93 C 6 Editing and Proofreading H R your writing, Editing and proofreading allow you to fine-tune making it ready to hand in. When you edit, look I first for words, phrases, and sentences that sound awkward,S uninteresting, or unclear. When you proofread, check your writing for spelling, T of your writing mechanics, usage, and grammar errors. Ask one peers to help you. I The guidelines and strategies given in thisAchapter will help you edit your writing for style and clarity and proofread it for N errors. Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand editing. Audio ▶ Combine short, simplistic Video sentences. ▶ Expand sentences to create a more expressive style. ▶ Improve sentence style. ▶ Use effective words. ▶ Proofread your writing. , J A M I E Visually Speaking 5 5 6 7 B How does the image above connote editing and proofreading? What tools could a writer useU for this phase of the writing process? Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Web Link 94 The Writing Process  Editing Your Revised Draft When you have thoroughly revised your writing, you need to edit it so as to make it clear and concise enough to present to readers. Use the editing guidelines below to check your revised draft. Review the overall style of your writing. 1. Read your revised writing aloud. Better C yet, have a writing peer read it aloud to you. Highlight any writing that doesn’t read smoothly and naturally. H 2. Check that your style fits the rhetorical R situation. Goal: Does your writing sound as ifI you wrote it with a clear aim in mind? Do the sentence style and word choice match the goal? S Reader: Is the tone sincere? Does the writing sound authentic and honest? T Subject: Does the writing suit the subject and your treatment of it in terms of I seriousness or playfulness, complexity or simplicity? Aclarity, conciseness, and variety. Replace 3. Examine your sentences. Check them for sentences that are wordy or rambling; combine or expand sentences that are short N and choppy. Also, vary the beginnings of your sentences and avoid sentence patterns , that are too predictable. (See pages 95–101.) Consider word choice. J 1. Avoid redundancy. Be alert for words orA phrases that are used together but mean nearly the same thing. M I 2. Watch for repetition. When used appropriately, repetition can add rhythm and E coherence to your writing. When used ineffectively, however, it can be a real repeat again         red in color         refer back distraction. The man looked as if he were in his late 5 seventies. The man was dressed in an old suit. I soon realized that the man was homeless. . . . 5 6 effective than general ones. (See page 102.) 7 The girl moved on the bench. (general) Rosie slid quietly to the end of the park B bench. (specific) 4. Avoid highly technical terms. Check forU jargon or technical terms that your readers 3. Look for general nouns, verbs, and modifiers. Specific words are much more will not know or that you haven’t adequately explained. (See page 103.) As the capillaries bleed, platelets work with fibrinogens to form a clot. 5. Use fair language. Replace words or phrases that are biased or demeaning. (See pages 104–106.) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 95  Combining Sentences Effective sentences often contain several basic ideas that work together to show relationships and make connections. Here are five basic ideas followed by seven examples of how the ideas can be combined into effective sentences. 1. The longest and largest construction project in history was the Great Wall of China. 2. The project took 1,700 years to complete.C 3. The Great Wall of China is 1,400 miles long. H 4. It is between 18 and 30 feet high. R 5. It is up to 32 feet wide. I Edit short, simplistic sentences.S T longer, more detailed sentences. Sentence Combine your short, simplistic sentences into combining is generally carried out in the following I ways: ■ A ideas. Use a series to combine three or more similar The Great Wall of China is 1,400 miles long, N between 18 and 30 feet high, and up to 32 feet wide. , ■ Use a relative pronoun (who, whose, that, which) to introduce subordinate (less important) ideas. J long and between 18 and 30 feet The Great Wall of China, which is 1,400 miles high, took 1,700 years to complete. A ■ Use an introductory phrase or clause. M Having taken 1,700 years to complete, the Great Wall of China was the longest I construction project in history. ■ ■ ■ ■ E if appropriate). Use a semicolon (and a conjunctive adverb The Great Wall took 1,700 years to complete; it is 1,400 miles long and up to 30 feet high and 32 feet wide. 5 Repeat a key word or phrase to emphasize an idea. 5 The Great Wall of China was the longest construction project in history, a project 6 that took 1,700 years to complete. Use correlative conjunctions (either, or;7not only, but also) to compare or contrast two ideas in a sentence. B The Great Wall of China is not only up toU30 feet high and 32 feet wide, but also 1,400 miles long. Use an appositive (a word or phrase that renames) to emphasize an idea. The Great Wall of China—the largest construction project in history—is 1,400 miles long, 32 feet wide, and up to 30 feet high. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 96 The Writing Process  Expanding Sentences Expand sentences when you edit so as to connect related ideas and make room for new information. Length has no value in and of itself: The best sentence is still the shortest one that says all it has to say. An expanded sentence, however, is capable of saying more—and saying it more expressively. Use cumulative sentences. C Modern writers often use an expressive sentence H form called the cumulative sentence. A cumulative sentence is made of a general “base clause” that is expanded by adding modifying words, phrases, or clauses. In such a sentence,Rdetails are added before and after the main clause, creating an image-rich thought. Here’s Ian example of a cumulative sentence, with the base clause or main idea in boldface: S In preparation for her Spanish exam, Julie T was studying at the kitchen table, completely focused, memorizing a list of vocabulary words. I Discussion: Notice how each new modifier adds to the richness of the final sentence. Also notice that each of these modifying A phrases is set off by a comma. Here’s another N sample sentence: , With his hands on his face, Tony was laughing halfheartedly, looking puzzled and embarrassed. Discussion: Such a cumulative sentence provides a way to write description that is rich J in detail, without rambling. Notice how each modifier changes the flow or rhythm of A the sentence. M Expand with details. I Here are seven basic ways to expand a main idea: E 1. with adjectives and adverbs: halfheartedly, once again 2. with prepositional phrases: with his hands on his face 5 5 4. with participial (ing or ed) phrases: looking puzzled 6 5. with infinitive phrases: to hide his embarrassment 7 talks 6. with subordinate clauses: while his friend 7. with relative clauses: who isn’t laughing B at all U style, it is best to (1) know your grammar INSIGHT: To edit sentences for more expressive 3. with absolute phrases: his head tilted to one side and punctuation (especially commas); (2) practice tightening, combining, and expanding sentences using the guidelines in this chapter; and (3) read carefully, looking for models of well-constructed sentences. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 97  Checking for Sentence Style Writer E. B. White advised young writers to “approach sentence style by way of simplicity, plainness, orderliness, and sincerity.” That’s good advice from a writer steeped in style. It’s also important to know what to look for when editing your sentences. The information on this page and the following four pages will help you edit your sentences for style and correctness. C Avoid these sentence problems. H Always check for and correct the following types of sentence problems. Turn to the pages listed R to fix problems in your sentences. below for guidelines and examples when attempting I S examples and guidelines on page 95. Flat, Predictable Sentences: Rewrite anyT sentences that sound predictable and uninteresting by varying their structures and expanding them with modifying words, I phrases, and clauses. (See pages 98–100.) A Incorrect Sentences: Look carefully for fragments, run-ons, and comma splices and correct them accordingly. N Unclear Sentences: Edit any sentences that contain unclear wording, misplaced , comparisons. modifiers, dangling modifiers, or incomplete Short, Choppy Sentences: Combine or expand any short, choppy sentences; use the Unacceptable Sentences: Change sentences that include nonstandard language, double negatives, or unparallel construction. J Unnatural Sentences: Rewrite sentences that contain jargon, clichés, or flowery A language. (See page 103.) M Review your writing for sentence I variety. Use the following strategy to review your writing E for variety in terms of sentence beginnings, lengths, and types. ■ In one column on a piece of paper, list the opening words in each of your sentences. Then decide if you need to vary some of 5 your sentence beginnings. ■ In another column, identify the number5 of words in each sentence. Then decide if you need to change the lengths of some of your sentences. 6 ■ In a third column, list the kinds of sentences used (exclamatory, declarative, interrogative, and so on). Then, based on7your analysis, use the instructions on the next two pages to edit your sentences as B needed. U Writing with Sources: When you integrate a quotation into the flow of text, make sure that the quotation works with the material around it. Either make the quotation a grammatical part of the sentence, or introduce the quotation with a complete sentence followed by a colon. