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khlhasrv567

Humanities

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To access the discussion board, click the Assessments link at the top of the course website and select Discussions from the drop-down menu. Once there, you will see a separate discussion folder for each lecture. For each, either your may write your own comment about something you found interesting about the lecture or you may respond to a comment written by one of your peers. Either way, I expect the posting to be at least 150 words (i.e., at least about the size of this paragraph). Specifically, after reading your posts, readers should be able to understand your position and why you feel the way you do. For each lecture, you must post at least once to earn your credit for the given lecture; however, you are welcomed and encouraged to post as frequently as you wish. See the Tentative Schedule below for due dates.

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Chapter 1 Introduction and Historical Overview Memory Metaphors The central issue concerning memory research is defining the construct. Structuralist View ◼ Proceduralist View ◼ Functionalist View ◼ No single view of memory explains all phenomena of interest. Memory Methodology The problem with studying memory is that everyone has experience with memory. ◼ ◼ Definition of Memory Reliance on Experimentation ▪ Ecological Validity ▪ Generalizability History of Memory Research Antiquity and the Middle Ages Plato (427-347 B.C.E.) ◼ Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) ◼ Augustine (354-430 C.E.) ◼ Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) ◼ Beginning of Modern Psychology Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540) 1. The picture in memory is erased or destroyed 2. The picture of memory is smeared or broken up 3. The picture of memory escapes our search Francis Bacon (1561-1626) 1. 2. 3. 4. Idols of the Tribe Idols of the Den Idols of the Marketplace Idols of the Theatre British Empiricism and Continental Nativism ▪ Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) ▪ Rene Descartes (1596-1650) ▪ John Locke (1932-1704) ▪ Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) British Empiricism and Continental Nativism ▪ Debiran (1766-1824) ▪ James Mill (1773-1836) ▪ John Stewart Mill (1806-1873) ▪ Alexander Bain (1818-1903) ▪ Henri Bergson (1859-1941) Scientific Psychology Gustav Fechner (1801–1887) Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) ◼ First Scientific Memory Researcher ◼ Direct Associations ◼ Remote Associations ◼ Method of Savings ◼ Discovery of the Forgetting Function Research After Ebbinghaus ▪ Before the cognitive revolution, two major approaches dominated research: ▪ Behaviorism ▪ Gestalt Psychology ▪ Current Thoughts in Cognitive Psychology Research Methods Research Methods In I/O Psychology Overview ▪ Overview of Research ▪ Empirical Research Process ▪ Ethical Problems in Research ▪ Research in Industry Overview of Research ▪Generalizability of Research Findings ▪Three Goals of Science: ◼ Describe ◼ Predict ◼ Explain Empirical Research Process Step 1: Statement of the Problem Step 2: Research Methods Step 3: Data Analysis Step 4: Conclusions from Research Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Research is cyclical Step 4 Steps 1 and 2 Step 1: Statement of the Problem ▪ Theory Step 2: Design of the Research Study Naturalness ▪ Control ▪ Internal Validity ▪ External Validity ▪ Step 2 Continued ▪ Primary Research Methods ▪ Experimental Method Population of Interest CAUSE: EFFECT: Level 1: Level 1 Experimental of the IV Group Scores on the DV Level Level 2: 2 Control of theGroup IV Scores on the DV Level 1 Independent of the IV Variable (IV) Random Sample from the Population Random Assignment to a Level of the IV ▪ Scores Dependent on the DV Variable (DV) Quasi-experimental Method Do different levels of the IV produce different DV scores? If so, the IV caused the effect on the DV. Step 2 Continued ▪ Primary ▪ Research Methods Continued Correlational Method VARIABLE 1: Job Satisfaction Are they related? VARIABLE 2: Job Performance Scores on a Measure of Job Satisfaction Are the scores statistically correlated? Scores on a Measure of Job Performance Step 2 Continued ▪ Secondary ▪ Meta-analysis ▪ ▪ Research Methods Statistical Study of Studies Qualitative Research ▪ Ethnography Step 3: Data Analysis Distribution Shape and Central Tendency Mean Median Mean = Median = Mode Mode Median Mean Mode Mode Mode Median Mean Step 3: Data Analysis Measures of Variability ▪ Range ▪ Standard Deviation Step 3: Data Analysis Correlation Step 4: Conclusions from Research ▪ Value of a Single Study ▪ Generalizability ▪ Research as a Cumulative Process Ethical Problems in Research ▪ Physical Treatment of Subjects ▪ Confidentiality of Information ▪ Voluntary Consent ▪ APA Code of Ethics Research in Industry ▪ Organizational Problems ▪ “Sell” the Findings ▪ Actionable Knowledge Chapter 2 Sensory Memory Iconic Memory A single, pre-categorical, high-capacity, fast-decaying memory that holds incoming visual stimuli for further processing Two important studies led to postulating an iconic memory store: Study 1: Jevons (1871) Study 2: Averbach (1963) Iconic Memory Sperling (1960 and 1967) contributed breakthrough research on iconic memory. ◼ Sperling’s Method ◼ Partial Report Technique ◼ Sperling’s Modified Method Confirming Iconic Memory Sperling’s studies appeared to confirm a pre-categorical visual information store. ◼ ◼ ◼ Information Persistence Stimulus Persistence Iconic Memory or Afterimage? Problems with Iconic Memory There are four main problems with Sperling’s original interpretations of iconic