Compose 2-3 page Early School Years Growth and Development

User Generated

qzptvayrl20

Humanities

Description

ECD 549 Early School Years Growth and Development Table

For this assignment you will:

  • Complete the Overview of Early School Years (K-3) Growth and Development Table
  • Compose a 2-3 page scholarly analysis addressing the physical, cognitive, social/emotional and oral language development and the interdependence across domains.
  • Connect your findings to at least three theories and/or theorists, such as Constructivism, Behaviorism, Progressivism, Piaget, Erikson, Skinner, Bandura and use at least three references to course materials.

Domain:

Overview/Explanation of the domain in relation to the age/stage of the young learner

Noteworthy milestones reached in typical development at this stage

Teaching/Learning: How can you remediate/enrich learners at this level?

Environmental Considerations: How can the learning environment best support overall growth and development?

Cultural/Contextual Factors: How can culture and context (i.e. socioeconomic status, demographics, culture) impact or influence growth and development?

Physical

Cognitive

Social/

Emotional

Oral/

Language

Exemplary

Highly

Proficient

Proficient

Approaches

Proficient

Does Not Meet Expectations

6 points

5 points

4 points

2-3 points

0-1 points

Narrative Overview

  • Exemplary analysis of K-3 development addressing the physical, cognitive, social/emotional and oral language development.
  • Skillful connections and examples of the interdependence of domains
  • Critical analysis andconnections are included linking at least three theories/theorists to the findings

(Evidence in both columns 3 and 5 present)

  • Clear overview provided of K-3 development addressing the physical, cognitive, social/emotional and oral language development.
  • General examples of the interdependence of domains are provided.
  • Connections are included linking at least three theories/theorists to the findings
  • Overview of K-3 development addressing the physical, cognitive, social/emotional and oral language development is either missing or largely incomplete.
  • Lacking examples of the interdependence of domains.
  • Connections to at least three theories or theorists are missing
  • Minimal or missing overview of the domain in relation to the age/stage of the young learner is provided;
  • Many milestones are not included in relations to development in the respective age/stage;
  • Suggestions are under-developed or missing on how to remediate and enrich atypical children at this level;
  • Lacks evidence of awareness of environmental considerations impacting teaching and learning;
  • Cultural/contextual factors are not included in the overall growth and development of the child.

(Evidence in both columns 1 and 3 present)

6 points

5 points

4 points

2-3 points

0-1 points

Growth & Development Table

  • Clearly articulated and succinctly stated overview of the domain in relation to the age/stage of the young learner;
  • Key milestones identified indicating typical development in the respective age/stage;
  • Practical and impactful suggestions are provided on how to effectively remediate and enrich atypical children at this level;
  • Exemplary awareness of environmental considerations impacting teaching and learning;
  • Cultural/contextual factors are meaningfully connected to the overall growth and development of the child.
  • An adequate overview of the domain in relation to the age/stage of the young learner is provided;
  • Most milestones identified indicating typical development in the respective age/stage;
  • General suggestions are provided on how to effectively remediate and enrich atypical children at this level;
  • Demonstrated awareness of environmental considerations impacting teaching and learning;
  • Cultural/contextual factors are included in the overall growth and development of the child.

(Evidence in both columns 3 and 5 present)

(Evidence in both columns 1 and 3 present)

3 points

2.5 points

2 points

1-1.5 point

0 points

APA/References

APA format is skillfully utilized, with no errors in the body of the text and in the References.

(Evidence in both columns 3 and 5 present)

APA format is skillfully utilized, with minimal errors in the body of the text and in the References.

(Evidence in both columns 1 and 3 present)

APA format is lacking, with several and significant errors in the body of the text and in the References.

Websites:

https://www.cdc.gov/features/adhd-awareness/index.html

https://www.helpguide.org/articles/add-adhd/attention-deficit-disorder-adhd-in-children.htm

https://www.edutopia.org/blog/sel-for-elementary-school-randy-taran

Videos:

Child Development: Ages Five to Eight~2

https://fod-infobase-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=25003

Five Year Old Developmental Stages

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kAJvGARsn0

DAP and the Common Core State Standards: Framing the Issues~4:53

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F27zP6CURTk

Unformatted Attachment Preview

ECD 549 Early School Years Growth and Development Table Domain: Physical Cognitive Social/ Emotional Oral/ Language Overview/Explanation of the domain in relation to the age/stage of the young learner Noteworthy milestones reached in typical development at this stage Teaching/Learning: How can you remediate/enrich learners at this level? Environmental Considerations: How can the learning environment best support overall growth and development? Cultural/Contextual Factors: How can culture and context (i.e. socioeconomic status, demographics, culture) impact or influence growth and development? Close early learning gaps with Rigorous DAP Author(s): Christopher P. Brown and Brian Mowry Source: The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 96, No. 7 (April 2015), pp. 53-57 Published by: Phi Delta Kappa International Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/24375851 Accessed: 07-06-2018 00:12 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms Phi Delta Kappa International is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Phi Delta Kappan This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 00:12:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Comments? Like PDK at www, facebook.com/pdkintl Close early learning gaps with Rigorous DAP —% — m v*. es « Very young children learn differently even from children in primary grades. Following a set of practices and principles can yield important gains for these children. By Christopher P. Brown and Brian Mowry " National, National, state, state, and and local policy local policy makers once makers again once have pushed again to have pushed to the theforefront forefront of education of education reformreform the issue the of boosting issue of investment boosting in investment in FIGURE 1. early earlychildhood childhood education. education. Children Children who enterwho kindergarten enter kindergarten lagging lagging The practices their theirpeers peers in cognitive in cognitive and social andmeasures social measures are less likely aretoless be suc likely to be suc cessful cessful in in grade grade school school and more andlikely more to likely drop out toofdrop high school out ofand high school and Ä ÄJ1 of Rigorous DAP earn lessless as adults. InvestingInvesting in high-quality childhood educa earn as adults. in early high-quality early childhood Reducap. all gaching all children eaching children tion tioncan can increase increase school school readiness readiness so that children so thatnot children only succeed not only succeed I ntegrating content areas in inelementary elementary school but school also in but other also life experiences in other (Duncan lifeetexperiences (Duncan et ntegrating Content areas al., Gutman, Sameroff, & Cole, 2003; Reynolds al., 2011). al.,2007; 2007; Gutman, Sameroff, & Cole,et2003; Reynolds et al.,G 2011). (Jasrowing as a community rowing a community This solution seems logical and almost benign, but it is quite con This solution seems logical and almost benign, but it isO quite con- d choices ffering choices tentious. tentious. Beyond Beyond the political the issues political over whether issuesand over how whether the gov and how the gov- ° ernment should spendspend moneymoney to educate is the children is the R ernment should topreschool educatechildren preschool R evisiting evisiting new new content content practical tension over the types of learning experiences that early practical tension over the types of learning experiences that earlyOqffering fferjng challenges challenges education educationprograms programs should should offer. offer. Young Young children children learn differently learn differently learner from fromtheir their elementary elementary school counterparts. school counterparts. They have shorter Theyathave shorter at-UUnderstanding nderstanding each learner tention spans, and they're just beginning develop the skills of an tention spans, and they're just tobeginning to develop the skills of an « ; ggjpg whole child S eeing thethe whole child intentional intentionallearner learner (Bowman, (Bowman, Donovan, Donovan, & Burns, & Burns, 2000). As 2000). such,As such, the the academic academic practices practices andand expectations expectations of elementary of elementary school can't school can't simply be be shoved downdown into preschool (Hatch, 2002). There is no simply shoved into preschool (Hatch, 2002). There is no QDifferentiating ifferentiating instruction instruction clear consensus among policy makers, educational administrators, clear consensus among policy makers, educational administrators, » ■ t t> A ssessing constantly and and elementary elementary school school personnel personnel aboutabout the practices the practices that early that eduearly edu P ushing every child forward cators cators should should employ employ in their in interactions their interactions with preschoolers with (Howes preschoolers (Howes P ushing every child forward et al., 2008). Our solution is what we call Rigorous DAP — which is both a construct and an acronym that offers 11 principles of instruction in which early educators should engage with their students daily (see Figure 1). CHRISTOPHER P. BROWN (cpbrown@utexas.edu) is an associate professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction and a fellow in the Elizabeth Glenadine Gibb Teaching Fellowship in Education at the University of Texas at Austin. BRIAN MOWRY is an early childhood specialist in the Austin (Texas) Independent School District. V96 V96N7 N7 kappanmagazine.org kappanmagazine.org 53 53 Photo: Photo: Thinkstock/iStock Thinkstock/iStock This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 00:12:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Defining Rigorous DAP Defining Rigorous DAP isms through a variety isms through of modalities a variety of modalities that piqued that piqued the the children's interests and increased their participation Rigorous Rigorous DAP DAP — — developmental^ developmentally appropriate appropriate children's interests and increased their participation int^ie the academic academic content. content. For For example, example, she practices practices — — combines combinesthe theconstructs constructsofof academic academic m she created created aa rigor rigor and and developmentally developmentallyappropriate appropriatepractice practice——a awilderness wildernesshabitat habitatthat thatincluded includedsuch suchthings thingsasascamp camp inging equipment mainstay mainstay in in how howthe theearly earlychildhood childhoodeducation education field field equipmentininthe thedramatic dramaticplay play center, center, aa tree tree built from cardboard boxes for housing families of conceptualizes best practices with young children. built from cardboard boxes for housing families of robins (each (each Academically Academically rigorous rigorouslearning learningenvironments environmentscre ere-stuffed stuffedbears, bears,raccoons, raccoons, squirrels, squirrels, and and robins introduced to the tree on separate days), and a ate the the conditions conditionsfor forchildren childrentotolearn learn at at high high levels. levels. introduced to the tree on separate days), and a bat bat to Academic rigor is the process of working with allcave cavemade madeof ofblack black polypropylene, polypropylene, which which came came to life during on to to children children in inaamanner mannerthat that addresses addresses thethe whole whole child child bfe duringchoice choicetime timeas as aa fan fan was was turned turned on through through hands-on hands-on learning learning experiences experiencesthat that"chal"chalpump PumP air air through throughit. it.On Onthe theday daythe theclass classbegan beganitsits study ofof raccoons, lenge lenge the the mind" mind"and and"connect "connectlearning learning toto real real world world study raccoons,Ms. Ms.Hughes Hughesplaced placed the the raccoon raccoon arrived. Across Across context[s] context[s]"" (Washor (Washor & & Mojkowski, Mojkowski,2006, 2006,p.p.87). 87).DAP DAPfamily familyin in the the tree tree before before students students arrived. characteristics fosters instruction that focuses on the growth and dedethat thatday, day,students studentslearned learned about about the the characteristics books about about them, them, velopment of individual children across all domainsofofraccoons raccoonsby by reading reading several several books about aa raccoon raccoonnamed namedRickey, Rickey,and and in in aa manner mannerthat thataddresses addresses "the "the social social andand cultural cultural singing singing aa song about similarities and differ contexts" in which they live (Copple & Bredekamp,having havingdiscussions discussionsabout aboutthe the similarities and differ ences between raccoons, squirrels, and robins, which 2009, 2009, p. p. 10). 10). While Whileacademic academicrigor rigorfocuses focusesonon one one ences between raccoons, squirrels, and robins, which hadalready already arrived arrived in in the the class class tree. Ms. Hughes dimension dimension of of education education — —academic—DAP academic—DAPconsid consid- bad Hughes de de signed ers the whole whole landscape landscape of of learning learning — — motivational, motivational, signedeach eachage-appropriate age-appropriateactivity activitytotogive givestudents students multiple opportunities to be drawn into the academic cultural, cultural,socioemotional socioemotional as as well well as cognitive. as cognitive. Com-Com multiple opportunities to be drawn into the academic content selected to to ex ex bined, bined, Rigorous RigorousDAP DAPcalls callsonon early early childhood childhood eduedu content of of living living things things — — content content selected pose each student to scientific facts and knowledge cators to teach the the knowledge knowledge and and skills skills they they expect expect Pose each student to scientific facts and knowledge thatextend extendtheir their thinking beyond their current level all all children childrento toeventually eventuallyattain attain and and demonstrate demonstrate on tbat on thinking beyond their current level of understanding of living things (Vygotsky, 1978). a regular basis. They They do do this this by by using using practices practices that that of understanding of living things (Vygotsky, 1978). Moreover, Ms. Hughes reflect reflect an an understanding understanding of of child childdevelopment developmentand and Moreover, Ms. Hughesrecognized recognizedthat thather herrole roleisis morethan thansimply simplyteaching teachingacademic academic content; content; it it is is to to each each student's student'sindividual individual and and sociocultural sociocultural needs. needs. more address address all all of of the thedevelopment developmentdomains domains ofof students, students, including including their theirpassion passionfor forlearning. learning. Doing Doing so so lets lets students know that she cares about each of them Young Young children children learn learndifferently differentlyfrom from their their elementary elementaryschool schoolcounterparts counterparts so academic academic expectations expectationscan't can'tjust justbebe shoved shoved down down into intopreschool. preschool. Instructional Instructional practices practices as individuals, which is essential for their learning (Palermo et ah, al., 2007). Integrating content areas The class investigation into raccoons began with students discussing what they knew about raccoons, which Ms. Hughes documented for the class on chart paper. During this literacy activity, Stephen described how a raccoon ravaged through his family campsite while they were asleep on one of their recent out As 1111 essential components of Rig As we we explain explainthe the essential components of Rigings,ings, which which Ms. Hughes Ms. Hughes used as used a jumping-off as a jumping-off point point to to introduce the the scientific term term nocturnal. This was orous orous DAP, DAP, we we use useexcerpts excerptsfrom fromMs. Ms.Hughes' Hughes' (all(all introduce scientific nocturnal. This was names classroom names are are pseudonyms) pseudonyms)prekindergarten prekindergarten classroom one one of numerous of numerous ways ways in which in which students students were able were able as she engages students in a daylong scientific in inshe engages students in a daylong scientific to engage to engage in activities in activities where where they they could could apply their apply their vestigation learning activities vestigation into intoraccoons. raccoons.These These learning activities scientific scientific knowledge, knowledge, literacy literacy skills skills (e.g.,(e.g., using using lan lan are scientific study of living are part part of oftheir theirmonthlong monthlong scientific study of living guage guage to explain to explain the difference the difference between between nocturnal nocturnal and and things, which addresses her state's prekindergarten things, which addresses her state's prekindergarten diurnal diurnal animals), animals), and mathematical and mathematical knowledge knowledge (e.g., (e.g., science standards. The standards declare that each science standards. The standards declare that each comparing comparing thethe sizesize andand weight weight of raccoons of raccoons to squir to squir 4-year-old child is to to leave leave prekindergarten prekindergarten being being rels). rels). Such Such integrated integrated learning learning experiences experiences reflect reflect Ms. Ms. able able to to identify identify and and define define the the characteristics characteristics of of or orHughes' Hughes' understanding understanding of of thethe interconnectedness interconnectedness in in ganisms and the differences between living and ganisms and the differences between living and non nonhow how children children learn learn academic academic content. content. Developing Developing herher living things. living things. students' scientific vocabulary students' scientific positively vocabularyaffects positively their affects their Reaching all children Reaching all children reading comprehension (Moats, 2009). reading comprehension (Moats, 2009). Crowing as as a community Ms. Hughes Hughes was was intentional intentional about aboutsetting settingup upageage Crowing a community appropriate activities exploring the topic of organ activities exploring the topic of organDuring During center center time, time,Ms. Ms.Hughes Hughestaught taughta asmall small 54 Kappan Kappan April April 2015 2015 This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 00:12:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms group group lesson lesson that asked thatstudents asked to students act out a typical to act out a typical day dayinin thethe life of life the of animals theliving animals in theliving class tree. inAsthe class tree. As they they diddid this,this, she asked shea range asked of aquestions range based of questions not based not only only onon their their actionsactions but also on but previous also class on previous con class con versations versations (Why(Why is Joaquin, is Joaquin, the raccoon,the asleep raccoon, while asleep while Jasmine, Jasmine, the squirrel, the squirrel, is out gathering is outnuts?). gathering By hav nuts?). By hav ing ingstudents students work work together, together, each child's contribution each child's contribution enhances enhances the group's the group's generation generation of knowledge.of De knowledge. De veloping veloping suchsuch a shared a shared understanding understanding of how differ of how differ ent entorganisms organisms coexistcoexist in their natural in their environment natural environment compensates compensates for the for tendency the tendency of 4- and 5-year-olds of 4- and 5-year-olds to togogo offoff on different on different tangents in tangents open-endedin learn open-ended learn ing ingactivities activities (Rogoff, (Rogoff, 2003). Alerting 2003). theAlerting children to the children to Joaquin Joaquin sleeping sleeping exemplifies exemplifies this point. Such thisactions point. Such actions demonstrate demonstrate how Ms. how Hughes