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 98 The Writing Process Vary sentence structures. To energize your sentences, vary their structures using one or more of the methods shown on this page and the next. 1. Vary sentence openings. Move a modifying word, phrase, or clause to the front of the sentence to stress that modifier. However, avoid creating dangling or misplaced modifiers. The norm: We apologize for the inconvenience this may have caused you. C Variation: For the inconvenience this may have caused you, we apologize. H 2. Vary sentence lengths. Short sentences R(ten words or fewer) are ideal for making points crisply. Medium sentences (ten to twenty words) should carry the bulk of I your information. When well crafted, occasional long sentences (more than twenty words) can develop and expand your ideas. S Short: Welcome back to Magnolia T Suites! Medium: Unfortunately, your confirmed room was unavailable last night I when you arrived. For the inconvenience this may have caused you, we apologize. A Long: Because several guestsNdid not depart as scheduled, we were forced to provide you with accommodations elsewhere; , however, for your trouble, we were happy to cover the cost of last night’s lodging. J For variety, try exclamatory, imperative,A interrogative, and conditional statements. M with outstanding service! Exclamatory: Our goal is providing you Declarative: To that end, we have upgraded your room at no expense. I Imperative: Please accept, as well, E this box of chocolates as a gift to 3. Vary sentence kinds. The most common sentence is declarative—it states a point. sweeten your stay. Interrogative: Do you need further assistance? Conditional: If you do, we are ready5to fulfill your requests. 5 INSIGHT: In creative writing (stories, novels, 6 plays), writers occasionally use fragments to vary the rhythm of their prose, emphasize a point, or create dialogue. Avoid fragments in 7 academic or business writing. B U Writing with Sources: When you refer to ideas from a source, use the “historical present tense.” That is, refer to the person and her or his work in the present tense—“Einstein writes that relativity . . .” Use past tense only if you want to emphasize the pastness of the source. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 99 4. Vary sentence arrangements. Where do you want to place the main point of your sentence? You make that choice by arranging sentence parts into loose, periodic, balanced, or cumulative patterns. Each pattern creates a specific effect.  Loose Sentence The Travel Center offers an attractive flight-reservation plan for students, one that allows you to collect bonus miles and receive $150,000 in life insurance per flight. C Analysis: This pattern is direct. It states the main point immediately (bold), and then H tacks on extra information. R I the Travel Center’s Student-Flight Club Although this plan requires that you join and pay the $10 admission fee, in the long S run you will save money! Analysis: This pattern postpones the main T point (bold) until the end. The sentence builds to the point, creating an indirect, dramatic effect. I  Balanced Sentence A Joining the club in your freshman year will save you money over your entire N college career; in addition, accruing bonus miles over four years will earn , you a free trip to Europe!  Periodic Sentence Analysis: This pattern gives equal weight to complementary or contrasting points (bold); the balance is often signaled by a comma and a conjunction (and, but) or by a J semicolon. Often a conjunctive adverb (however, nevertheless) or a transitional phrase A to further clarify the relationship. (in addition, even so) will follow the semicolon M I name, you can retain its benefits as Because the club membership is in your long as you are a student, even if you E transfer to a different college or go on to  Cumulative Sentence graduate school. Analysis: This pattern puts the main idea (bold) in the middle of the sentence, 5 surrounding it with modifying words, phrases, and clauses. 5 6 to stress a point. use emphatic repetition to repeat a key word 7  Repetitive Sentence B who read poorly leave high Each year, more than a million young people school unable to read well, functionally Uilliterate. 5. Use positive repetition. Although you should avoid needless repetition, you might  Emphatic Sentence Each year, more than a million young people leave high school functionally illiterate, so illiterate that they can’t read daily newspapers, job ads, or safety instructions. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 100 The Writing Process Use parallel structure. Coordinated sentence elements should be parallel—that is, they should be written in the same grammatical forms. Parallel structures save words, clarify relationships, and present the information in the correct sequence. Follow these guidelines. 1. For words, phrases, or clauses in a series, keep elements consistent. Not parallel: I have tutored students in Biology 101, also Chemistry 102, not to mention my familiarity with Physics 200. C Parallel: I have tutored students in Biology 101, Chemistry 102, and H Physics 200. Not parallel: I have volunteered as aRhospital receptionist, have been a hospice volunteer, andI as an emergency medical technician. Parallel: I have done volunteer work as a hospital receptionist, a hospice S counselor, and an emergency medical technician. T I segments of the sentence are balanced. as, so; whether, so; both, and) so that both A Not parallel: Not only did Blake College N turn 20 this year. Its enrollment grew by 16 percent. , Parallel: Not only did Blake College turn 20 this year, but its enrollment 2. Use both parts of correlative conjunctions (either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also; also grew by 16 percent. 3. Place a modifier correctly so that it clearly J indicates the word or words to which it refers. A Confusing: MADD promotes severely M punishing and eliminating drunk driving because this offense leads to a great number of deaths I and sorrow. Parallel: MADD promotes eliminating and severely punishing drunk E driving because this offense leads to many deaths and untold sorrow. 5 5 6 24 hours of television a week and The average child watches reads for 36 minutes. 7 Each week, the average child watches television for 24 hours but B reads for only about half an hour. U 4. Place contrasting details in parallel structures (words, phrases, or clauses) to stress a contrast. Weak contrast: Strong contrast: Writing with Sources: When using sources, smoothly integrate text references to those sources. (For guidelines, see pages 491–528 for MLA and pages 529–558 for APA.) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 101 Avoid weak constructions. Avoid constructions (like those below) that weaken your writing.  Nominal Constructions The nominal construction is both sluggish and wordy. Avoid it by changing the noun form of a verb (description or instructions) to a verb (describe or instruct). At the same time, delete the weak verb that preceded the noun. C H Strong Verbs R Tim described . . . Lydia instructed . . . I John had a discussion with S the tutors regarding the incident. They gave him their confirmation that similar developments had occurred T before, but they had not provided submissions of their reports. John discussed the incidentIwith the tutors. They confirmed that similar problems had developed A before, but they hadn’t submitted their reports. N , Nominal Constructions (noun form underlined) Tim gave a description . . . Lydia provided instructions . . . Sluggish: Energetic:  Expletives Expletives such as “it is” and “there is” are fillers that serve no purpose in most sen­tences— except to make them wordy and unnatural. J Sluggish: It is likely that Nathan will attend the Communication Department’s Honors Banquet. There is a A journalism scholarship that he might win. M Energetic: Nathan will likely attend the I Communication Department’s Honors Banquet and might win a journalism scholarship. E  Negative Constructions Sentences constructed upon the negatives no, not, neither/nor can be wordy and difficult to 5 understand. It’s simpler to state what is the case. 5 newspaper staff, I have not been Negative: During my four years on the behind in making significant 6 contributions. My editorial skills have certainly not deteriorated, as I have never failed to tackle challenging 7 assignments. Bnewspaper staff, I have made Positive: During my four years on the significant contributions. My editorial skills have steadily developed U as I have tackled difficult assignments. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 102 The Writing Process A  voiding Imprecise, Misleading, and Biased Words As you edit your writing, check your choice of words carefully. The information on the next five pages will help you edit for word choice. Video Web Link Exercise Model Interactive Substitute specific words. C H  Specific Nouns R Make it a habit to use specific nouns for subjects. General nouns (woman, school) give the I nouns (actress, university) give the reader reader a vague, uninteresting picture. More specific a better picture. Finally, very specific nouns (Meryl S Streep, Notre Dame) are the type that can make your writing clear and colorful. T General to Specific Nouns I AThing Person Place Idea woman school theory Nbook actor university scientific theory ,novel Replace vague nouns and verbs with words that generate clarity and energy. Meryl Streep Notre Dame Pride and Prejudice relativity J  Vivid Verbs A Like nouns, verbs can be too general to create a vivid word picture. For example, the verb M glanced, or peeked. looked does not say the same thing as stared, glared, ■ Whenever possible, use a verb that is strong I enough to stand alone without the help of an adverb. E Verb and adverb: John fell down in the student lounge. Vivid verb: John collapsed in the student lounge. ■ ■ ■ 5 were) and helping verbs. Often Avoid overusing the “be” verbs (is, are, was, a main verb can be made from another word 5 in the same sentence. A “be” verb: Cole is someone who follows international news. 6 A stronger verb: Cole follows international news. 7 Use active rather than passive verbs. (Use passive verbs only if you want to downplay B See page 81.) who is performing the action in a sentence. Passive verb: Another provocative Uessay was submitted by Kim. Active verb: Kim submitted another provocative essay. Use verbs that show rather than tell. A verb that tells: Dr. Lewis is very thorough. A verb that shows: Dr. Lewis prepares detailed, interactive lectures. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 103 Replace jargon and clichés. Replace language that is overly technical or difficult to understand. Also replace overused, worn-out words.  Understandable Language Jargon is language used in a certain profession or by a particular group of people. It may be acceptable to use if your audience is that group of people, but to most ears jargon will sound technical and unnatural. C Jargon: Clear: Jargon: Clear: Jargon: The bottom line is that our output H is not within our game plan. Production is not on schedule. R I’m having conceptual difficulty with these academic queries. I don’t understand these reviewI questions. Pursuant to our conversation, I S have forwarded you a remittance attached herewith. T Clear: As we discussed, I am mailing you the check. I  Fresh and Original Writing A Clichés are overused words or phrases. They give the reader no fresh view and no concrete picture. Because clichés spring quickly to mindN(for both the writer and the reader), they are easy to write and often remain unedited. , an axe to grind as good as dead beat around the bush between a rock and a hard place burning bridges easy as pie piece of cake Jplanting the seed rearing its ugly head Astick your neck out throwing your weight around M up a creek I E  Purpose and Voice Other aspects of your writing may also be tired and overworked. Be alert to the two types of clichés described below. 5 Clichés of Purpose: 5 Sentimental papers gushing about an ideal friend or family member, or droning 6 on about a moving experience ■ Overused topics with recycled information 7 and predictable examples Clichés of Voice: B ■ Writing that assumes a false sense of authority: “I have determined that there are U three basic types of newspapers. My preference is for the third.” ■ Writing that speaks with little or no sense of authority: “I flipped when I saw Viewpoints.” ■ Writing that is pretentious: “Because I have researched the topic thoroughly, readers should not question my conclusion.” ■ Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 104 The Writing Process Change biased words. When depicting individuals or groups according to their differences, use language that implies equal value and respect for all people.  Words Referring to Ethnicity Acceptable General Terms Acceptable Specific Terms American Indians, Cherokee people, Inuit people, and so forth Native Americans C Asian Americans Chinese Americans, Japanese H (not Orientals) Americans, and so forth R Latinos, Latinas, Mexican Americans, Cubans I Hispanics Americans, and so forth S T acceptance, though the term “black” is “African American” has come into wide preferred by some individuals. I Anglo Americans (English ancestry), European Americans A Use these terms to avoid the notion that “American,” used alone, N means “white.” , Additional References African Americans, blacks Not Recommended Preferred Eurasian, mulatto person J of mixed ancestry nonwhite person A of color Caucasian white M American (to mean U.S. citizen) U.S. citizen  Words Referring to Age I E Age Group Acceptable Terms up to age 13 or 14 boys, 5 girls between 13 and 19 youth, young people, young men, 5young women 6 adults, young women, late teens and 20s young 7young men 30s to age 60 adults, B men, women 60 and older older adults, older people (not elderly) U 65 and older seniors (senior citizens also acceptable) Insight: Whenever you write about a person with a disability, an impairment, or other special condition, give the person and your readers the utmost respect. Nothing is more distracting to a reader than an insensitive or outdated reference. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 105  Words Referring to Disabilities or Impairments In the recent past, some writers were choosing alternatives to the term disabled, including physically challenged, exceptional, or special. However, it is not generally held that these new terms are precise enough to serve those who live with disabilities. Of course, degrading labels such as crippled, invalid, and maimed, as well as overly negative terminology, must be avoided. Not Recommended Preferred handicapped disabledC birth defect congenital H disability stutter, stammer, lisp speech impairment R AIDS an AIDS victim person with suffering from cancer person who I has cancer mechanical foot prosthetic foot S false teeth dentures T  Words Referring to Conditions I People with various disabilities and conditions Ahave sometimes been referred to as though they were their condition (quadriplegics, depressives, epileptics) instead of people who N happen to have a particular disability. As much as possible, remember to refer to the person , first, the disability second. Not Recommended Preferred the disabled people with J disabilities cripples people who have difficulty walking A a developmental disability the retarded people with dyslexics studentsMwith dyslexia neurotics patients with neuroses I patients subjects, cases participants, quadriplegics people who E are quadriplegic wheelchair users people who use wheelchairs 5  Additional Terms Make sure you understand the following terms5that address specific impairments: 6 (not deaf, 7 which is total loss of hearing) visual impairment = partially B sighted (not blind, which is total loss of vision) U communicative disorder = speech, hearing, and learning disabilities hearing impairment = partial hearing loss, hard of hearing affecting communication Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 106 The Writing Process  Words Referring to Gender ■ Use parallel language for both sexes: The men and the women rebuilt the school together. Hank and Marie Mr. Robert Gumble, Mrs. Joy Gumble Note: The courtesy titles Mr., Ms., Mrs., and Miss ought to be used according to the person’s preference. ■ ■ C Use nonsexist alternatives to words with masculine connotations: H humanity (not mankind) synthetic (not man-made) artisan (not craftsman) R I pronouns (he, she, his, her) when you Do not use masculine-only or feminine-only want to refer to a human being in general: S A politician can kiss privacy good-bye when he runs for office. T (not recommended) I Instead, use he or she, change the sentence to plural, or eliminate the pronoun: A he or she runs for office. A politician can kiss privacy good-bye when Politicians can kiss privacy good-bye when N they run for office. A politician can kiss privacy good-bye when running for office. , ■ Do not use gender-specific references in the salutation of a business letter when you don’t know the person’s name: J is recommended) Dear Sir:       Dear Gentlemen: (neither A Instead, address a position: M Dear Personnel Officer: Dear Members of the Economic Committee: I  Occupational Issues E Not Recommended Preferred 5 chairman chair, presiding officer, moderator 5 salesman sales representative, salesperson clergyman minister,6priest, rabbi male/female nurse nurse 7 male/female doctor doctor, physician B postal worker, letter carrier mailman mail carrier, insurance man insurance agent U fireman firefighter businessman executive, manager, businessperson congressman member of Congress, representative, senator steward, stewardess flight attendant policeman, policewoman police officer Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 6 Editing and Proofreading 107  Proofreading Your Writing The following guidelines will help you check your revised writing for spelling, mechanics, usage, grammar, and form. Audio Video Web Link Review punctuation and mechanics. 1. Check for proper use of commas before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences, after introductory clauses andClong introductory phrases, between items in a series, and so on. H 2. Look for apostrophes in contractions, plurals, and possessive nouns. R 3. Examine quotation marks in quoted information, titles, or dialogue. I 4. Watch for proper use of capital letters for first words in written conversation and for proper names of people, places, and S things. T Look for usage and grammar errors. I 1. Look for words that writers commonly misuse: there/their/they’re; accept/except. A go with singular verbs; plural subjects goNwith plural verbs. Verb tenses should be consistent throughout. , 2. Check for verb use. Subjects and verbs should agree in number: Singular subjects 3. Review for pronoun/antecedent agreement problems. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number. J Check for spelling errors. A 1. Use a spell checker. Your spell checker will M catch most errors. 2. Check each spelling you are unsure of. Especially check those proper names and I other special words your spell checker won’t know. E 3. Consult a handbook. Refer to a list of commonly misspelled words, as well as an up-to-date dictionary. 5 5 1. Note the title. A title should be appropriate and lead into the writing. 6 2. Examine any quoted or cited material. Are all sources of information properly 7 presented and documented? (See pages 491–528 and 529–558.) 3. Look over the finished copy of your writing. B Does it meet the requirements for a final manuscript? (See page 130.) U Check the writing for form and presentation. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Exercise 108 The Writing Process Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities As directed by your instructor, complete the following activities. 1. The nineteenth-century British writer Matthew Arnold offers this advice to writers about refining their writing: “Have something to say and say it as clearly as you can. That is the only secret of style.” Does your own writing clearly communicate a meaningful message? Explain why or why not. 2. Choose a writing assignment that you C have recently completed. Edit the sentences in this writing for style and correctness using pages 94–101 as a H chapter to edit the piece of writing for guide. Then use pages 102–106 in this vague words, jargon, clichés, and biased R language. 