memory: 1. Iconic memory has been found to be categorical 2. Output interference may explain Sperling’s findings 3. Items do not fade at an equal rate 4. Information persistence and stimulus persistence may be different phenomena Echoic Memory The auditory equivalent of iconic memory Auditory information persists in the form of an echo that can be attended to after the stimulus no longer is present. Information Persistence and Echoic Memory ◼ Stimulus Persistence and Echoic Memory ◼ Theories of Echoic Memory Precategorical Acoustic Store (PAS) can be viewed as a theory of echoic memory ◼ The Modality Effect ◼ Usefulness of Information in the PAS ◼ The Suffix Effect Theories of Echoic Memory PAS suggests that the suffix interferes with information in echoic memory. ◼ Interference is predicted to be solely based on acoustic similarity ◼ Morton, Crowder, and Prussin (1971) confirm PAS predictions concerning the suffix effect ◼ The theory, however, has been criticized Theories of Echoic Memory There are 3 problems with the PAS theory concerning the modality and suffix effect: 1. Context dependant suffix effect – Potency of a suffix depends on the context in which it is perceived 2. Modality and suffix effects occur for non-acoustic stimuli 3. Modality and suffix effects have occurred when information should not be available in PAS Theories of Echoic Memory Three other theories have been offered to explain modality and suffix effects: 1.The changing State Hypothesis 2.The Primary linguistic Code Hypothesis 3.The Multi-component View Odor Memory Studies of odor memory have lagged behind visual and auditory memory. ◼ The major question is whether odor memory is a separate sensory memory ◼ Suffix effects and olfactory stimuli ◼ Evidence for proactive interference, and not retroactive interference, has been found ◼ More research must be conducted to determine if odor memory is a separate memory system Chapter 3 The Modal Model The Modal Model Exner conceptualized primary and secondary memory stores, the two-store view that a group of theories known as the Modal Model. Primary Memory, Short-term Memory (STM) – A brief and limited information store Secondary Memory, Long-term Memory (LTM) – A permanent information store with an unknown, and obviously variable, capacity Primary Memory According to Sperling (1960), to retain information in iconic memory, it needs to be recoded. Is recoded information acoustic? Conrad (1964) and Baddeley (1966) confirmed that the main code in primary memory is acoustic. Murray (1967) confirmed that primary memory uses inner speech. Capacity of Primary Memory The main focus of memory research on primary memory concerns its capacity Miller (1956) arrived at the conclusion that the limit of primary memory is 7 + or – 2. Simon (1974) found that the number of chunks that can be recalled is variable. Brown-Peterson Paradigm A procedure to determine the rate of decay of information in primary memory (STM) Evidence for rapid decay of information in STM when rehearsal is prevented Later evidence suggests that performance decreases was primarily due to interference rather than rapid decay of STM Broadbent’s Model A human processor is a series of systems through which information flows ◼ S system ◼ P system ◼ S and P combine into primary memory ◼ Rehearsal and long-term storage ◼ Three assumptions of the model hold Waugh and Norman Model Waugh and Norman (1965) divided memory into primary and secondary components ◼ Rehearsal is required to maintain information in primary memory ◼ Rehearsal is necessary for transferring information from primary to secondary memory ◼ Newly entering information displaces current information in primary memory Atkinson and Shriffrin’s Dual-store Model Atkinson and Shriffrin (1968) differentiated the structural and processing components of memory. The model posits the following: ◼ Three structural components ◼ Various control processes, which manipulate the flow of information between the three memory structures Atkinson and Shriffrin’s Dual-store Model  Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) assumed that as soon as the information reached the STS it began to transfer to the LTS.  Hebb (1961) found an improvement of recall performance due to repetition and without subject awareness  Properties of the transfer process to the LTS Atkinson and Shriffrin’s Dual-store Model There are two main STS control processes: Retrieval from STS Rehearsal to maintain information in STS Serial Position Curve and the Modal Model The Serial Position Function results from primacy and recency effects of recall (free recall also leads to serial position curves). According to the modal model, Primacy effect is due to the extra rehearsal the first few items receive, which leads to transfer to LTS. Recency effect is due to the STS dumping information. Problems with The Modal Model Interpretation of the primacy effect being due to LTS and the recency effect being due to STS was considered problematic ◼ The so-called long-term recency effect presents a major problem for the Modal Model ◼ Possibly, the ratio rule, and not the Modal Model, explains experimental findings Problems with The Modal Model Changing the distractor task between item presentations may eliminate the long-term recency effect ◼ Koppennnal and Glanzer’s (1990) – Findings led to three predictions ◼ Neath (1993) – Discredited the predictions ◼ Tan and Ward (2000) – Primacy and recency effects may be due to the same process Modal Model Summary The ratio rule seems to better explain the serial position curve than does the modal model. Sensory memory seems to be post-categorical. Is it possible to test STS and LTS separately? Chapter 4 Working