CHAPTER 12
Introduction to Play Therapy
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The natural therapeutic qualities of play lend even greater emphasis to the importance of
play for child development. Play therapy has its roots in the psychoanalytic tradition, but,
over the years, theorists and practitioners modified the practical applications of this
tradition to develop several approaches. The fundamental tenets of child-centered play
therapy are rooted in the beliefs that children play out their phobias, feelings, and emotions
and that play has natural healing powers. Play therapy is now successfully conducted with
children of all age groups and in individual, family, clinical, school, hospital, and group
contexts. It is also successfully implemented with children who have experienced natural
and human-made disasters such as hurricanes and tsunamis. This chapter includes
information on the rapidly growing body of research showing that play itself is therapeutic,
that teachers can be trained to employ play therapy techniques, and group therapy can be
meaningfully employed in school where many children are experiencing adjustment and
traumatic disorders.
TEACHING OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER
A. To introduce the idea of play therapy that play can be used to heal mental and
emotional damage caused by the child's experiences.
B. To discuss the foundations of play therapy, including psychoanalytic theory of
Sigmund Freud, as well as the modifications suggested by Anna Freud, Melanie Klein
and Carl Jung.
C. To discuss the components of modern play therapy, including setting up the
playroom, the materials and the relationship of the therapist with the child that are
beneficial to play. The modern principles of play therapy are based on the studies of
Virginia Axline.
D. Other modern approaches to play therapy are discussed including group play
therapy, filial therapy and theraplay.
E. The potential positive benefits of play therapy are discussed including general
functioning, elimination of phobias, academic performance and creativity.
KEY TERM DEFINITIONS
Axline’s eight basic play principles: Principles of child-centered play therapy developed
by Virginia Axline. In these eight principles the therapist must: establish a warm, friendly
relationship; accept the child as s/he is; create a permissive relationship that allows the
child to express his/her feelings completely; recognize and reflect back the child’s feelings
to help him/her understand his/her behavior; respect the child’s ability to solve his/her
own problems; set only the limitations necessary to help the child accept responsibility; not
attempt to direct the child’s actions or conversation; not attempt to hurry therapy.
Bonding: Forming a close relationship with another person and enabling attachment.
Catharsis: Purging emotions; in therapy is related to a type of release therapy in which a
client is able to deal with their emotions and release tensions associated with difficult
emotions.
Child-centered play therapy: A type of play therapy utilizing the nondirective therapy
approach, in which play is viewed as therapeutic and a means of establishing a secure
relationship between child and adult. The child is at the center of this model because s/he
has freedom to make choices and express him/herself as desired. Developed by Axline, it is
based on the assumption that the individual has within herself the ability to solve her own
problems and the drive to mature behavior.
Client-centered therapy: Also called nondirective therapy this was developed by
relationship therapist Carl Rogers. The emphasis is on the well person rather than the sick
person, and works toward client self-actualization by trying to understand the client, and
help the client understand and accept whatever conscious attitudes they hold at the
moment.
Child life program: Developed by the Association for the Care of Children’s Health (ACCH),
this program focuses on minimizing stress and anxiety and promoting self-esteem and
independence for children and adolescents facing medical care. Other child life programs
developed and require a trained child life specialist who can work in a variety of healthcare
settings to help alleviate stress and anxiety of children preparing, entering, or recovering
from medical treatment.
Ego: A concept developed by Freud, this is the conscious function of the self, and relates to
the mediation between id and reality.
Filial therapy: Developed by Guerney, this is a model for training parents to conduct
weekly home play therapy sessions with their children. Common outcomes of this
approach are both changed behavior of the child and changed parental perceptions of the
child.
Id: A concept developed by Freud, this is the unconscious function of the self, and relates to
one’s basic desires.
Medical play: A type of play that allows children to deal with and cope with any fear or
stress they may feel due to impending medical procedures. It may include talking with the
child about her fears, providing medical play props, reinforcing the child’s accurate
perceptions, and gently guiding the child to explore medical events through play.
Oedipus complex: A concept developed by Freud, refers to the feelings surrounding the
natural impulse of children to crave exclusive love, usually from the parent of the opposite
sex.
Release therapy: Developed by Levy, this is a structured approach in which the therapist
determines the cause of a child’s difficulty by studying his/her case history, then controls
the play by providing selected toys expected to assist in working out the child’s problem.