3. Combine some of the following ideas I into longer, more mature sentences. Write at least four sentences, using page 95 as a guide. S Dogs can be difficult to train. The necessary supplies include a leash and treats. Patience is also a necessity.TDogs like to please their owners. Training is not a chore for dogs. A well-trained dog is a pleasure to its owner. I A N I understand that editing involves checking overall sentence style and word , choice. Learning-Outcomes Checklist I have combined short, simplistic sentences. J I have expanded sentences, where appropriate, to create a more expressive A style. M improved sentence style. I have avoided sentence problems and ■ Varying sentence structures I ■ Varying sentence arrangements E ■ Using parallel structure ■ Avoiding weak constructions 5 I have made sure that I use strong, effective words. ■ Using specific nouns and vivid verbs 5 ■ Replacing jargon and clichés 6 ■ Changing biased words 7 I have proofread my writing, checking punctuation, mechanics, usage, grammar, and spelling—as well as B form and presentation. U Cross-Curricular Connections Different disciplines have different documentation systems, each with its own conventions, formats, and punctuation practices. For MLA style, see pages 491–528, and for APA style, see pages 529–558. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 660 Handbook Avoiding Sentence Errors Exercises: Agreement A. Subject-Verb Agreement On you own paper, correct the agreement errors in the following paragraph by writing down the line number and any incorrect verb, crossed out, with the correct C form beside it. H There is in beautiful Barcelona,RSpain, many surprises to be found. Barcelona, Spain’s second-largest city, and Madrid, the country’s capital, I the population of Barcelona were has a traditional rivalry. At one time, forbidden to speak the city’s native tongue, S Catalan, by a royal decree from Madrid. Today, however, neither Spanish nor Catalan are discriminated T that belongs on every tour, the against in the region. One of the sites outlandish cathedral La Sagrada Familia (“The Sacred Family”), was I designed by Antoni Gaudi. Everyone using the word “gaudy” actually has Gaudi’s name on his or her tongue.AA series of thirteenth- to fifteenthcentury palaces now house the Museo N Picasso, which display a history of Picasso’s work and his many years living in Barcelona. Les Demoiselles , d’Avignon, or The Young Ladies of Avignon, are one example of a painting inspired by his time in Barcelona. Whether you prefer cobblestone streets with centuries-old buildings or asphalt streets with modern shops and J taverns, each are found in Barcelona. At night, every one of the streets seem to have a festive air, reflectingAthe vivacity of Spanish culture. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 M I Agreement B. Pronoun-Antecedent and Subject-Verb Provide the correct pronoun or verb for E each blank in the following sentences. Use the directions or choices in parentheses. 1. Some people __________ math with5an abacus. (do/does) 2. This counting device has been used for thousands of years, and __________ is 5 still very popular in Eastern nations. (pronoun for “device”) 6 3. The earliest examples __________ employed between 2700 and 2300 B.C. in Sumeria. (was/were) 7 4. As recently as the 1990s, school children B in the Soviet Union were taught to use __________ . (pronoun for “examples” in the previous sentence) U 5. Pocket-sized abacuses __________ still popular in Japan, despite the availability of portable calculators. (is/are) 6. Expert abacus users __________ able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and even calculate square roots and cube roots very quickly. (is/are) Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 413 Getting Started: From Planning Research to C 27 Evaluating Sources H Rbusiness carried At first glance, research looks like a dry-as-dust out by obsessed scholars in dim libraries andImad scientists in cluttered laboratories. Research couldn’t be further from the S reality of your life. But is it? Consider car tires. Before these T were mounted, scientists researched which materials wouldI resist wear and which adhesives would keep treads on steel belts. Sloppy research A tires. could cause blowouts; good research builds safe For you, the rewards of research projects N can be great— new insights into a subject that really interests, you, a deepened understanding of your major or profession, reliable knowledge to share with others, and sharpened thinking skills. This chapter will help you get started on such a project. J Learning Outcomes ▶ Understand the rhetorical context of research writing. Audio ▶ Implement a workable process and plan. ▶ Develop research questions and a thesis. ▶ Understand the breadth of resources available and select fitting resources. ▶ Engage and evaluate sources. ▶ Develop a working bibliography. ▶ Avoid plagiarism. A M I E 5 5 6 7 B U Visually Speaking Review the photograph above. What does this image suggest to you about research? Does the image help you visualize getting started on a research project? Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Video 414 Research and Writing Quick Guide Papers with Documented Research Video Web Link When you work on a research project, you ask important questions, look systematically for answers, and share your conclusions with readers. In other words, it’s all about curiosity, Model dialogue. Exercise Interactive discovery, and C ■ Starting Point: The assignment usually relates to a course concept, so consider what your instructor wants you to learnHand how your project will be evaluated. Then take ownership of the project by looking for an angle that makes the writing R relevant for you. ■ Purpose: The project requires you to conduct research and share results. Your main S a topic and clarify that discovery for goal is to discover the complex truth about others. T ■ Form: The traditional research paper isI a fairly long essay (5 to 15 pages) complete with thesis, supporting paragraphs, integrated sources, and careful documentation. A However, you may be asked to shape your research into a field report, a website, or a N multimedia presentation. ■ ■ ■ I , addresses “the academic community,” a Audience: Traditionally, research writing group made up mainly of instructors and students. However, your actual audience may be more specific: addicted smokers, all Floridians, fellow immigrants, and so J on. A Voice: The tone is usually formal or semiformal, but check your instructor’s expectations. In any research writing, maintain a thoughtful, confidently measured M tone. After all, your research has made Iyou somewhat of an authority on the topic. Point of View: Generally, research writers E avoid the pronouns “I” and “you” in an effort to remain properly objective and academic sounding. Unfortunately, this practice can result in an overuse of both the pronoun “one” and the passive voice. Some instructors encourage students to5connect research with experience, meaning that you may use the pronouns “I” and “you” occasionally. Be careful, however, to keep the focus where it belongs—on the5topic. Bottom line: Follow your instructor’s requirements concerning pronoun use.6 For more on developing a strong academic style for your research writing, see pages 779–80. INSIGHT: The best research writing centers B on your ideas—ideas you develop through thoughtful engagement with sources. In poorUresearch papers, the sources dominate, and the writer’s perspective disappears. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 415 ■ The Research Process: A Flowchart The research process involves getting started, planning, conducting the research, and organizing the results. This process is flexible enough to be adapted to diverse research projects. In fact, real research is typically dynamic: You might think during the planning phase that you’ve nailed down your topic, only to discover a surprising topical detour while conducting research. Generally, however, the research process maps out as shown below. When you get your assignment—whether to write a five-page C paper on pasteurization or to develop a website on Middle Eastern political conflicts—review the process and tailor it to the task. H GettingR Started • Review the assignment. I resources. • Consider your • Choose a subject. S T List or cluster your Conduct preliminary Talk with others current ideas and research in reference to learn opposing I opinions. works. opinions. A N Research Planning Your Narrow the topic, form a research question or working thesis, , develop a research plan, and select keyword–searching terms. J Research Conducting Conduct Primary Research Observe, interview, survey, or experiment. Analyze primary documents and artifacts. A M Notes Take Careful I Reflect in your E research journal. 5 to a Create and add working bibliography. 5 6 • Evaluate and 7take notes from sources. • Summarize,B paraphrase, and quote. U Conduct Secondary Research Check books, articles, and websites. Search catalogs, indexes, databases, and the Internet. Organizing and Drafting • Answer your research question or refine your thesis. • Develop an outline. • Write the research paper, integrating and documenting sources. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 416 Research and Writing ■ Getting Started: Getting Focused Audio Video Early in your project, get focused by narrowing your topic, brainstorming research questions, and developing a working thesis. For help understanding assignments and selecting topics, Model Link as other Exercise prewriting Interactive asWebwell strategies, see pages 32–37. Establish a narrow, manageable topic. Audio Video To do good research, you need an engaging, manageable topic. Once you have a broad topic, C narrow your focus to a specific feature or angle that allows for in-depth research. Try these H strategies: Model Web Link Exercise Interactive R subject headings, available in your ■ Check your topic in the Library of Congress library. Note “narrower terms” listed (see I page 424). ■ Read about your topic. By consulting specialized reference works, explore S background that directs you to subtopics (see page 453). ■ Check the Internet. For example, followTa subject directory to see where your topic I leads (see pages 462–467). ■ Freewrite to discover which aspect of the topic interests you most: a local angle, a A connection with a group of people, or a personal concern. Broad Topic Homelessness Bacteria and Viruses Alternative Energy Sources N , Manageable Focus Homeless Families in Los Angeles Bacterial Resistance to Antibiotics Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles J A Brainstorm research questions.M I information and ideas about your topic. Good research questions help you find meaningful These questions sharpen your research goal, and E the answers will become the focus of your writing. Brainstorm questions by following these guidelines: List both simple and substantial questions. Basic questions aim for factual answers. 