Ms.has Hughes created ahas socialcreated a social dynamic dynamic in which in which the children's the children's group participation group participation not notonly only keeps keeps each child each accountable child accountable to this learn to this learn ing ingsituation, situation, but it but also offers it also them offers the chance them to the chance to question, question, respond, respond, and build and off build each other's offideas each other's ideas and andsuggestions. suggestions. Offering Offering choices choices Developmental^ appropriate Across day, Ms.Ms. Hughes intentionally designed Developmental^ appropriate practices practices Acrossthe the day, Hughes intentionally designed (DAP) fosters instructional aa classroom classroom environment environment that gave that children gave choice children (DAP) choice fosters instructional practices practices andvoice voice a range of learning activities that inan Understanding and in ain range of learning activities that in- that that reflect reflect an understanding Of child of child eluded whole-group, whole-group, small-group, center-based . . . . . cluded small-group, andand center-based development and each student's instruction, instruction, child-initiated child-initiatedactivities, activities,indoor indoor and and development and each student s individual and sociocultural needs. outdoor outdoorplay-based play-based learning learning activities, activities, and and loud loud and and individual and SOCiOCUltural needs, quiet quiet learning learning experiences. experiences.Alongside Alongside such such teacher teacher directed directed activities activitiesas ashaving havinga asmall small group group ofof chil chil their sciencetheir journals about what robins need what to live). dren life ofof the animals science journals about robins need to live), dren act act out out aa typical typicalday dayininthe the life the animals Ms. Hughes knows such instruction is necessary but living in their their class class tree, tree, Ms. Ms. Hughes Hughes gave gave students students Ms. Hughes knows such instruction is necessary bu should be limited to teaching discrete skills, or 45 minutes minutes of of uninterrupted uninterruptedplay play time time with with the the tree tree should be limited to facts, teaching discrete facts, skills, or routines (Bonawitzroutines(Bonawitzetal.,2011).Ms.Hughesalsowa et al., 2011). Ms. Hughes also was and the other other learning learning centers centers in in her her classroom: classroom: intentional about spiraling herabout curriculum, whichher al curriculum, which a blocks, construction materials, literacy, science, and intentional spiraling lowed students to revisit aspects to of arevisit conceptaspects that mathematics. mathematics. The The time time and andcenters centersgave gave students students lowed students of a concept that they may have known well in one context but failed the the chance chance to to intentionally intentionallydevelop develop their their social, social, lit-lit they may have known well in one context but faile master they it as to they novel situations (Na eracy, and mathematical mathematical skills skills as as well well as asto the the skill skillasof of to applied master applied it to novel situations (Na tional Research Council, 2000). Understanding this self-regulation self-regulation (Singer, (Singer, Golinkoff, Golinkoff,&&Hirsh-Pasek, Hirsh-Pasek,tional Research Council, 2000). Understanding thi allowed Ms. Hughes to goMs. forward withto her 2006). Ms. Ms. Hughes Hughes was was engaged engagedwith withstudents students durdur allowed Hughes goteach forward with her teach ing because she knew they would revisit these ing this this time time so so she she could could support supporttheir theirplay playand anding because she knew they new would revisit these new skills (Leong and knowledge againknowledge and again through mul again through mul step step in in to to provide provide scaffolding scaffoldingwhen whenneeded needed (Leong skills and again and tiple learning opportunities. & & Bodrova, Bodrova, 2012). 2012). tiple learning opportunities. challenges Revisiting Revisiting new new content content OfferingOffering challenges Ms. Hughes challenged children'schallenged academic learn Because Because Ms. Ms. Hughes Hughesrecognized recognizedthat that learning learning new new Ms. Hughes children's academic le ing by introducing them to some of the core scientific content was not a seamless process and the children ing by introducing them to some of the core scient principles will need in later grades through enin later grades throu would be inconsistent in demonstrating their they newnew principles they will need gaging age-appropriate materials and activities (e.g., found found skills skills(Bowman (Bowmanetetal., al., 2000), 2000), this this day day was was oneone gaging age-appropriate materials and activities detailing the difference between robins, squir of many in which the class investigated raccoons detailing the what difference between what robins, s rels, raccoons, and humans need to live). so and other other living living organisms. organisms. Some Some lessons lessonsemerged emerged rels, raccoons, andDoing humans need to live). Doi allowed her to map the children's hands-on experi from from and and built builtupon uponchildren's children's explorations explorations (e.g., (e.g., thethe allowed her to map the children's hands-on e ences with living organisms to a significant thread children's children's investigation investigationinto intothe the types types and and number number ences with on living organisms on to a significant thre of scientific inquiry — life sciences — that motivates of squirrels that lived in their own neighborhoods), of scientific inquiry — life sciences — that motivat them todirect intentionally upon and connect theirupon and connect the while others followed the lead ofMs. Hughes's them reflect to intentionally reflect informal knowledge about animals to characteristics instruction instruction (e.g., (e.g.,having havingthe thechildren children write/draw write/draw in in informal knowledge about animals to characte V96N7 N7 kappanmagazine.org 55 V96 kappanmagazine.org 55 Photo: Photo: Thinkstock/Hemera Thinkstock/Hemera This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 00:12:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms that describe describe organisms, organisms,such suchasascolor, color, size, shape, that size, shape, sions sionsand andquestions, questions, Ms. Ms. Hughes Hughescould couldeasily easilyadjust adjust herinteractions interactionswith withstudents studentsto totheir theirindividual individual and needs her needs (e.g., (e.g., air, air, water, water,food, food,shelter). shelter).They Theyalso also learned learned how how to to use use such such scientific scientific tools tools as as binoculars binoculars learning learning and andcultural culturalneeds needs (e.g., (e.g., a lack a lack of experi of experi to locate locate and anddocument documentthe thesquirrels squirrels and and robins robins that that enceence in such in such outdoor outdoor environments environments as forests, as forests, caves, caves, lived around their their school school playground, playground, which which taught taught or ormountains mountainsororbeing beingfrom from a culture a culture where where learn learn them them how how scientists scientists used usedsuch suchtools toolstotoobserve observeand and ing ingis is framed framed through through collective collective rather rather thanthan indi indi document in in their natural habitat. documentanimals animals their natural habitat. vidualvidual experiences). experiences). Such Such explorations explorations also offered also offered her the the chance chanceto todifferentiate differentiate the the level level of of support support the Ms. Hughes Hughesknew knewthat that she must create a class Ms. she must create a classcontent content she discussed she discussed withwith them, them, the the levellevel of partici of partici room room environment environment that thatmakes makesconnections connectionsbetween between pation pationshe shedemanded demandedfrom from each each child, child, andand thethe terter Understanding each learner Understanding each learner she provided each shechild> provided the each difficulty/breadth child, the difficulty/breadth of the of children's personal, personal,cultural, cultural, and linguistic experi children's and linguistic experiminology minology she she expected expectedeach eachchild childtotoattain attain(Smutny (Smutny ences for learned ences for each each student studenttotobe besuccessful. successful.She She learned &&von vonFremd, Fremd, 2004). 2004). about about each each child childthrough throughsuch suchactivities activities as as home home visvis its, that offered its, sending sending home homeweekly weeklynewsletters newsletters that offered families the chance to respond to content-specific families the chance to respond to content-specific Developing Developing her herstudents' students' scientific scientific questions, questions, and by and making by herself making available herself to fami available to fami- „ vocabulary positively affects their lies liesat at the the beginning beginning and end ofand each end day. Moreover, of each day. Moreover, vocabulary positively affects she she needed to create ato context-rich envi sheknew knew she needed create a context-rich reading comprehension. envi- reading Comprehension, ronment ronment that that offered offered learning learning experiences experiences children children might might not not have have had before had before entering entering prekindergarten prekindergarten (e.g., (e.g.,creating creating a cave a cave in thein classroom the classroom that teaches that teaches constantly children children about about a bat'sa habitat bat's habitat and introduces and them introduces to Assessing them to Assessing constantly the of spelunking). Cognitive scientists have scientists theactivity activity of spelunking). Cognitive Across each have dayAcross Ms. Hughes eachdocumented day Ms. Hughes chil docu shown such experiences are essential for learnfor dren's learning by recording and by dictating their state shownthat that such experiences are essential learndren's learning recording and dicta tin ing. children fail tofail grasp lesson ments about living organisms through anecdotal re ing.When When children toa particular grasp a particular lesson ments about living organisms throug or of study, it is more likely due to the task ortopic topic of study, it isthan more than likely due cords, to work the task samples, cords, digital work photographs, samples, anddigital video. photogra then transferred these assessment artifacts into assessment or of background knowledge rather than rather the Shethan ora alack lack of background knowledge the She then transferred these concept itself (National ResearchResearch Council, 2000). a portfolio that Ms. concept itself (National Council, 2000). a documented portfolio their thatlearning. documented their Hughes Hughes used used thisthis documentation documentation to help her to un help her un Seeing the whole seeing thechild whole child derstand derstand what what students students did and diddid not know and about did not k Across investigation into into raccoons, Ms. living Acrossthis this investigation raccoons, Ms. things living and the things life sciences and the so she life could sciences adjust so she Hughes created a learning environment with stu her Hughes created a learning environment with instruction stu- her to help instruction them learn to more help effectively them learn mo dents dentsthat that allowed allowed them them to applytoa range applyofatheir range (Epstein, of their 2007).(Epstein, 2007). attributes to their ofthings: living things: attributes to their studystudy of living Pushing Pushing forward forward •• Physical —- playing in the classroom Physical — playing in theand classroomMs. and Hughes Ms. notes Hughes that hernotes central that goal as her a teacher central goa outdoors; outdoors; is to create a learning is to environment create a learning environment that is "a thatgreat is "a great •• Conceptual — describing and evaluating Conceptual — describing andtheir evaluatingplace their to be" place for students to be" for wherestudents they "live where what they they "live reenactment of animals; reenactment of animals; are learning"are solearning" that "every so thatchild "everyischild successful is successful in in •• Emotional — regulating their responses to Ms. Emotional — regulating their responses to Ms. all areas." all areas." She She achieved achieved this goal this by goal first by knowing first knowing Hughes's challenges; and what knowledge and skills statepolicy policy makers have have Hughes's challenges; and what knowledge and skills state makers •• Social working in a in smalland whole-group Social—— working a smalland whole-groupdefined defined as essential as essential for prekindergarten for prekindergarten students students to to learning situations. learning situations. know. She then engagedin students in a range of educa know. She then engaged students a range of educa tional opportunities opportunities in in and and out out of of school school (e.g., (e.g., send send Such Suchactivities activities reflect reflect Ms. Hughes's Ms. Hughes's understanding understanding inging thethe robins, robins, squirrels, squirrels, raccoons, raccoons, andand bears bears home home that in in oneone developmental domaindomain dependsdependseach thatgrowth growth developmental each weekend weekend with with a journal a journal so so children children could could docu docu upon the the progression of others (Bow (Bow- ment their experiences uponand andinfluences influences progression of others experiences with with their their weekend weekend visitors) visitors) man, & Burns, 2000). man,Donovan, Donovan, & Burns, 2000). that allowed that children allowed children to explore to explore livingliving organisms organisms Differentiating instruction while monitoring and scaffolding their engagement Differentiating instruction with and understanding with and understanding of these of these scientific scientific concepts. concepts. The of the activities Ms. Ms. Doing The built-in built-invariability variability of the activities Doing so allowed allowed Ms. Ms.Hughes Hughestotoknow know how how to to push push Hughes students, whichwhich includedincluded using large Hughesoffered offered students, using large every every child's child's learning learning andand development development forward forward so so and groups and and individualized instruction, cre andsmall small groups individualized instruction, erethey they would would reach reach and and even even go go beyond beyond thethe academic academic ated opportunity for her closely atedthe the opportunity fortoher to monitor closely the monitor the andand social social expectations expectations of of prekindergarten prekindergarten (Gmi (Gmi trova & Gmitrov, 2003). children's scientific thinking. Based on their on discus children's scientific thinking. Based their discustrova & Gmitrov, 2003). Dö 56 i\appan KappanApril April zu 2015 i d This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 00:12:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms readiness readinessand and later later achievement. achievement. Developmental Developmental Psychology, Psychology, The teacher knew she needed to create a context-rich environment that offered children learning experiences they might not have had before entering prekindergarten. 43, 1428-1446. Epstein, A.S. (2007). The intentional teacher: Choosing the best strategies for young children's learning. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Gmitrova, V. & Gmitrov, J. (2003). The impact of teacher Gmitrovâ, directed and child-directed pretend play on cognitive competence in kindergarten children. Early Childhood Conclusion Conclusion Education Journal, Education 30 (4), Journal, 24130 -246. (4), 241-246. Gutman, L.M., Sameroff, A.J., & Cole, R. (2003). AcademicL.M., Sameroff, A.J Rigorous Rigorous DAP is DAP a framework is a framework of early childhood of early childhood Gutman, instruction that policy public school admin instruction thatmakers, policy makers, growth public curve school trajectories from admin1st grade growth to 12th grade: Effects curve trajectories fro istrators, classroom teachers, teachers, and families can usefamilies istrators, classroom and canand use 0fchild multiple social risk factors of multiple social risk factors preschool factors. to what is and what should what be occurring in todiscuss discuss what is and should Developmental bePsychology, occurring 39, 777-790. in Developmental Psychology early early learning learning classrooms classrooms so children enter so elemen children enter elemen Hatch, J.A. (2002, February). February). Accountability Accountability shovedown: shovedown: tary tary school school confident confident and prepared for and theprepared academic for the academic and social demands that await them. Resisting the standards movement movement in in early early childhood childhood education. Phi Delta Kappan, Kappan, 83 83 (6), (6), 457-463. 457-463. Using Ms. Hughes as an example, we have demon Howes, C., C., Burchinal, Burchinal, M., R.,R., Bryant, D., Early, D., D., strated strated how howearly earlyeducators educators can can achieve achieve such such learning learning Howes, M.,Pianta, Pianta, Bryant, D., Early, Clifford, R., Barbarin, O.O.(2008). Ready to learn? Children's environments environmentsby byoffering offering children children intentional intentional learnlearn Clifford, R., &&Barbarin, (2008). Ready to learn? Children's preacademic achievement prekindergarten programs. Early Early ing ing experiences experiencesthat thatmotivate motivatethem them through through multiple multiple preacademic achievementinin prekindergarten programs. Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 27-50. learning learning experiences experiencesand andaarange rangeofofinstructional instructional forfor Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 27-50. mats that reflect their developmental, individual, and Leong, D.J. & Bodrova, E. (2012). (2012). Assessing Assessing and and scaffolding scaffolding sociocultural knowledge. Classrooms that practice make-believe play. Young Children, Children, 67, 67, 28-34. 28-34. Rigorous DAP have active, multimodal learning sites Moats, L.C.(2009). (2009). Knowledge for for teaching that that address addressallalldevelopmental developmental domains domains — cogni— cogni Moats, L.C. Knowledgefoundations foundations teaching reading andspelling. spelling. Reading Reading and AnAn Interdisciplinary tive, tive, social, social,emotional, emotional,and and physical physical — through — through suchsuch reading and andWriting: Writing: Interdisciplinary Journal, 379-399. activities activities as aswhole-group, whole-group,small-group, small-group, and and centercenter Journal,22,22, 379-399. based instruction, indoor and outdoor play, loud National Research Council. (2000). (2000). How How people people learn: learn: Brain, Brain, and quiet learning activities, and depending on the mind, experience, and school school (expanded (expanded ed.). ed.), Washington, Washington, length of the school day, snacks and taking a rest. DC: National Academy Press. Press. Rigorous DAP learning environments offer chil Palermo,F., F., Hanish, Hanish, L.D., C.L., Fabes, R.A., R.A., & Reiser, dren dren meaningful meaningful choices, choices, opportunities opportunities to experito experi Palermo, L.D.,Martin, Martin, C.L., Fabes, & Reiser, ment with with new new ideas ideas in in aasafe safeand andcomfortable comfortableset set- M. M. (2007). (2007). Preschoolers' Preschoolers'academic academic readiness: readiness: What What rolerole doesdoes theteacher-child teacher-child relationship play? Early Childhood Research ting, ting, and and time timetotorevisit revisitnew new knowledge knowledge andand skills. skills. the relationship play? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 22, 407-422. Such Such learning learning contexts contextsbuild buildoff offwhat what children children know know Quarterly, 407-422. and can do do so so they they can can develop develop the theskills skillsand andknowl knowl Reynolds, Reynolds, A.J., A.J., Temple, Temple, J.A., Ou,J.A., S., Arteaga, Ou, S., I.A., Arteaga, & White, I.A., & White, edge to be be successful successful in in elementary elementaryschool. school.k: k: B.A.B. B.A.B. (2011, (2011, JulyJuly 15). School-based 15). School-based early childhood early childhood education education andand age-28 age-28 well-being: well-being: Effects byEffects timing, dosage, by timing, dosage, References and andsubgroups. subgroups. Science, Science, 333 (6040), 333 360-364. (6040), 360-364. Rogoff, Rogoff, B. (2003). B. (2003). The cultural The cultural nature of nature human development. of human development. Bonawitz, E., Shafto, P., Gweon, Gweon, H., H., Goodman, Goodman, N.D., N.D., Spelke, Spelke, New NewYork, York, NY: NY: Oxford Oxford University University Press. Press. E., & Schulz, L. L, (2011). (2011). The The double-edged double-edged sword sword of of pedagogy: pedagogy: Instruction spontaneous exploration and and discovery. Instructionlimits limits spontaneous exploration Singer, discovery. D., Golinkoff,Singer, R., & Hirsh-Pasek, D., Golinkoff, K. (2006). Play R., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2006). Pla Cognition, Cognition, 120, 120, 322-330. 322-330. = learning: How play = learning: motivates How play andmotivates enhances and enhances children's children's cognitive cognitive and and social-emotional social-emotional growth. growth. New York, New NY: York, Oxford NY: Oxford Bowman, Bowman,B.T., B.T., Donovan, Donovan, M.S., M.S., & Burns, & Burns, M.S. M.S. (2000). (2000). Eager Eager to to University University Press. Press. learn: learn: Educating Educating our our preschoolers. preschoolers. Washington, Washington, DC: National DC: National Academies Press. Press. Academies Smutny, J.F. & von Fremd, Smutny, S.E.J.F. (2004). & von Fremd, Differentiating S.E. (2004). Differentiating for the for the young young child: child: Teaching Teaching strategies strategies across theacross contentthe areas content (K areas (K Copple, Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally Copple,C.C.& & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally 3). 3).Thousand Thousand Oaks, Oaks, CA: Corwin CA: Corwin Press. Press. appropriate appropriate practice practice in early in early childhood childhood programs programs servingserving children children from from birth birth through through age 8 (3rd age ed.). 8 (3rd Washington, ed.). Washington, Vygotsky, DC: L. (1978). DC: Mind Vygotsky, in society. L.Cambridge, (1978). Mind UK: in society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. National National Association Association for the for Education the Education of Young Children. of Young Children. Cambridge University Press. Washor, E. & Mojkowski, C. (2006, December). What do Duncan, Duncan, G.J., G.J., Dowsett, Dowsett, C.J., C.J., Claessens, Claessens, A., Magnuson, A., Magnuson, K., K., Washor, E. & Mojkowski, C.you (2006, December). What do y Huston, Klebanov, P., ...P., Duckworth, K. (2007).K.School mean by rigor? Educational Leadership, (4), 84-87. Huston,A.C., A.C., Klebanov, ... Duckworth, (2007). School mean by rigor? 64 Educational Leadership, 64 (4), 84-87. V96 N7i\d|J|->di kappanmagazine.org il I idgaz.il ic.uig J / 57 This content downloaded from 129.219.247.33 on Thu, 07 Jun 2018 00:12:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 DOI 10.1007/s10643-013-0593-6 The Transition to Kindergarten for Typically Developing Children: A Survey of School Psychologists’ Involvement Laura Lee McIntyre • Tanya L. Eckert • Lauren A. Arbolino • Florence D. DiGennaro Reed Barbara H. Fiese • Published online: 12 May 2013 Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 Abstract Research suggests that a large percentage of kindergarten children do not successfully transition to school (Rimm-Kaufman et al. 2000). As a result, a number of school transition initiatives have been developed by educators and policy makers to address the difficulties young children may experience upon kindergarten entry. Despite this attention, our review found no studies examining the involvement of school psychologists in kindergarten transition practices. The present study reports the outcomes of a national survey of the membership directory of the National Association of School Psychologists examining school-based involvement in kindergarten transition activities; school psychologists’ perceived involvement with and training in kindergarten transition activities; and school psychologists’ perceived barriers to engage in kindergarten transition activities. Results showed that most schools engaged in at least one kindergarten transition activity per year, with half of the responding sample reporting involvement. School psychologists were L. L. McIntyre (&) Department of Special Education and Clinical Sciences, 5208 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-5208, USA e-mail: llmcinty@uoregon.edu T. L. Eckert Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA L. A. Arbolino Nationwide Children’s Hospital, The Ohio State University, Westerville, OH, USA F. D. DiGennaro Reed University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA B. H. Fiese University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA more likely to be involved in kindergarten transition activities if they were employed in an urban locale or a large to moderate-sized school setting. School psychologists most frequently reported involvement with kindergarten screenings and collaborating with kindergarten and preschool teachers. Implications and recommendations for practice among early childhood and other educational professionals are delineated. Keywords Kindergarten transition  Early childhood education  School psychology Introduction Young children’s participation in kindergarten has increased over the past several decades in the United States (West et al. 2000). It has been estimated that nearly all fiveyear-old children attend kindergarten (U.S. Census Bureau 2008), with 60 % attending full-day programs and 40 % attending half-day programs (Wirt et al. 2004). As the number of young children entering kindergarten has grown, the demographic characteristics and early educational experiences of these children have become increasingly more heterogeneous (Hernandez et al. 2007). In addition, more children enter kindergarten displaying health problems or difficulties in physical activity, attention, and speech that require supplemental educational or medical services than a decade ago (U.S. Department of Education 2003). Differences in school readiness characteristics have also been reported, including dissimilarities in young children’s general knowledge, approaches to learning, social competence, and emergent reading and mathematics skills (West et al. 2000). Based on a national survey of kindergarten teachers, Rimm-Kaufman et al. (2000) 123 204 reported that 52 % of kindergarten students experienced a successful transition, 32 % experienced a moderately difficult transition, and 16 % experienced a difficult transition. Collectively, these factors may account for the substantial number of young children who are delayed entry into kindergarten for one or more years (6 %), or who are retained in kindergarten for one or more years (5 %) (U.S. Department of Education 2005). One of the most effective ways to promote young children’s academic and behavioral development is to provide positive, early school experiences (Reynolds 2004). However, as many young children transition to kindergarten, a number of difficulties may emerge. First, routines previously established in childcare, preschool, or home environments may be disrupted during this period (Fowler et al. 1991; Wildenger et al. 2008). Second, differences between these environments may be conspicuous for many young children, creating further adjustment difficulties, especially for children with cumulative risk factors (e.g., federal poverty status, family type, primary home language) (Bowman 1999; Rathbun and West 2004). Third, many caregivers may experience difficulty adapting as their young children begin formal schooling (Pianta and KraftSayre 2003). As a result, it has been recommended that elementary school personnel promote positive experiences for young children during the transition to kindergarten (Lara-Cinisomo et al. 2011; Vecchiotti 2003; Wildenger and McIntyre 2012). Kindergarten Transition Programs One way to provide young children with positive, early school experiences is to formally program kindergarten transition activities (Fowler et al. 1991; Wildenger and McIntyre 2012). Traditionally, the most common transition practices identified in the literature for typically developing children include student-centered activities (e.g., school visits, teacher contacts), parent- or family- centered activities (e.g., orientation sessions, family field trips), and school-centered activities (e.g., screenings, teacher contacts) (LoCasale-Crouch et al. 2008; Love et al. 1992). However, research examining the effectiveness of kindergarten transition programs has been limited in scope (Wildenger and McIntyre 2012; Vecchiotti 2003). Eckert et al. (2008) reviewed the research on kindergarten transition programs for typically developing students. These authors found few empirical studies (n = 7); all of which were published within the past 5 years. Only one study explored the effects of kindergarten transition programs and policies on students’ educational outcomes, with the remainder examining teachers’ and mothers’ perceptions of the kindergarten transition process. 123 Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 As concluded by Eckert et al. (2008) in their literature review as well as others (Entwisle and Alexander 1993; Wildenger and McIntyre 2012; Zill 1999), very little is known regarding the effectiveness of kindergarten transition practices for typically developing children. However, some general conclusions can be drawn regarding the current state of kindergarten transition practices for typically developing children. First, teachers reported that kindergarten transition practices were predominately generic, such as sending fliers home and conducting open-houses (Pianta et al. 1999). Second, teachers reported receiving minimal information, training, or support regarding kindergarten transition practices (Early et al. 1999). Third, school district practices and policies appear to negatively impact teachers’ capabilities to engage in kindergarten transition practices. For example, teachers reported that school districts do not provide summer work compensation for kindergarten transition activities (Pianta et al. 1999). Furthermore, teachers reported that kindergarten classroom lists are typically generated a few days prior to the opening of school, making it difficult to proactively engage in kindergarten transition activities (Pianta et al. 1999). Although a number of kindergarten transition initiatives have been proposed by educators and policy makers, few U.S. programs have been implemented or evaluated, and a number of barriers appear to negatively impact current practices. In addition, recent research examining family experiences and involvement with kindergarten transition suggests a need for educational professionals to increase family-school partnerships during this critical juncture. McIntyre et al. (2007) examined the perspectives of families whose typically developing children had recently completed early education programs and were beginning the transition to kindergarten. The majority of caregivers expressed interest in receiving more information about the transition process, including information about kindergarten expectations, as well as learning how to assist their child during the kindergarten transition process. Many caregivers reported concerns regarding the transition process (e.g., learning to navigate the school environment) and their child’s ability to meet the academic and behavioral expectations in kindergarten. Furthermore, increased family concerns surrounding kindergarten transition for children receiving additional educational supports was reported in a study conducted by McIntyre et al. (2010). The results of this comparative survey of families with preschool children that were either typically developing or receiving special education services indicated that caregivers of children receiving special education services in preschool settings expressed significantly more concerns regarding their child’s adaptive behavior, communication skills, emergent academic skills, and overall readiness for kindergarten than caregivers of typically developing children. Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 Due to the increased emphasis on family-school partnerships and the importance of kindergarten transition, there has been increased attention to promote successful kindergarten transition for children by school psychologists (Prout and Cowan 2006). The importance of school psychology practice addressing early childhood factors that affect school competence was one of the broad themes identified in the 2002 Multi-site Conference on the Future of School Psychology. Three of the priority outcome goals directly (i.e., Outcome 3: Enhanced family-school partnerships and parental involvement in schools) or indirectly (i.e., Outcome 1: Improved academic competence for all children; Outcome 2: Improved social-emotional functioning for all children) related to improving early educational experiences for young children entering school (Dawson et al. 2003/2004). However, no data have been published regarding school psychologists’ current involvement with kindergarten transition activities nor has any data been published regarding the current barriers to school psychologists’ involvement with kindergarten transition activities. Purpose of the Present Study Given the importance of providing children and their families with positive early school experiences, the established research and policy agendas addressing the early academic success of typically developing children, and the increased attention for school psychologists to become involved with kindergarten transition practices, it is important to examine school psychologists’ current involvement with kindergarten transition practices. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to examine school psychologists’ involvement in kindergarten transition activities and three primary aims were examined: (a) school-based involvement with kindergarten transition activities; (b) school psychologists’ perceived involvement with and training in kindergarten transition activities; and (c) school psychologists’ perceived barriers to engage in kindergarten transition activities. In addition to obtaining a descriptive account of school psychologists’ involvement in kindergarten transition activities, additional exploratory analyses were conducted to examine whether demographic factors (i.e., school locale, school size) were related to school psychologists’ involvement in kindergarten transition activities. Methods Participants A total of 500 participants were selected from the membership directory of the National Association of School 205 Psychologists (NASP). A geographic stratification procedure was employed to randomly sample school psychologists from each of the five regions of the United States (Northeastern, Southeastern, West Central, North Central, Western). Of the 500 surveys mailed, 13 were returned as undeliverable and 37 were unusable (i.e., respondents were not school psychologists); therefore, response rate was determined using the remaining 450 surveys. Of these, 294 (65 %) were returned. However, inspection of the surveys revealed that 43 % (n = 128) had not been actively involved with school psychological service delivery. These surveys were subsequently discarded and 166 were retained for the final analysis. This represents 37 % of the usable sample of 450. Instrumentation To assess school psychologists’ involvement in kindergarten transition activities, a two-page questionnaire consisting of three sections was developed. The first section required respondents to provide demographic information including: (a) gender; (b) state of residence, (c) highest degree obtained; (d) number of years employed as a school psychologist; and (e) primary grade level(s) of students served. In addition, respondents were asked to answer a number of questions pertaining to the demographic characteristics of their school(s) including: (a) type of school, (b) locale, and (c) student enrollment. In the second section of the packet, respondents were asked to respond to questions pertaining to their experiences with kindergarten transition. Areas assessed included: (a) current school practices and involvement with kindergarten transition activities; (b) training in kindergarten transition activities; and (c) perceived barriers to implementing kindergarten transition activities. In the final section of the survey, respondents were asked to review 16 activities related to kindergarten transition, indicate whether these activities had been implemented in their school district, and specify their current level of involvement as well as their desired level of involvement. The selected activities were based on a review of current kindergarten transition practices disseminated in the literature (Pianta and Kraft-Sayre 2003). Procedure Prior to conducting the survey, the research procedures were reviewed and approved by the governing Institutional Review Board. The survey and a self-addressed, stamped return envelope were mailed to each potential participant. All participants were informed in the consent letter that participation in the study was strictly voluntary and participants were permitted to withdraw at any time. To assist with the re-mailing of surveys, each assessment packet was 123 206 Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 coded with a removable identification number that corresponded to the name and address of the participant. Participants were informed that if they did not approve of their survey being coded, they could remove the attached label. A re-mailing of the survey was conducted 10 weeks following the initial mailing. Results Table 2 School and employment characteristics of respondents % (n) Place of employment Public school 82.6 (95) Private school 2.6 (3) Hospital or clinic 2.6 (3) University or college 3.5 (4) Other 8.7 (10) Locale Demographic Characteristics of the Participating Sample Table 1 presents a descriptive breakdown of the major demographic variables of the respondents. The demographic characteristics of the respondents were similar to national demographic characteristics of NASP members (Curtis et al. 2007). Overall, most of the respondents were female (77.6 %), had earned a masters or educational specialist degree (64.7 %), were employed as a school psychologist for 1–5 years (31.6 %), and lived in the Northeastern region of the US (42.2 %). In addition, most of the respondents were employed in public school settings (82.6 %), located in suburban locale (31 %), with a moderate (i.e., 301–999 students) enrollment (58.1 %). All of the participants reported involvement with activities at the elementary level, and the majority of participants worked primarily at the elementary level (67.8 %) (Table 2). Urban 27.6 (32) Suburban 31.0 (36) Rural 19.8 (23) Mixed Populations served 21.6 (25) K-12, primarily preschool 3.5 (4) K-12, primarily elementary 67.8 (78) K-12, primarily middle school K- 12, primarily high school 2.6 (3) 26.1 (30) Enrollment \300 15.1 (11.2) 301–999 58.1 (50) 1,000 or more 26.7 (23) Descriptive Analysis of Kindergarten Transition Activities School-Based Implementation Table 1 Demographic characteristics of respondents % (n) Gender Female 77.6 (90) Male 22.4 (26) Degree Masters or masters plus 30 credits 64.7 (75) PhD, EdD, PsyD 30.2 (35) Other 4.3 (5) Years employed 1–5 31.6 (36) 6–10 22.8 (26) 11–15 10.5 (12) 16–20 13.2 (15) 21 or more 21.9 (25) Geographic region Northeastern 42.2 (46) Southeastern 24.8 (27) North central 9.2 (10) West central Western 123 9.2 (10) 14.7 (16) The majority of school psychologists (80.9 %) reported that their schools engaged in at least one kindergarten transition activity per year. The most frequently reported school-based implementation activities included providing caregivers with general information regarding kindergarten transition (97.8 %), evaluating children’s performance during kindergarten (95.5 %), and reviewing kindergarten enrollment figures (92.2 %). The least frequently reported school-based implementation activities included creating advertisements regarding kindergarten enrollment (10 %), conducting home visits (20.2 %), and evaluating family functioning during kindergarten transition (27 %). Table 3 provides the descriptive results of the school-based implementation activities. School Psychologists’ Involvement Half of the responding sample (52.2 %) reported being involved with at least one kindergarten transition activity per year, with less than half of the responding sample (38.9 %) reported receiving training in kindergarten transition activities. The most frequently reported activities that school psychologists’ reported involvement included Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 207 Table 3 School-based implementation of, school psychologists’ involvement, and school psychologists’ desired involvement with kindergarten transition activities Activity School-based implementation Yes % (n) No % (n) School psychologists’ involvement School psychologists’ desired involvement Yes % (n) Yes % (n) No % (n) No % (n) Creating advertisements 10.0 (67) 90.0 (23) 20.0 (9) 80.0 (81) 75.6 (18) 24.4 (72) Conducting planning meetings 75.6 (68) 24.4 (22) 37.8 (34) 62.2 (56) 72.7 (64) 27.3 (24) Reviewing enrollment figures 92.2 (83) 7.8 (7) 15.6 (14) 84.4 (76) 31.3 (28) 68.9 (62) Assisting in determining class placements 83.3 (75) 16.7 (15) 41.1 (37) 58.9 (53) 73.9 (65) 26.1 (23) Reviewing child records 83.3 (75) 16.7 (15) 46.1 (41) 53.9 (48) 77.3 (68) 22.7 (20) Conducting screenings 32.6 (70) 67.4 (19) 72.7 (29) 27.3 (60) 79.8 (64) 20.2 (24) Collaborating with preschool teachers 79.8 (71) 20.2 (18) 58.4 (52) 41.6 (37) 85.4 (76) 14.6 (13) Collaborating with kindergarten teachers 87.6 (78) 12.4 (11) 67.4 (60) 32.5 (29) 87.1 (74) 15.9 (14) Conducting open-houses 82.0 (73) 18.0 (16) 16.9 (15) 83.1 (74) 43.2 (24) 73.0 (65) Providing caregivers with general information Providing caregivers with specific information 97.8 (87) 89.9 (80) 2.2 (2) 10.1 (9) 13.5 (12) 16.9 (15) 86.5 (77) 83.1 (74) 23.6 (21) 36.0 (32) 76.4 (68) 64.0 (57) Providing frequent communication 88.8 (79) 11.2 (10) 21.3 (19) 78.7 (70) 36.4 (32) 63.6 (56) Evaluating child performance 95.5 (85) 4.5 (4) 46.1 (55) 53.9 (30) 64.7 (55) 35.3 (30) Evaluating family functioning 27.0 (24) 73.0 (65) 15.7 (14) 84.3 (75) 59.1 (36) 40.9 (52) Developing family support groups 28.1 (25) 71.9 (64) 12.4 (11) 87.6 (78) 51.1 (43) 48.9 (45) conducting kindergarten screenings (72.7 %), collaborating with kindergarten teachers (67.4 %), and collaborating with preschool teachers (58.4 %). The least frequently reported activities were developing support groups for families of children transitioning to kindergarten (12.4 %), conducting home visits (13.5 %), and providing caregivers with general information regarding kindergarten transition. When school psychologists were asked to identify the activities they were most interested in being involved, the most frequently endorsed activities included collaborating with kindergarten teachers (87.1 %), collaborating with preschool teachers (85.4 %), and conducting kindergarten screenings (79.8 %). The least frequently endorsed activities included providing caregivers with general information regarding kindergarten transition (23.6 %), reviewing kindergarten enrollment figures (31.3 %), and providing caregivers with specific information regarding kindergarten transition (36.0 %). Table 3 provides the descriptive results of the school psychologists’ implementation and desired implementation activities. Barriers to Involvement When school psychologists were asked to identify potential barriers to their involvement with kindergarten transition activities, the most frequently endorsed barrier (35.6 %) was that involvement in kindergarten transition activities was not considered part of their job description. The least frequently identified barrier (4.4 %) was limited interest in kindergarten transition activities. Table 4 presents the Table 4 Barriers to school psychologists’ involvement with kindergarten transition Barrier Yes % (n) Not considered part of job description 35.6 (32) Limited interest 4.4 (4) Limited knowledge 6.7 (6) Limited training Other 6.7 (6) 10.3 (12) descriptive results of the perceived barriers to school psychologists’ involvement with kindergarten transition. Exploratory Analyses of Factors Related to School Psychologists’ Involvement with Kindergarten Transition Activities In an attempt to explore whether demographic characteristics related to the participants’ school sites were related to school psychologists’ involvement with kindergarten transition activities, a series of one-way univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were performed. The dependent measure for these analyses was a school involvement composite score, which was computed based on the respondents’ endorsement of 16 kindergarten transition activities. The results indicated statistically significant differences between school locale and the kindergarten transition composite score, F (3, 86) = 3.57, p = .01. Using the Scheffé Test, post hoc multiple comparisons were performed to evaluate 123 208 the sources of differences among the school locales. The results indicated that respondents were more likely to be involved with kindergarten transition activities if they worked in an urban school setting (p \ .05; M = 13.18; SD = 2.63) than suburban (M = 10.32; SD = 4.55), rural (M = 11.83; SD = 2.92), or mixed (M = 10.00; SD = 3.73) school settings. In addition, the results indicated statistically significant differences between school size and the kindergarten transition composite score, F (2, 82) = 10.14, p \ .001. Using the Scheffé Test, post hoc multiple comparisons were performed to evaluate the sources of differences among the school sizes, indicating that respondents were more likely to be involved with kindergarten transition activities if they worked in large (i.e., more than 1000 students) (p \ .001; M = 12.22; SD = 3.40) or moderate-sized (i.e., 301–999 students) (p \ .001; M = 11.84; SD = 3.05) schools than if they were worked in small (i.e., less than 300 students) (M = 7.08; SD = 5.14) school settings. Finally, there was no significant difference between school psychologists’ kindergarten transition composite scores and the primary age group served, F (2, 87) = 0.42, p = .66. Similar levels of involvement were reported by school psychologists across preschool (M = 9.00; SD = 0.00), elementary (M = 11.20; SD = 4.06), and high school (M = 11.52; SD = 3.47) instructional levels. Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 Indeed, a third of respondents reported that kindergarten transition activities were not considered part of their job description. This may be due, in part, to school building assignments and responsibilities covering multiple schools within a geographical catchment area. Further, some school psychologists may be employed through intermediate agencies that contract with schools to provide special education assessments, thus limiting school psychologists’ activities to testing for special services. Another disparity between school psychologists’ actual and desired practices was observed with their involvement in collaborating with teachers and families. A large percentage of respondents indicated that they were interested in collaborating with preschool teachers (85.4 %) and kindergarten teachers (87.1 %) regarding kindergarten transition activities. However, this same level of involvement was not observed when respondents reported their interest in working with families to provide general (23.6 %) or specific information (36 %) pertaining to kindergarten transition. This, in part, may be related to current school-based implementation practices, wherein a high percentage of school psychologists reported that their schools provide caregivers with general (97.8 %) and specific (89.9 %) kindergarten transition information. General Limitations of the Study Discussion Kindergarten transition is viewed as an important developmental and educational milestone for young children, their families, and teachers; yet to date, this topic has received little empirical investigation. The purpose of this study was to examine school psychologists’ involvement in kindergarten transition activities and perceived barriers to engage in kindergarten transition activities in a national sample of practitioners. In addition, the study explored whether demographic factors (i.e., school locale, school size) were related to school psychologists’ involvement in kindergarten transition activities. Findings from the current study suggest that approximately half (52 %) of school psychologist respondents were engaged in kindergarten transition activities for typically developing students. Although half of respondents (48 %) reported no involvement in transition programming, the majority of the sample indicated that they had an interest in participating in many transition activities (e.g., 72.7 % reported an interest in conducting planning meetings; 87.1 % reported an interest in collaborating with kindergarten teachers). In all instances, a larger proportion of school psychologists expressed an interest in transition programming than the percentage who reported actual involvement. This discrepancy between involvement and desire suggests that there may be barriers, other than interest, that interfere with school psychologist involvement. 