The therapist then asks questions about the child’s feelings and thoughts and observes the
child’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors during play. At times the therapist plays with the
child or even models play for the child.
Resistance: The defensive striving against painful memories or experiences that can lead
to forgetting and keeping experiences repressed and out of consciousness. It is the
unconscious process of rejecting or attempting to discard unwelcome impulses or
unconscious neuroses.
Self-actualization: Self-fulfillment; the process or state in which a person feels they can or
have become the best they can become.
Structured play therapy: A type of play therapy based on the belief that the therapist is
more aware than the child of the child’s needs. Consequently, the therapist designs the
activity, selects the medium, and makes the rules.
Structuring: The process therapists use to convey to the child the special nature of the
therapeutic relationship. The child and the therapist enter the playroom, and the therapist
structures the situation by stating what is available and letting the child know what s/he
can do.
Superego: A concept developed by Freud, this is the “conscience” function of the self and
refers to the regulation and moralizing part of the self.
Theraplay: A form of play and therapy designed for family participation. The delicate
interplay of the early bonding ritual between mother and child form the basis for theraplay.
The therapy is purposefully physical, sensorimotor play intended to engage the senses and
to replicate earlier child–parent bonding rituals. With roots in psychoanalysis,
developmental psychology, and nursery school practice, the theraplay process is a mix of
empathy and adult authority with the goal of treating troubled children and reducing
mental illness.
Therapy hour: The scheduled time for play therapy (often 45 minutes), this is a time for
children to use the materials in the playroom as they wish, within limits. As the child
initially explores the materials in the playroom, the therapist conveys permissiveness and
support through her whole being—tone of voice, facial expressions, and actions.
Transference: Attitudes transferred by the client to the therapist that were originally
transferred to the parent or other significant person. In transference, the patient perceives
the therapist as the representative of his original repressed reactions. The patient creates,
in relationship to the therapist, new editions of early conflicts during which the patient
behaves as he originally behaved.
What is play therapy? Why is play therapy needed? Play therapy is based on the
psychoanalytic idea the play is beneficial and healing for children. Children often
experience traumatic experiences that need to be worked out and traditional therapy that
is effective with adults does not work with children. Play therapy can also be used to
prevent trauma in emotional situations.
What is the evidence indicating that play is therapeutic? Play is the medium for
children's expression and can also be a cathartic release of emotional experiences.
Therapists can relate to the child during play through verbal discussion.
How did play therapy originate and expand over the 20th century? Who were the major
players and what were the major approaches? What were the philosophical likenesses and
differences? Play therapy originated with Sigmund Freud and the psychoanalytic
movement. Freud's theories of children's play were expanded by his followers Anna Freud,
Melanie Klein and Carl Jung. Carl Jung developed the idea that neurosis was caused by
suppressed symptoms. Melanie Klein and Anna Freud took the ideas of psychoanalysis and
applied them to children, they did not use traditional psychotherapy instead they
developed the idea that play is therapeutic.
What were the major principles of Freudian psychoanalysis? Freudian psychoanalysis is
based on the idea that emotions can be released through cathartic experiences, children
repeat experiences in play that are repressed.
What individuals are most responsible for modifying psychoanalysis into play therapy?
What modifications did they make to psychoanalysis? Anna Freud and Melanie Klein are
the first to truly apply therapy to play. Carl Rogers and Virginia Axline developed
nondirective therapy and child-centered play therapy.
What are the fundamental reasons for the emergence of client-centered or childcentered play therapy? Client-centered play therapy is based on the idea that the
therapist does not need to direct the analysis, rather she should concentrate on
understanding the client. This understanding will allow the clients themselves to reach a
better understanding.
How should the playroom be set up? What materials are needed? Why are these materials
appropriate? Are there toys you would not place in the playroom? Why? Playrooms can be
set up in many different ways and many different materials can be used. The important
point is that the environment feels safe and secure and the materials need to allow the
child to express what they are feeling.
What are the major roles of the therapist in child-centered play therapy? How
would you introduce the child to the playroom? How would you establish rapport with
the child? How would you conduct the therapy session? The major role of the play
therapist in child- centered play therapy is to reflect back the feelings and emotions of the
child and to create a safe environment where the child can express himself.