5 More complex questions get at analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. 5 Il gain power in North Korea? ■ Question of fact: When did Kim Jong ■ Question of interpretation: How did 6 Kim Jong Il maintain power? List main and secondary questions. Ask 7 a primary question about your topic—the main issue that you want to get at. Then brainstorm secondary questions that you need B to research to answer your primary question. ■ Main Question: Should consumersU buy hydrogen fuel-cell cars? ■ Secondary Questions (Who, What, When, Where, Why, How): Who has developed hydrogen fuel-cell cars? What is a hydrogen fuel-cell car? When were these cars developed? Where are hydrogen fuel-cell cars currently used? Why are they being developed? How does one work? Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 417 Testing Your Main Research Question Is the question so broad that I can’t answer it in the project’s time and page limits? Is the question so narrow that I won’t be able to find sources? Is the question so simple that it will be too easy to answer? Will the question lead to significant C sources and intellectual challenge? Am I committed to answering this question? Does it interest me? H Will the question and answers interest my readers? R I Develop a working thesis. S A working thesis offers a preliminary answer to Tyour main research question. As your initial perspective on the topic, a good working thesis keeps you focused during research, helping I book or just skim it, fully explore a website you decide whether to carefully read a particular or quickly skim through it. Make your working Athesis a statement that demands “Prove it!” Don’t settle for a simple statement of fact about Nyour topic; instead, choose a working thesis that seems debatable or that requires some explanation. Try this formula: , Formula: Working Thesis = limited topic + tentative J claim, statement, or hypothesis Examples: E-communication technologies are rewiring our brains. A Downtown revitalization will have distinct economic, environmental, M and social benefits. I long-term relationships. Internet dating is weakening E Working Thesis Checklist 5 limited topic? Does my working thesis focus on a single, Is my working thesis stated in a clear,5direct sentence? Does my working thesis convey my initial 6 perspective about the topic? Do I have access to enough good information to support this working thesis? 7 Does my working thesis direct me toB write a paper that meets all assignment requirements? U INSIGHT: Your working thesis is written in sand, not stone. It may change as you research the topic because sources may push you in new directions. In fact, such change shows that you are engaging your sources and growing in your thinking. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 418 Research and Writing ■ Developing a Research Plan Audio Video It pays to plan your research. In fact, minutes spent planning research can save hours doing research. With your limited topic, main research question, and working thesis in front of ModelmoreInteractive Web Link Exercise project you, plan your fully. Choose research methods. Consider these questions: What do you already C know about the topic? What do you need to know? Which resources will help you answer your research question? Which resources H does the assignment require? Based on your answers, map out a research plan that draws R resources from fitting categories. I Background research: To find information S about your topic’s context, central concepts, and key terms, take these steps: T ■ Use the Library of Congress subject headings to find keywords for searching I and the Internet (see page 424). the library catalog, periodical databases, ■ Conduct a preliminary search of the library catalog, journal databases, A and the Internet to confirm that good resources on your topic exist. N ■ Use specialized reference works to find background information, definitions, facts, and statistics (see page 453). , Field or primary research: If appropriate for your project, conduct field research: ■ Use interviews (page 448) or surveysJ (page 444–445) to get key information from experts or others. A ■ Conduct observations or experiments (page 443) to obtain hard data. M 446–447). ■ Analyze key documents or artifacts (pages Library research: Select important libraryIresources: ■ Use scholarly books to get in-depth, E reliable material (pages 452–453). ■ Use periodical articles (print or electronic) to get current, reliable information (pages 454–456). Select from news sources, popular magazines, scholarly 5 journals, and trade journals. 5 as a documentary, recorded interview, ■ Consider other library resources, such pamphlet, marketing study, or government publication. 6 Internet research: Plan effective Internet searches using the following: 7 ■ Search engines and subject guides: Choose tools that will lead you to quality B resources (pages 462–465). U that librarians or other experts ■ Expert guidance: Select reputable websites recommend (page 462). ■ Evaluation: Test all web resources for reliability (pages 468–471). ■ Limitations: How many web resources are you allowed to use, if any? Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 419 Get organized to do research. An organized approach to doing your research will save you time, help you work efficiently, and prevent frustration. Get organized by addressing these issues: Establishing Priorities for Resources, Time, and Effort ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ How much research material do you need? What range of resources will give youCquality, reliable information? Which types of research does the assignment specify? Are you limited, for H you can use? example, in the number of Internet sources Rmust you do? Which tasks are secondary What are the project’s priorities: What in nature? I What weight does the project carry in the course? How should you match your S time and effort with that weight? T INSIGHT: Gather more information than you I could ever use in your paper. That richness gives you choices and allows you to sift for crucial information. A N Selecting Research Methods and Systems , ■ Given the resources and technologies available, select methods that help you do ■ ■ research efficiently: signing out hard-copy library holdings or using interlibrary loan; photocopying book sections and J journal articles; printing, saving, downloading, bookmarking, or e-mailing digital materials. A Develop a note-taking system. Choose from the note-card, double-entry M notebook, copy-and-annotate, and research-log methods (pages 432–435). In addition, set up a working bibliography (pages 430–431). I Choose and review a documentation system. It’s likely that your instructor will designate a system such as MLA E (pages 491–528) or APA (pages 529–558). If he or she doesn’t do so, then use a method that suits the subject matter and discipline. Review the system’s basic rules 5 and strategies. 5 6 obviously varies from one assignment The time frame for completing a research project to the next. What you have to work with is the7time frame between getting the assignment and turning in the project at the deadline, whether that time frame is two weeks or two B months, along with any intermediate deadlines set by your instructor for specific phases U of the project (e.g., topic selection, project proposal, working bibliography, first draft). Establishing a Schedule Generally, however, you should spend about half your time on research and half on writing. To stay on track, sketch out a preliminary schedule with tentative deadlines for completing each phase of your work. Web Link: A schedule template is available at . Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 420 Research and Writing ■ Writing a Research Proposal Audio Video For some research projects, you may need to submit a proposal early in the process. The proposal seeks to explain what you plan to research, why, and how. Such a proposal thus Web Link to show Exercise that Model Interactive is valid (makes good scholarly sense), to argue that the aims the research research is valuable (will lead to significant knowledge), to communicate your enthusiasm for the project, and to demonstrate that your plan is workable within the constraints of the assignment—all in order to gain your instructor’s feedback and approval. Note the parts C modeled in the sample proposal. H Understand the parts of a research proposal. R I 1. Introduction: In a brief paragraph, state your research idea, explaining why the S Provide any background information topic is important and worth researching. that the instructor may need. T 2. Description: Discuss your proposed research topic by identifying the central I issue or concern about the topic, indicating the main question that you want A to answer through research, listing secondary questions that relate to the main question, stating a working thesis or hypothesis in response to the main question, N and explaining the research outcomes that you expect from the study. , 3. Plan (methods and procedures): Explain how you plan to answer your questions, how you plan to research your topic. Include an explanation of your primary research (the “first-hand” investigation), a description of research tools J you plan to use (e.g., catalogs, reference works, lab equipment, survey software), A and a working bibliography indicating your initial survey of resources. Mthe assignment and deadlines that 4. Schedule: List deadlines that are part of you’ve set for yourself. I 5. Approval Request: Ask for feedback and E approval from your instructor. Sample Research Proposal 5 The research proposal below offers a student’s plan for analyzing Jane Austen’s Pride and 5 Prejudice, both novel and film adaptation. 