123 The present study has several limitations that should be noted. First, although potential participants were randomly sampled from the NASP membership directory, there was no way to control for their roles and functions as school psychologists. As a result, a considerable number of respondents had not been involved with service delivery at an elementary school within the past 2 years and therefore were not included in the final analyses. Second, because all of the participants were members of NASP, it is plausible that the results are more representative of school psychologists who are NASP members rather than all school psychologists. Third, although nonparametric analyses suggested that respondents were relatively homogeneous with respect to demographic characteristics, a large percentage of respondents resided in either the Northeast or Southeast. As a result, the present findings may be more representative of school psychologists employed in these regions. Recommendations and Implications for Future Practice Although conclusions based on the current findings should be made with caution, the results suggest that school psychologists may be a valuable asset to kindergarten transition planning, particularly if they have the resources and administrative support to do so. This study is unique in that it is an empirical investigation of a national sample of Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 practicing school psychologists. The authors are not aware of other empirical investigations examining the role of school psychologists in kindergarten transition, and thus, future studies could build on these preliminary findings. There has been a renewed interest in early childhood programming and school readiness, as evidenced by universal pre-kindergarten programs and state and federal initiatives. For example, the National Education Goals Panel (1997) stated that by the year 2000, all children will begin school ready to learn. Furthermore, schools will be ready to support a diverse group of learners (National Education Goals Panel 1998). School psychologists and other educational professionals may be called upon to coordinate school screenings, collaborate with early childhood personnel, and work with families to prepare children for elementary school (Barnett 1986; McIntyre et al. 2007). School psychologists and other educational professionals are in a unique position to contribute to kindergarten transition planning because of their background in assessment, intervention, consultation, counseling, and problem-solving (Schakel 1988); however, results from the present study suggest that school psychologists may be underutilized in this role. Few published journal articles have evaluated the role of school psychologists in early childhood education and transition to kindergarten activities, and none have been empirical investigations. With some exceptions (e.g., Gredler 2000), many of the articles published on this topic are 20 or more years old (e.g., Barnett 1986; Lapides 1977; Schakel 1988) and may not reflect current educational practices and priorities. Indeed, the role of the school psychologist and other educational professionals has changed with recent special education (e.g., Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act 2004) and general education legislation (NCLB; U.S. Department of Education 2002). Given the renewed interest in early childhood education, as well as national priorities involving pre-referral intervention and problem-solving, it is anticipated that school psychologists and other educational professionals will become more active participants in planning for and coordinating kindergarten transition activities. Additional research is needed to evaluate how best school psychologists may contribute to these activities. Acknowledgments Preparation of this article was supported, in part, by a Science of Learning Center Catalyst Grant from the National Science Foundation (0350341) awarded to the Tanya L. Eckert and Barbara H. Fiese. References Barnett, D. W. (1986). School psychology in preschool settings: A review of training and practice issues. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 17, 58–64. 209 Bowman, B. T. (1999). Kindergarten practices with children from lowincome families. In R. C. Pianta & M. J. Cox (Eds.), The transition to kindergarten (pp. 281–304). Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes. Curtis, M. J., Lopez, A. D., Batsche, G. M., Minch, D., & Abshier, D. (2007, March). Status report on school psychology: A national perspective. Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, New York City. Dawson, M., Cummings, J. A., Harrison, P. L., Short, R. J., Gorin, S., & Palomares, R. (2003/2004). The 2002 multisite conference on the future of school psychology: Next steps. School Psychology Quarterly, 18, 497–509; Psychology Review, 33, 115–125. Early, D. M., Pianta, R. C., & Cox, M. J. (1999). Kindergarten teachers and classrooms: A transition context. Early Education and Development, 10, 25–46. Eckert, T. L., McIntyre, L. L., DiGennaro, F. D., Arbolino, L. A., Perry, L. J., & Begeny, J. C. (2008). Researching the transition to kindergarten for typically developing children: A literature review of current processes, practices, and programs. In D. H. Molina (Ed.), School psychology: 21st century issues and challenges (pp. 235–252). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Sciences. Entwisle, D. R., & Alexander, K. L. (1993). Entry into school: The beginning school transition and educational stratification in the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 401–423. Fowler, S. A., Schwartz, I., & Atwater, J. (1991). Perspectives on the transition from preschool to kindergarten for children with disabilities and their families. Exceptional Children Special Issue: Trends and issues in early intervention, 58, 136–145. Gredler, G. R. (2000). Early childhood education—assessment and intervention: What the future holds. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 73–79. Hernandez, D. J., Denton, N. A., & Macartney, S. E. (2007). Demographic trends and the transition years. In R. C. Pianta, M. J. Cox, & K. L. Snow (Eds.), School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of accountability (pp. 217–282). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. (2004). Public Law 108–446. Retrieved July 23, 2007, from http://idea. ed.gov/. Lapides, J. (1977). The school psychologist and early education: An ecological view. Journal of School Psychology, 15, 184–189. Lara-Cinisomo, S., Fuligni, A. S., & Karoly, L. A. (2011). Preparing preschoolers for kindergarten: A look at teacher beliefs. In D. M. Laverick & M. R. Jalongo (Eds.), Transition to early care and education: International perspectives on making schools ready for young children. Educating the young child (Vol. 4, pp. 93–105). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. LoCasale-Crouch, J., Mashburn, A., Downer, J., & Pianta, R. (2008). Pre-kindergarten teachers’ use of transition practices and children’s adjustment in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 124–139. Love, J. M., Logue, M. E., Trudeau, J. V., & Thayer, K. (1992). Transitions to Kindergarten in American Schools. (Contract No. LC 88089001). Portsmouth, New Hampshire: U.S. Department of Education. McIntyre, L. L., Eckert, T. L., Fiese, B. H., DiGennaro, F. D., & Wildenger, L. K. (2007). Transition to kindergarten: Family experiences and involvement. Early Childhood Education Journal, 35, 83–88. doi:10.1007/s10643-007-0175-6. McIntyre, L. L., Eckert, T. L., Fiese, B. H., DiGennaro, F. D., & Wildenger, L. K. (2010). Family concerns surrounding kindergarten transition: A comparison of special and general education. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(4), 259–263. National Education Goals Panel. (1997). Getting a good start in school. Washington, DC: Author. National Education Goals Panel. (1998). Ready schools. Washington, DC: Author. 123 210 Pianta, R. C., & Kraft-Sayre, M. E. (2003). Successful kindergarten transition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Pianta, R. C., Cox, M. J., Taylor, L., & Early, D. (1999). Kindergarten teachers’ practices related to the transition to school: Results of a national survey. Elementary School Journal, 100, 71–86. Prout, S., & Cowan, C. (2006). Supporting successful school transitions. National Association of School Psychologist, Member Resources. Downloaded on June 5, 2006 at http://www. naspwebservices.org/ScriptContent/resources/commatters.cfm. Rathbun, A. & West, J. (2004). From Kindergarten through Third Grade: Children’s Beginning School Experiences (NCES 2004-007). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Reynolds, A. J. (2004). Research on early childhood interventions in the confirmatory mode. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 15–38. Rimm-Kaufman, S., Pianta, R., & Cox, M. (2000). Teachers’ judgments of problems in the transition to kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15, 147–166. Schakel, J. A. (1988). Providing services to preschool-aged children: A role for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 9, 163–173. U. S. Census Bureau. (2008). Single grade enrollment and high school graduation status for people 3 years old and over, by age, sex, race, and origin: October 2008. Washington, DC: Education and Social Stratification Branch. U.S. Department of Education (2002). No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). Public Law 1-7-110. Retrieved July 23, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml. 123 Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:203–210 U.S. Department of Education. (2003). The Condition of Education, 2003 National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Department of Education. (2005). The Condition of Education, 2005 National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Author. Vecchiotti, S. (2003). Kindergarten: An overlooked educational policy report. Social Policy Report, 15, 3–19. West, J., Denton, K., & Germino Hausken, E. (2000). America’s kindergartners (NCES 2000-070). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Wildenger, L. K., & McIntyre, L. L. (2012). Investigating the relation between kindergarten preparation and child socio-behavioral school outcomes. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(3), 169–176. Wildenger, L. K., McIntyre, L. L., Fiese, B. F., & Eckert, T. L. (2008). Children’s daily routines during kindergarten transition. Early Childhood Education Journal, 36, 69–74. doi:10.1007/ s10643-008-0255-2. Wirt, J., Choy, S., Rooney, P., Provasnik, S., Sen, A., & Tobin, R. (2004). The Condition of Education 2004 (NCES 2004-077). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Zill, N. (1999). Promoting educational equity and excellence in kindergarten. In R. C. Pianta & M. J. Cox (Eds.), The transition to Kindergarten (pp. 67–108). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Journal of Research in Childhood Education ISSN: 0256-8543 (Print) 2150-2641 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrc20 Effects of Developmentally Appropriate Practices on Social Skills and Problem Behaviors in 1st Through 3rd Grades M. Lee Van Horn , Emilie Karlin & Sharon Ramey To cite this article: M. Lee Van Horn , Emilie Karlin & Sharon Ramey (2012) Effects of Developmentally Appropriate Practices on Social Skills and Problem Behaviors in 1st Through 3rd Grades, Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26:1, 18-39, DOI: 10.1080/02568543.2012.633843 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2012.633843 Published online: 27 Dec 2011. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 773 View related articles Citing articles: 1 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ujrc20 Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26: 18–39, 2012 Copyright © Association for Childhood Education International ISSN: 0256-8543 print / 2150-2641 online DOI: 10.1080/02568543.2012.633843 Effects of Developmentally Appropriate Practices on Social Skills and Problem Behaviors in 1st Through 3rd Grades M. Lee Van Horn University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina Emilie Karlin American Indian Prevention Coalition, Phoenix, Arizona Sharon Ramey Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Research Institute, Roanoke, Virginia The guidelines published by the National Association for the Education of Young Children on the use of developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) have, over the last two decades, had an important influence on young children’s educational experiences. The efficacy of these guidelines for changing children’s outcomes has been examined by only a handful of studies and with mixed results. This study looks at the effects of classroom and school-level use of classroom elements of DAP in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades on parent ratings of children’s social skills at the end of the year, controlling for ratings of the same construct at the end of the previous year, gender, and ethnicity with a sample of between 1,145 and 2,111 students each year. Differential effects of DAP for males and females and for children of different ethnic backgrounds also were examined. Despite high power, no consistent effects of DAP were observed and no interactions found, suggesting that DAP does not affect parents’ ratings of social skills in 1st through 3rd grades. The importance of these results, in light of other work on the effects of DAP, is discussed. Keywords: developmentally appropriate practices, social skills, problem behaviors, student outcomes, differential effects, effects of teaching Early childhood education programs tend to fall along a continuum of teaching styles, with those emphasizing didactic teaching of academic skills on one end, and those offering a more “childcentered” approach on the other. The child-centered approach has received considerable attention with the development of the popular developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) guidelines Submitted September 13, 2009; accepted April 6, 2011. Preparation of this article was supported by research grant R01 HD043400-01A1, awarded to the first author by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Address correspondence to M. Lee Van Horn, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208. E-mail: vanhorn@sc.edu EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES 19 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC; Bredekamp, 1987; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). The DAP guidelines portray the child as an active participant in the learning process, emphasizing play as a means of learning, and the importance of using teaching methods appropriate to the developmental stage of the class as a whole and to the individual needs of each child (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). The DAP guidelines are widely endorsed by early childhood educators partly because they make intuitive sense and offer concrete examples of appropriate classroom practices. Although many academics and educators have embraced the DAP guidelines, others have been more critical. There are three major criticisms of DAP: (1) its guidelines purport to provide a set of global best practices yet disregard diversity and cultural differences, (2) limited support exists for its theoretical base, and (3) there is little empirical evidence of its efficacy in improving child outcomes. Although the