Memory Baddeley’s Working Memory Central Executive Visual Scribe Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad Episodic Buffer Phonological Loop Phonological Store Visual Semantics  Episodic LTM  Language Articulatory Control Process Baddeley’s Working Memory The phonological loop has two main components: ◼ Phonological store ◼ Articulatory control processes The theory assumes that the amount of verbal information that can be retained is a trade-off between rate of decay and covert rehearsal rate. Phonological Loop Phonological Similarity Phonological loop explains 4 phenomena: Articulatory Suppression Irrelevant Speech Effect Word-length Effect Phonological Loop Time-based word-length effect can be expressed as an equation: si = ri t. This has serious implications. A prediction of working memory theory is that articulatory suppression should remove the word length effect for visual and auditory items, which was confirmed. Episodic Buffer A major problem with the working memory theory is explaining how subjects who are engaging in articulatory suppression can still remember and recall items. ◼ ◼ Baddeley (2000) added the episodic buffer system to his model to account for the above problem The episodic buffer may be involved with decisions about the meaningfulness of stimuli Critique of Working Memory The longer it takes to say a word, the less likely it 1. will be recalled. 2. What are studies of working memory measuring? The theory cannot explain interference in the 3. phonological store. The theory does not give a detailed explanation of 4. how the various parts of the model interact. The theory is not clear on how order information is 5. processed and stored. Embedded-Process Model Cowan’s (1999) embedded-process model refers to working memory as cognitive processes that retain information in an unusually accessible state, suggesting that working memory is a process contained within long-term memory. Central Executive The model (on page 81) includes five components: Focus of Attention Activated Memory Long-term Sensory Store Advantages and Disadvantages of the Embedded-Process Model Advantages Long-term memory is critical for working memory. Output is considered rehearsal. Disadvantages Activation/activated memory definitions. Is forgetting caused by decay? Working Memory Capacity Why is it important to study memory span? How is memory span investigated? What are the estimates of memory span? Those with large memory capacity are able to ignore irrelevant/distracting information. Feature Model Primary assumption of the model is that items are represented as a set of features. ◼ ◼ ◼ ◼ Modality-dependent features Modality-independent features Distinction between primary and secondary memory Different presentation modalities lead to modality dependent features that differ in their ability to be discriminated. The key issue is how much they differ from inner speech or internal traces Feature Model Operation ◼ It is assumed that any given item has 20 modality dependent and 20 modality independent features, each randomly set to a value of 1 or –1. ◼ Retroactive interference and overwriting ◼ Recency effect ◼ The secondary memory item/trace with the fewest mismatching features will be recalled. Feature Model Simulations Serial Position Function: The model predicts a successive decline of accuracy of recall over serial positions due to output interference. Suffix Effect: Occurs when modality-dependent features of the final item are overwritten. Grouping Effect: Performance is enhanced for auditory information when a temporal gap is inserted in a list. Feature Model Simulations The model explains why phonologically similar items impair serial recall performance. Feature adoption is a process that explains articulatory suppression and irrelevant speech. Feature Model Simulations Predictions of the model hold when interactions among (1) phonological similarity, (2) word-length effect, and (3) articulatory suppression are tested. Table 4.7 on page 92 Silent Articulatory Suppression Dissimilar Similar Dissimilar Similar Short .608 .412 .496 .321 Long .558 .349 .507 .320 The model offers an explanation for the use of long-term memory stores with memory span. The model is based on a mathematical computer simulation, so it can be used to test numerous interactions. Critique of the Feature Model Three major problems with the feature model: 1. The model does not consider time in its equations. 2. The model cannot explain free recall or recognition. 3. The model oversimplifies the experimental process. Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
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Simple Responses to Lecture
Chapter 1
Introduction to Historical Overview
Chapter one tries to explain memory metaphor and gives several views on memory
although one phenomenon cannot explain it. The memory methodology defines memory as the
ability to use or retrieve information that was previously encoded or processed. Although
memory is a basic concept that everyone, it relies on experiments for clarity. The knowledge of
memory has gone through ages and defined differently, in my view, I might base my thought on
Aristotle’s explanation as it seems complete and explains almost every aspect of memory.
Modern majorly deals with writing to remember and further describes it as the reason for
forgetfulness. Despite the several explanations to memory according to the British emphatical
and continental nativism, a suitable explanation can explain memory and imagination as a
decaying sensation and all cognition based on sensation. At modern times, information is
considered the basic unit ...


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