6 7 Film Studies 201 B Proposal: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice as Fiction and Film GwendolynU Mackenzie Nearly 200 years after her death, Jane Austen’s novels still captivate readers, filmmakers, and filmgoers—including me. For my research paper, I will explore one aspect of this phenomenon within Pride and Prejudice and the 2005 film adaptation directed by Joe Wright. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 421 Description: Specifically, I want to see how the novel and film explore gender prejudice. My main research question is, What sense do these texts make of prejudice as it relates to relationships between men and women? My working thesis is that the 2005 film portrayal of gender inequality in Pride and Prejudice highlights and intensifies the issue of gender inequality introduced in the novel. This study of gender prejudice will allow me (1) to appreciate the treatment of this theme C in fiction and in film, (2) to understand film adaptations more fully, and (3) to explain in a small way the Jane Austen phenomenon. As part of the project, I will write a 6-8 page paper. H Plan: My primary research will involve rereading the novel and reviewing the 2005 film R adaptation. In terms of secondary research, I have done an initial search of our library’s catalog I my working bibliography: and of EBSCOhost for books and articles. This is S Primary Sources Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice: An Authoritative Text, Background and Sources, Criticism. Ed. T Donald J. Gray. New York: Norton, 2001. Print. I Pictures, 2005. Film. Wright, Joe. Pride and Prejudice. [U.K.]: Universal A Secondary Sources Cartmell, Deborah, and Imelda Whelehan. Adaptations: From Text to Screen, Screen to Text. N London; New York: Routledge, 2004. Print. Crusie, Jennifer. Flirting with Pride and Prejudice: , Fresh Perspectives on the Original Chick-Lit Masterpiece. Dallas: BenBella, 2005. Print. Grandi, Roberta. “The Passion Translated: Literary and Cinematic Rhetoric in Pride and Prejudice (2005).” Literature Film QuarterlyJ36.1 (2008): 45-51. Print. McFarlane, Brian. “Something Old, Something New: ‘Pride and Prejudice’ on Screen.” Screen A Education (2005): 6-14. Print. Stovel, Nora Foster. “From Page to Screen: Dancing M to the Altar in Recent Film Adaptations of Jane Austen’s Novels.” Persuasions: The Jane Austen Journal (2006): 185-198. EBSCOhost. I Web. 6 Nov. 2010. Sutherland, Kathryn. Jane Austen’s Textual Lives: EFrom Aeschylus to Bollywood. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print. Todd, Janet M. The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge UP, 2006. NetLibrary. Web. 6 Nov. 2010. 5 Schedule: Here is my schedule for completing this 5 project: 1. Finish rereading the novel and reviewing the film: November 14. 6 20. 2. Complete secondary research: November 3. Develop outline for paper: November 23. 7 4. Finish first draft of paper: November 30. B 4. 5. Revise, edit, and proofread paper: December 6. Submit paper: December 6. U Approval Request: Dr. Rajan, I would appreciate your feedback on my proposed project, as well as your approval of my plan. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 422 Research and Writing ■ Exploring Information Resources and Sites To conduct thorough, creative, but efficient research, you need a sense of which types of resources are available for your project and where to find them. Check the tables that follow. Consider different information resources. Examine the range of resources available: Which will give you the best information for your project? While one project (for example, a sociological report on airport behaviors) might C require personal, direct sources, another project (for example, the effects of the September H 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the air transportation industry) might depend on government reports, business publications, and journal R articles. Generally, a well-rounded research paper relies on a range of quality resources; inI particular, it avoids relying on insubstantial web information. Type of Resource Personal, direct resources Reference works (print and electronic) S Examples T I Memories, diaries, journals, logs, experiments, tests, A observations, interviews, surveys N Dictionaries, thesauruses, encyclopedias, almanacs, , directories, guides, handbooks, yearbooks, atlases, indexes, abstracts, catalogs, bibliographies J Books (print and electronic) Nonfiction, how-to, biographies, fiction, trade books, A scholarly and scientific studies Periodicals and news sources Print newspapers, magazines, and journals; I and news magazines; online magazines, broadcast news news sources, E and discussion groups Audiovisual, digital, and multimedia resources Graphics (tables, graphs, charts, maps, drawings, photos), 5 videos, DVDs, webpages, online audiotapes, CDs, databases 5 Government publications 6 forms, legislation, regulations, Guides, programs, reports, records, 7 statistics Business and nonprofit publications M B reports, newsletters, pamphlets, Correspondence, brochures, ads,Ucatalogs, instructions, handbooks, manuals, policies and procedures, seminar and training materials Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 423 Consider different information sites. Where do you go to find the resources that you need? Consider the information “sites” listed below, remembering that many resources may be available in different forms in different locations. For example, a journal article may be available in library holdings or in an electronic database. Information Location Specific “Sites” People Experts (knowledge area, skill, occupation) H Population segments or individuals (with representative R or unusual experiences) Libraries C I college, online General: public, S medical, government, business Specialized: legal, Computer resources T Computers: software, disks I and other online services Networks: Internet (e-mail, limited-access databases, discussion A groups, MUDs, chat rooms, websites, blogs, YouTube, N intranets image banks, wikis); Mass media Radio (AM and FM) Television (network, public, cable, satellite) J magazines, journals) Print (newspapers, Testing, training, meeting, and observation sites Municipal, state, and federal government offices Business and nonprofit publications , A field sites, laboratories Plants, facilities, M universities, think tanks Research centers, Conventions, conferences, seminars I Museums, galleries, historical sites E Elected officials, representatives Offices and agencies, Government Printing Office 5 www.gpoaccess.gov) Websites (GPO, 5 Computer databases, company files 6 materials Desktop reference Bulletin boards 7 (physical and electronic) Company andB department websites Departments and offices U Associations, professional organizations Consulting, training, and business information services Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 424 Research and Writing ■ Conducting Effective Keyword Searches Video Web Link Keyword searching can help you find information in electronic library catalogs, online databases that index periodical articles (for example, Lexis-Nexis, EBSCOhost), print indexes Model Interactive toExercise periodical publications (for example, Business Periodicals Index), Internet resources, print books, and e-books. Choose keywords carefully. C Keywords give you “compass points” for navigating through a sea of information. That’s why H choosing the best keywords is crucial. Consider these tips: R 1. Brainstorm a list of possible keywords—topics, titles, and names—based on I your current knowledge and/or background reading. S headings. These books contain the 2. Consult the Library of Congress subject keywords librarians use when classifying T materials. For example, if you looked up immigrants, you would find the entryIbelow, indicating keywords to use, along with narrower, related, and broader terms. When you are conducting subject searches of A that will get you the best results. catalogs and databases, these are the terms N Library of Congress , Excerpt Topic Tips “Used for” “Broader term” “Related term” “Narrower term” Subtopic Recommended keywords Immigrants (May   Subd   Geog) J Here are entered works on foreign-born persons who enter a country intending to become permanent residents or A citizens. This heading may be locally subdivided by names of places whereM immigrants settle. For works discussing emigrants from a particular place, an additional heading is I assigned to designate the nationality of origin of the emigrant group and the place E to which they have immigrated, e.g., Chinese—United States: American—Foreign countries. UF Emigrants Foreign-born population 5 Foreign population BT Persons 5 RT Aliens 6 of immigrants NT Children Social work with immigrants 7 Teenage immigrants Women Bimmigrants — Employment USE AlienU labor — Housing   (May   Subd   Geog) — — Great Britain — Legal status, laws, etc. USE Emigration and immigration law Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 425 Use keyword strategies. The goal of a keyword search is to find quality research sources. To ensure that you identify the best resources available, follow these strategies: Get to know the database. Look for answers to these questions: ■ What material does the database contain? What time frames? ■ What are you searching—authors, titles, subjects, full text? ■ What are the search rules? How can you narrow the search? C Use a shotgun approach. Start with the most likely keyword. If you have no “hits,” choose H a related term. Once you get some hits, check the citations for clues regarding which words R to use as you continue searching. Use Boolean operators to refine your search.I When you combine keywords with Boolean operators—such as those below—you will obtain S better results. Boolean Operators Narrowing a Search And, +, not, - Use when one term gives you too many hits, especially irrelevant ones Expanding a Search Or Combine a term providing few hits with a related word Specifying a Phrase Quotation marks Indicate that you wish to search for the exact phrase enclosed Sequencing Operations Parentheses Indicate that the operation should be performed before other operations in the search string Finding