revised version of the DAP guidelines addresses cultural issues more thoroughly than the initial version, critics argue that the general principles of DAP reflect middle-class White values rather than those of more collectivistic cultures (Hsue & Aldridge, 1995; Smith, 1996). Academics also have debated the value of having global written guidelines for best practices (Charlesworth, 1998a, 1998b; Lubeck, 1998a, 1998b). Furthermore, there are very few empirical studies that specifically evaluate the effects of DAP on children from different cultures (Van Horn, Karlin, Ramey, Aldridge, & Snyder, 2005). The NAEYC guidelines cite Piaget and Vygotsky as theoretical influences on DAP, but critics argue that DAP guidelines focus mostly on the stage-like system of development proposed by Piaget and place significantly less emphasis on the social and cultural influences on development suggested by Vygotsky (Smith, 1996; Walsh, 1991). The DAP guidelines state that it is crucial to incorporate information about children based on their developmental level and on their individual characteristics, but much more time is spent discussing appropriate developmental levels (Aldridge, 1992). This may be problematic, because research has shown limited support for the notion of stage-like development (Gelman & Baillargeon, 1983). Indeed, critics of DAP stress the importance of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, in which children are challenged to learn by engaging in tasks beyond their current capabilities (Smith, 1996; Walsh, 1991). Proponents of DAP indicate that DAP is expected to create a rich classroom environment that will support cognitive and social development (Elkind, 1986, 1987). The DAP guidelines list both academic skills, such as math and reading, and psychosocial skills, such as getting along with other children and other related classroom behaviors, as important aspects of developmentally appropriate early childhood education programs (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Despite their widespread acceptance and use, however, surprisingly little empirical research has considered the impact of DAP on either academic or psychosocial outcomes (Van Horn et al., 2005). EFFECTS OF DAP ON ACADEMIC OUTCOMES In a recent review of studies on the effectiveness of DAP, Van Horn and colleagues (2005) found no consistent impact of DAP on academic outcomes. Several researchers have reported positive results of DAP that are consistent across a variety of academic subjects, such as math, reading, and science (Huffman & Speer, 2000; Marcon, 1992, 1999). Other studies have reported more mixed results, in which DAP had a positive impact for some subjects but not others (Burts et al., 1993; Marcon, 1993). Surprisingly, numerous studies have found that DAP has a negative impact on academic outcomes, particularly reading (Hyson, Hirsh-Pasek, & Rescorla, 1990; 20 VAN HORN, KARLIN, RAMEY Jones & Gullo, 1999; Stipek, Feiler, Daniels, & Milburn, 1995; Stipek et al., 1998). Of particular interest, the study with the largest sample size and greatest power failed to find a consistent impact of DAP on academic outcome variable for students in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd grade (Van Horn & Ramey, 2003). EFFECTS OF DAP ON PSYCHOSOCIAL OUTCOMES Although there is limited evidence that DAP has a positive impact on academic outcomes, positive effects on social skills may justify their continued use. Social skills may include areas of competence, such as cooperation and peer relationships, and problem behaviors, such as disruptiveness, withdrawal, or hyperactivity (Gresham & Elliott, 1988, 1990). Children who engage in more prosocial behaviors, such as rule following and friendliness, tend to be rated more positively by their peers; children who engage in more negative behaviors, such as aggression and disruptiveness, tend to be rated more negatively by their peers (Coie, Dodge, & Kupersmidt, 1990). Children who are rated negatively by their peers are more likely to experience a variety of later problems—both school-related problems, such as truancy or early dropout (Woodward & Fergusson, 2000)—and social problems, such as delinquency (Roff, Sells, & Golden, 1972). These children are also likely to continue to have difficulties with peer relationships as they get older (Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003). Improving children’s social skills at a young age may, therefore, have important implications for their later development. The current study assesses the effects of DAP on social skills. The available research on the effects of DAP on social outcomes is more consistent and positive than the research on academic outcomes (Van Horn et al., 2005). Much of the research on psychosocial outcomes has focused on stress and anxiety. Studies have consistently demonstrated that children in DAP classrooms experience significantly less stress and anxiety about school than children who are not in DAP classrooms (Burts et al., 1992; Burts, Hart, Charlesworth, & Kirk, 1990; Hart et al., 1998; Stipek et al., 1995). These results are consistent for kindergarten and preschool students. Children in DAP classrooms have also scored significantly higher on other measures of positive psychosocial attributes, such as high expectations for success, greater pride in their accomplishments, greater creativity, and more positive attitudes about school (Burts et al., 1992; Burts et al., 1990; Hart et al., 1998; Hirsh-Pasek, Hyson, & Rescorla, 1990; Stipek et al., 1995; Stipek et al., 1998). Children in classrooms that primarily use didactic teaching strategies demonstrate greater levels of negative affect, more noncompliance to teacher requests, and greater dependency on others than students in DAP classrooms (Stipek et al., 1995; Stipek et al., 1998). Only a few studies have failed to find positive impacts of DAP on psychosocial outcomes. Specifically, one study of self-competence found that only one of four scales, peer acceptance, was related to levels of DAP in the classroom (Jambunathan, Burts, & Pierce, 1999). Two studies of adaptive skills, including such domains as communication, socialization, and activities of daily living, found no differences between children in DAP classrooms and children in classrooms that were not DAP (Marcon, 1992, 1993). Taken together, the results from numerous studies suggest that DAP helps children develop a variety of psychosocial skills. Although the findings for psychosocial outcomes are more consistent, results of many existing studies of DAP may be compromised by methodological flaws. Perhaps the most serious of these flaws is the widespread failure to use analyses appropriate to nested designs—that is, using a EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES 21 design that examines multiple children within a single classroom without the use of appropriate analytical methods (Van Horn et al., 2005; Van Horn & Ramey, 2004). Commonly used analyses, such as regression and ANOVA, assume that each observation in a data set is independent of the others, conditional on the variables in the model. In a nested design, children are linked by classroom, and typically the outcomes for children within a classroom are more similar to each other than those of children from other classrooms or schools (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). When analyses fail to account for nesting, standard errors will be underestimated and hypothesis tests will be overly liberal (Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992; Heck & Thomas, 2000; Hox, 1995, 1998). The extent to which the violation of this assumption affects results depends on the degree to which outcomes are more similar within classrooms than between classrooms (measured by the intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]) and the number of children assessed per classroom (Murray, 1998). Many of the studies of DAP include only a small number of classrooms, with a large number of students in each classroom; and child outcomes are often fairly highly clustered within classrooms and schools (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002; Van Horn & Ramey, 2003). Thus, analyses often result in serious violation of the assumption of independence, potentially invalidating the results. In a recent review of the literature on the effects of DAP, Van Horn and colleagues (2005) used Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the amount of bias present in previous research on the effects of DAP. They found that only five of 23 results reported in the literature that found significant effects of DAP would have been likely to be significant under realistic levels of ICCs if the appropriate analyses had been conducted. Only three of the five effects that remained significant when appropriate analyses were conducted found positive effects of DAP on social skills. The current study will further investigate the effects of DAP on children’s social skills. DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF DAP An additional area of research on the effects of DAP involves investigating the possibility that effects may vary across individual children. Existing research on differential effects of DAP across ethnicity and gender is sparse and has found equivocal results. Some evidence suggests that boys in classrooms lower in DAP experience more stress than boys in high-DAP classrooms, whereas no such differences exist for girls (Burts et al., 1992; Burts et al., 1990). Another study found that boys in classes that emphasized socioemotional development performed better on a measure of adaptive skills than boys in classes that emphasized academic development (Marcon, 1993). For girls, however, this pattern was reversed, with girls in classrooms that emphasized academic development performing better than girls in classes that emphasized socioemotional development (Marcon, 1993). Still other researchers, however, have found no gender differences (Marcon, 1999; Stipek et al., 1995). There is even less information about the differential effects of DAP across ethnicities. One study reported no differences between African American and White children in DAP classrooms on measures of stress, but found that African American and White children in less-DAP classrooms reacted stressfully to different activities, and that they tended to be involved in different activities as well (Burts et al., 1992). It is important to learn if different groups of children are affected differentially by exposure to DAP; if so, then some groups may be placed at a disadvantage by its use. 22 VAN HORN, KARLIN, RAMEY Although the DAP guidelines propose implementing DAP in classrooms serving children from birth through age 8 (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997), only two of the studies mentioned above examined effects of DAP in 1st grade. One study found that children exhibited greater stress when engaging in computer activities that were less DAP than activities that were more DAP (Ruckman, Burts, & Pierce, 1999). Another study found that children in DAP classrooms demonstrated higher social skills than children in less-DAP classrooms (Jones & Gullo, 1999). No previous research has evaluated the effects of DAP on psychosocial outcomes in 2nd or 3rd grades, although one study looking at the measurement of DAP did find that though the range of DAP remained high across grades, there was a significant but small decrease in average levels of DAP from 1st through 3rd grades (Buchanan, Burts, Bidner, White, & Charlesworth, 1998). A review of the literature suggests that methodologically sophisticated research evaluating the effects of DAP in general and the effects of DAP on different groups of students is needed, and that evaluations of the effects of DAP on students at the upper end of the age range for which the guidelines are intended are especially important (Van Horn et al., 2005). AIMS This study had two major aims: (1) to examine the extent to which DAP implemented in 1stthrough 3rd-grade classrooms is associated with parent ratings of children’s social skills and problem behaviors and (2) to examine the extent to which the effects of classroom DAP on social skills and problem behaviors vary across child ethnicity and gender. Analyses use multilevel and longitudinal methods, which consider the nested data structure and eliminate bias in estimates of standard errors. Parent (rather than teacher) ratings of social skills are used in these analyses for theoretical and methodological reasons. Theoretically, the use of parent ratings allows for an assessment of whether the effects of DAP generalize beyond the classroom. Further, DAP classrooms are structured differently than non-DAP classrooms, allowing more opportunities for social interaction. It is possible that students’ social behaviors in the classroom differ because of structural differences, but that those differences do not reflect differences in underlying levels of social competence. Using parent ratings, which are largely independent of classrooms, we are able to examine whether children in DAP classrooms differ in social skills when in environments that, on average, should not be related to DAP. Second, because the DAP guidelines emphasize positive assessments of students, using teacher reports of social skills introduces a potential bias such that teachers conforming more to the DAP guidelines may give higher ratings because of their use of DAP. In the current study, we used a well-established parent-rated measure of social skills and problem behaviors as the outcome of interest. METHOD Data for this study were collected as part of the National Head Start Public School Early Childhood Transition Demonstration Project, a 6-year longitudinal intervention trial that followed the progress of former Head Start children and selected classmates from kindergarten through 3rd grade. Two consecutive cohorts in 30 sites were enrolled. The U.S. Congress legislated and funded this study to test the proposition that providing comprehensive Head Start-like EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES 23 services to children and families from kindergarten through the 3rd grade would improve former Head Start children’s academic, social, and health outcomes (Ramey et al., 2001). Schools that agreed to participate in the study were randomly assigned to either a transition demonstration group or a comparison group (for results from the overall study, see Ramey et al., 2001). Preliminary analyses for the current study examined the extent to which use of DAP differed between randomly assigned transition demonstration versus comparison schools, as well as other schools to which children moved over the course of their first 4 years in public school. Analyses examined whether classrooms in the transition demonstration schools had higher levels of DAP than those in the comparison schools (random effects models were used, with classrooms nested within schools and treatment modeled as a school level variable) for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades. Results indicate higher DAP scores only in the first year of this study and that the effect size was quite small. This study focused on how naturally occurring variation in DAP relates to changes in student social skills. The entire sample, including students in transition and comparison schools, is included in the analyses. Participants Participants included children, their classrooms, and their schools. Outcomes were measured at the child level, and the primary predictors—DAP factor scores—at the classroom and school levels. The schools cover every major geographic area of the United States, include rural and urban areas, and are ethnically diverse as a whole. After the study began, principal investigators from the local sites realized the limitations of the tool being used to measure DAP, the Assessment Profile (Abbott-Shim & Sibley, 1992; Abbott-Shim, Sibley, & Neel, 1998). The Assessment Profile was designed to measure classroom environments in preschool settings rather than to assess DAP in elementary grades. Accordingly, a new rating tool, called A Developmentally Appropriate Practices Template (ADAPT), was developed, for which Margo Gottlieb assumed primary authorship (Gottlieb, 1995, 1997). ADAPT was administered in three consecutive years, yielding data from...
Purchase answer to see full attachment
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Explanation & Answer

