a questioning attitude; knowing
what data are needed and developing questioning
strategies to produce those data. Finding problems
to solve.
9. Thinking and Communicating with clarity and
Precision: Be clear! Striving for accurate
communication in both written and oral form;
avoiding over generalizations, distortions and
deletions
11. Creating, imagining, and innovating Try a
different way! Generating new and novel ideas,
fluency, originality
13. Taking Responsible Risks: Venture out! Being
adventuresome; living on the edge of one's
competence
15. Thinking Interdependently: Work together! Being
able to work in and learn from others in reciprocal
situations.
2. Managing impulsivity: Take your Time! Thinking before
acting; remaining calm thoughtful and deliberative.
4. Thinking flexibly: Look at it Another Way! Being able to
change perspectives, generate alternatives, consider
options.
6. Striving for accuracy and precision: Check it again! A
desire for exactness, fidelity and craftsmanship.
8. Applying past to new and situations. Use what you
Learn! Accessing prior knowledge; transferring knowledge
beyond the situation in which it was learned.
10. Gathering Data Through all Senses: Use your natural
pathways! Gathering data through all the sensory
pathways--gustatory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic,
auditory and visual.
12. Responding with Wonderment and awe: Have fun
figuring it out! Finding the world awesome, mysterious and
being intrigued with phenomena and beauty.
14. Finding Humor: Laugh a little! Finding the whimsical,
incongruous and unexpected. Being able to laugh at
oneself.
16. Remaining Open to Continuous Learning: Learn from
experiences! Having humility and pride when admitting we
don't know; resisting complacency.
This article is adapted from Costa, A and Kallick, B (2000) Habits of Mind: A Developmental Series. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Book I: Discovering and Exploring Habits of Mind
Book II: Activating and Engaging Habits of Mind
Book III: Assessing and Reporting Growth in Habits of Mind
Book IV: Integrating and Sustaining Habits of Mind
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