Variations Wild card symbols T I buffalo and A bison or buffalo + bison N buffalo not water , +buffalo –water buffalo orJbison A M I “reclamation project” E Audio Video Searches for citations containing both keywords Searches for “buffalo” but not “water,” so that you eliminate material on water buffalo Searches for citations containing either term Searches for the exact phrase “reclamation project” 5 5bison) (buffalo or and ranching 6 7 B U Searches first for citations containing either “buffalo” or “bison” before checking the resulting citations for “ranching” ethic# ethic$ Searches for terms like ethics and ethical Depending on the database, symbols such as $, ?, or # can find variations of a word Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Web Link 426 Research and Writing ■ Engaging and Evaluating Sources Audio Video Using reliable benchmarks, you should test all sources before you rely on them in your writing. After all, credible sources help your own credibility; sources that aren’t credible Model Web Link it. Exercise Interactive destroy The benchmarks on the next four pages will help you test your sources’ usefulness and reliability. Engage your sources. C Engaged reading is the opposite of passive reading—treating all sources equally, swallowing H whole what’s in the material, or looking only for information that supports your opinion. R Full engagement involves these practices: I Test each source to see if it’s worth reading. When reviewing source citations and S generating a working bibliography, study titles, descriptions, lengths, and publication T dates, asking these questions: ■ How closely related to my topic is this source? I ■ Is this source too basic, overly complex, or just right? A balance of sources? ■ What could this source add to my overall If you were writing about the InternationalN Space Station, for example, you might find a ten-page article in Scientific American more valuable and insightful than a brief news , article on a specific event onboard or a Star Trek fan’s blog on the topic. J it disagrees with your perspective. Good INSIGHT: Don’t reject a source simply because research engages rather than ignores opposingA points of view. M Skim sources before reading in-depth. Consider marking key pages or passages with sticky notes, tabs, or a digital bookmark. I ■ Review the author biography, preface, and/or introduction to discover the E perspective, approach, scope, and research methods. ■ Using your keywords, review any outline, abstract, table of contents, index, or home page to get a sense of coverage.5 Read with an open but not an empty mind. 5 Carry on a dialogue with the source, asking questions like “Why?” and “So what?” 6 ■ Note the purpose and audience. Was the piece written to inform or persuade? Is 7 it aimed at the public, specialists, supporters, or opponents? ■ Read to understand the source: What’s clear and what’s confusing? B ■ Relate the source to your research question: How does the source affirm or challenge your ideas? Synthesize whatUyou read with what you know. ■ Record your reactions to it—what it makes you think, feel, believe. ■ Consider how you might use this source in your writing—key facts, important ideas, opposing perspectives, or examples. ■ Check footnotes, references, appendices, and links for further leads. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 427 Rate source reliability and depth. You should judge each source on its own merit. Generally, however, types of sources can be rated for depth and reliability, as shown in the table below, based on their authorship, length, topic treatment, documentation, publication method, review process, distance from primary sources, allegiances, stability, and so on. Use the table to 1. Target sources that fit your project’s goals, 2. Assess the approximate quality of the sources you’re gathering, and C will respect. 3. Build a strong bibliography that readers H Deep, Reliable, Credible Sources Scholarly Books and Articles: R largely based on careful research; written by experts for experts; address topics in depth; involve peer review and careful I of topic editing; offer stable discussion Trade Books and Journal Articles: largely based on careful research; written S by experts for educated general audience. Sample periodicals: The Atlantic, T Scientific American, Nature, Orion Government Resources: I books, reports, webpages, guides, statistics developed by experts at government agencies; provided as service to citizens; A relatively objective. Sample source: Statistical Abstract of the United States N Reviewed Official Online Documents: Internet resources posted by legitimate , institutions—colleges and universities, research institutes, service organizations; although offering a particular perspective, sources tend to be balanced Reference Works and Textbooks: provide general and specialized J information; carefully researched, reviewed, and edited; lack depth for A encyclopedia entry) focused research (e.g., general News and Topical StoriesM from Quality Sources: provide current affairs coverage (print and online), introduction-level articles of interest to general public; may lack depth andIlength. Sample sources: the Washington Post, the New York Times; Time, Psychology E Today; NPR’s All Things Considered Popular Magazine Stories: short, introductory articles often distant from primary sources and without documentation; heavy advertising. Sample 5 Reader’s Digest sources: Glamour, Seventeen, 5 Business and Nonprofit Publications: pamphlets, reports, news releases, brochures, manuals; range from informative to sales-focused 6 List Server Discussions, Usenet Postings, Blog Articles, Talk Radio Discussions: highly open,7fluid, undocumented, untested exchanges and publications; unstable resource B Shallow, Unreliable, Not Credible Sources Unregulated Web Material: U personal sites, joke sites, chat rooms, specialinterest sites, advertising and junk e-mail (spam); no review process, little accountability, biased presentation Tabloid Articles (print and web): contain exaggerated and untrue stories written to titillate and exploit. Sample source: the National Enquirer Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 428 Research and Writing Evaluate print and online sources. Video Web Link As you work with a source, you need to test its reliability. The benchmarks that follow apply to both print and online sources; note, however, the additional tests offered for web sources. Model Exercise Interactive material on the web, see pages 468–471. For more on evaluating Credible author An expert is an authority—someone who has mastered a subject area. Is the author an expert on this topic? What are her or his credentials, and can you confirm them? For example, an automotive C engineer could be an expert on hydrogen fuel-cell technology, whereas a celebrity in a commercial would not. H Web test: Is an author indicated? If so, are the author’s credentials noted and contact R address)? information offered (for example, an e-mail I Reliable publication Has the source been published by a scholarly press, a peerS reviewed professional journal, a quality trade-book publisher, or a trusted news source? Did you find this resource through a reliable T search tool (for example, a library catalog or database)? I Web test: Which individual or group posted this page? Is the site rated by a subject A stable is the site—has it been around for a directory or library organization? How while and does material remain available, N or is the site “fly-by-night”? Check the site’s home page, and read “About Us” , pages and mission statements, looking for evidence of the organization’s perspective, history, and trustworthiness. Unbiased discussion While all sources come from a specific perspective and represent J specific commitments, a biased source may be pushing an agenda in an unfair, unbalanced, incomplete manner. WatchAfor bias toward a certain region, country, political party, industry, gender, race, ethnic M group, or religion. Be alert to connections among authors, financial backers, and the points of view shared. For example, if an I author has functioned as a consultant to or a lobbyist for a particular industry or group (oil, animal rights), his or her allegiances E may lead to a biased presentation of an issue. Web test: Is the online document one-sided? Is the site nonprofit (.org), government (.gov), commercial (.com), educational5(.edu), business (.biz), informational (.info), network-related (.net), or military (.mil)? Is the site U.S. or international? Is this 5 service, or belief? How do advertising or organization pushing a cause, product, 6 suspect, for example, the scientific claims special interests affect the site? You might of a site sponsored by a pro-smoking organization. 7 B Web Link: Beware especially of masquerade U sites—those that appear to be legitimate but are joke sites or, worse, propaganda lures. Check, for example, www.dhmo.org. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 429 Current information A five-year-old book on computers may be outdated, but a fortyyear-old book on Abraham Lincoln could still be the best source. Given what you need, is this source’s discussion up-to-date? Web test: When was the material originally posted and last updated? Are links live or dead? Accurate information Bad research design, poor reporting, and sloppy documentation can lead to inaccurate information. Check the source for factual errors, statistical flaws, C and conclusions that don’t add up. H-poor—filled with helpful, factual materials Web test: Is the site information-rich or or fluffy with thin, unsubstantiated opinions? Can you trace and confirm sources by R following links or conducting your own search? I Full, logical support Is the discussion of S the topic reasonable, balanced, and complete? Are claims backed up with quality evidence? Does the source avoid faulty assumptions, T twisted statistical analysis, logical fallacies, and unfair persuasion tactics? (See pages I 257–260, for help.) Web test: Does the webpage offer A well-supported claims and helpful links to additional information? N Quality writing and design Is the source, well written? Is it free of sarcasm, derogatory terms, clichés, catch phrases, mindless slogans, grammar slips, and spelling errors? Generally, poor writing correlates with sloppy thinking. J Web test: Are words neutral (“conservative perspective”) or emotionally charged A (“fascist agenda”)? Are pages well designed—with clear rather than flashy, distracting multimedia elements? Is the site easy to Mnavigate? Positive relationship with other sourcesI Does the source disagree with other sources? If yes, is the disagreement about the facts themselves or about how to interpret the facts? E Which source seems more credible? Web test: Is the site’s information logically consistent with print sources? Do other reputable sites offer links to this site? 5 5 6 example, ask yourself what tables, graphs, and photos really “say”: ■ Is the graphic informative or merely decorative? 