Find the attached completed paper. If you have another one please invite me to bid. Thanks.

Running head: DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY SCHOOL YEARS

Development in Early School Years
Student’s Name
Institution

1

DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY SCHOOL YEARS

2

Development in Early School Years
Domain
:

Overview/Explan
ation of the
domain in relation
to the age/stage of
the young learner

Noteworth
y
milestones

Physical Better muscle
coordination

The child
can run
around
with ease

Cogniti
ve

Increased
ability to
add and
subtract
and relate
to spatial
differences

The child is able
to count to 100

Social/
Emotion Greater interest in
al
social activities
and games

Oral/
Langua
ge

Ability to read
and comprehend
longer sentences.

The
children
identify
gender
differences

Teaching/Learn
ing: How can
you
remediate/enric
h learners at
this level?
Significant
physical
activities

Environmen Cultural/Contex
tal
tual Factors
Considerati
ons

Active
involvement in
mathematical
concepts and
the improved
relationship of
concepts to the
environment

Having
charts
indicating
various
concepts of
the
environmen
t and spatial
relations
Having a
classroom
setting that
encourages
students to
sit in pairs

Encouraging
interacti...


Anonymous
Just the thing I needed, saved me a lot of time.

Studypool
4.7
Trustpilot
4.5
Sitejabber
4.4

Related Tags