7 ■ Does the graphic create a valid or manipulative central idea? For example, does the B image seek to bypass logic by appealing to sexual impulses or to crude stereotypes? U in terms of information? ■ What does the graphic include and exclude INSIGHT: Engage and evaluate visual resources as thoroughly as verbal materials. For ■ ■ Is the graphic well designed and easy to understand, or is it cluttered and distorted? Is a reliable source provided? For more instruction on critical viewing, see pages 12–13. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 430 Research and Writing ■ Creating a Working Bibliography A working bibliography lists sources you have used and intend to use. It helps you track your research, develop your final bibliography, and avoid plagiarism. Here’s what to do: Choose an orderly method. Select an efficient approach for your project: ■ Paper note cards: Use 3✕5 inch cards, and C record one source per card. ■ Paper notebook: Use a small, spiral-bound book to record sources. H ■ Computer program: Record source information electronically, either by capturing citation details from online searches orR by recording bibliographic information I software such as TakeNote, EndNote using word-processing software or research Plus, or Bookends Pro. S T Sources Including Identifying Information for I or letter: Doing so will help you when Start by giving each source a code number drafting and documenting your paper. Then A include specific details for each kind of source listed below, shown on the facing page. N A. Books: author, title and subtitle, publication details (place, publisher, date) , B. Periodicals: author, article title, journal name, publication information (volume, number, date), page numbers C. Online sources: author (if available), J document title, site sponsor, database name, publication or posting date, access date, other publication A information, URL M D. Primary or field research: date conducted, name and/or descriptive title of person interviewed, place observed, survey conducted, document analyzed I E INSIGHT: Consider recording bibliographic details in the format of the documentation system you are using—MLA (pages 491–528) or APA (pages 529–558), for example. Doing so now will save time later. In addition, some 5 research software allows you to record bibliographic information and then format it according to a specific system. 5 6 Adding Locating Information 7 Because you may need to retrace your research footsteps, include details about your B research path: U or Dewey call number. A. Books: Include the Library of Congress B. Articles: Note where and how you accessed them (stacks, current periodicals, microfilm, database). C. Webpages: Record the complete URL, not just the broader site address. D. Field research: Include a telephone number or an e-mail address. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 431 Annotating the Source Add a note about the source’s content, focus, reliability, and usefulness. Sample Working Bibliography Entries A. Book Source Note: B. Periodical Source Note C. Internet Source Note: D. Interview Source Note:  Howells, Coral Ann. Alice Munro. Contemporary World Writers. Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, 1998. #2 C PS 8576.U57H Z7 1998 Book provides R good introduction to Alice Munro’s fiction, chapters arranged by Munro’s works; contains intro, conclusion, and bibliography; I 1998 date means author doesn’t cover Munro’s recent fiction S T  #5 Valdes, Marcela. “Some Stories Have to Be Told by I Me: A Literary History of Alice Munro.” Virginia Quarterly Review 82.3 (Summer A2006): 82-90. EBSCOhost Academic Search Premier http://web.ebscohost.com N Article offers good introduction to Munro’s life, her roots in Ontario, her writing,career, and the key features of her stories J A M I http://www.athabascau.ca/writers/munro.html site offers good introduction to Munro’s writing, along with E links to bibliography and other resources  “Alice Munro.” Athabasca University Centre for Language and Literature: Canadian Writers. Updated 31 January 2011. Accessed 17 April 2011. #3 5  #4 5 Thacker, Robert. E-Mail interview. 7 March 2011. 6 rthacker@mdu.edu 7 on Munro, Alice Munro: author of critical biography Writing Her Lives, offered really helpful insights into her creative B for story “Carried Away” process, especially useful U Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 432 Research and Writing ■ Developing a Note-Taking System Accurate, thoughtful notes create a foundation for your research writing. The trick is to practice some sensible strategies and choose an efficient method. Audio Video Web Link Exercise Model Interactive Develop note-taking strategies. What are you trying to do when you take notes on sources? What you are not doing is (a) collecting quotations to plunk in your project,C(b) piling isolated grains of data into a large stack of disconnected facts, or (c) intensively reading and taking notes on every source you H find. Instead, use these strategies: R Be selective. Guided by your research questions and working thesis, focus on sources I that are central to your project. From these sources, record information clearly related to your limited topic, but also take notes onS what surprises or puzzles you. Be selective, avoiding notes that are either too meager orTtoo extensive. Suppose, for example, that you were writing a paper on the engineering I problems facing the International Space Station. If you were reading an article on the history and the future of this facility, you A the station’s technical details, but not on might take careful notes on material describing astronauts’ biographies. N Develop accurate, complete records. Your , notes should . . . ■ Accurately summarize, paraphrase, and quote sources (pages 436–438). ■ Clearly show where you got your information. ■ Cover all the research you’ve done—primary J research (e.g., interviews, observations), books and periodical articles, and online sources. A Engage your sources. Evaluate what you are Mreading and develop your own responses. (See pages 4–11.) For example, with an article about the International Space Station, I and logic; and you might respond with you might test the author’s biases, credentials, knowledge you have gained about other space E endeavors. Take good notes on graphics in sources—tables, line graphs, photo­graphs, maps, and so 5 on. Such graphics are typically packed with information and powerfully convey ideas. (See 5 “Critical Thinking Through Viewing,” pages 12–17.) 6 INSIGHT: Different disciplines use different note-taking practices. In your major, learn these practices through courses that introduce you to 7 the subject matter. Here are two examples: ■ In literature studies, students conduct literary analyses by annotating print texts. B Students may also take notes through keyword searches of e-books (for example, a Ucriticism. Shakespeare play) and reviews of literary ■ In environmental studies, students conduct research by (a) taking notes on published research to develop literature reviews, and (b) using a standard field notebook to collect data, make drawings, and reflect on results. Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Chapter 27 Getting Started: From Planning Research to Evaluating Sources 433 Note-Taking Systems A good note-taking system should help you do the following: ■ Avoid unintentional plagiarism by developing accurate records, distinguishing among sources, and separating source material from your own ideas. ■ Work efficiently at gathering what you need for the project. ■ Work flexibly with a wide range of resources—primary and secondary, print and electronic, verbal and visual. ■ Engage sources through creative and critical reflection. C ■ Record summaries, paraphrases, and quotations correctly. H not reread sources. ■ Be accurate and complete so that you need ■ Efficiently develop your paper’s outline and first draft. R Four note-taking systems are outlined on the I pages that follow. Choose the system that works best for your project, or combine elements to develop your own. S System 1: Paper or electronic note cards. Using T paper note cards is the traditional method of note taking; however, note-taking software is now available with most word-processing programs and special programs like TakeNote,IEndNote Plus, and Bookends Pro. Here’s how a note-card system works: A N 2. On a second set of cards (4 × 6 inches, if, paper), take notes on sources: 1. Establish one set of cards (3 × 5 inches, if paper) for your bibliography. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Record one point from one source per card. Clarify the source: List the author’s J last name, a shortened title, or a code from the matching bibliography card. Include a page number. A Provide a topic or heading: Called a slug, the topic helps you categorize and M order information. Label the note as a summary, paraphrase, or quotation of the original. I Distinguish between the source’s information and your own thoughts. E Slug Quotation Page Number Comments Source  1 PROBLEMS WITH INTERNAL-COMBUSTION CARS 5 5 6 fact about the extent of pollution caused by the -helpful traditional i-c engine 7 -how does this number compare with what a hybrid produces? B #7 U “In one year, the average gas-powered car produces five tons of carbon dioxide, which as it slowly builds up in th...
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