Should limitations be placed on children in therapy? If so, describe the limitations and
defend your answer. Limits are important in play therapy, the child must not damage
materials, hurt others or himself during the play. The allowance of hurting or destruction
may encourage the child to see destruction and pain as appropriate responses.
Select the individual whom you believe has been the leading play therapist. Why did you
select this individual? Compare his or her contributions to other leading therapists.
Virginia Axline's principles for child-centered play therapy have endured for many years as
the foundation for play therapy.
How have Axline's eight basic principles of play therapy influenced the field of play
therapy? The principles of play therapy provide general guidelines that other therapists
can use to structure their own approaches. They are important because they outline the
relationship of the therapist with the child and the limits that the play therapy session
requires.
For which disabilities or problems is play therapy effective? Play therapy can be
effective for a number of disabilities or problems including phobias, temper tantrums,
child abuse, social and emotional adjustment, and academic difficulties.
What does research say about the effectiveness of play therapy? What are the present
limitations of play therapy research? The effectiveness of play therapy is generally
positive; however, some studies have found that play therapy had little benefit in some
short-term situations.
Can and should play therapy be successfully conducted in elementary school classrooms? By
classroom teachers? In hospitals? In playgrounds? By playground supervisors, play leaders, or play
workers? Why or why not? Play therapy is therapy and it is very important that only
people especially trained in the field take on therapy of children. It can be carried out in many
settings like hospitals and playgrounds.
In your opinion, what is the future of play therapy? Defend your answer. Currently play therapy is
growing as the beneficial effects are demonstrated. It will become important in the
future to demonstrate how play therapy relates to the hard sciences of neurological brain
development.
CHAPTER 11
Computers and Technology as Emerging Tools
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Current research on children’s use of computers and other forms of technology are placed
in historical perspectives. Research on technology and play is increasing to keep up with
new technology developments. Much of what we know about the effects of technology play
on child development is based on older children’s play and play activities but research with
younger children is expanding and implications for teacher’s and caretakers are gradually
emerging. In this chapter, readers are guided to new standards and research and alerted to
the serious concerns that many have for the implications of technology play for children’s
development.
TEACHING OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER
A. To review the history of technology and play over several centuries, including the most
recent influences of media and computers on play.
B. To discuss the synergy of technology and media that create new was of engaging in play,
and the various types of play that have resulted from media/technology synergies.
C. To discuss various platforms of computer, mobile, and online play spaces, and examine
the various ways players engage in online play, including multiple online role-playing
games (MORGs).
D. To review how media and technology are connected to commercialism and the ways
in which children are positioned via marketing and commercial interests.
E. To review the various perspectives on the viability of children’s media play,
including discussion about how adults might supervise children’s technology play.
KEY TERM DEFINITIONS
Avatar: A game manifestation, appearance, or incarnation of the real-world player; a
representation of the virtual identity, utilized by a real-world player.
Internet: A collection of interconnected computer networks that allow users to
communicate with other users in virtual space, and includes individual, commercial,
governmental, educational and entities.
Media: A form or means of communication.
Online: The state of being connected to another person or computer via a combination of a
web-enabled electronic device (i.e. a computer, or a web-enabled phone) and the internet.
Platform: The hardware, or device, on which particular software programs can be played.
Synergy: A combination of different media and technology that creates something totally
new.
Technology: A means for accomplishing a task, developed via a practical application of
information and understanding. Technology has evolved over time, from early technology
such as the compass, and printing press to more recent technology such as computers and
mobile phones.
Virtual: Not physical, but present within a technology. We call something virtual when it
has some qualities of a real thing (e.g., appearance, action, sound), but is not real (i.e., it
appears only on a flat screen).
How does the technology of the 21st century differ from the technology of the 19th century?
How do those differences make a difference in how children play, in terms of the toys they
use and the context of their play? Froebel developed some of his gifts and occupations to
help children practice technical processes, and later industrialization allowed such items
to be manufactured as toys for home use. The development of manufacturing also allowed
toy makers to mass-produce toys, including miniature versions of technological advances
(i.e. toy trains, and automata – mechanical figures with precision clockworks). More
recently, 21st century technology has included objects associated with various media
influences and content from popular culture, and many new types of devices such as
computers, mobile phones, and gaming systems. In the 19th century, children utilized
mostly hands-on materials and toys made of wood, metal, cloth, and fabric, and could use
the physical objects to hold, manipulate, and use for pretend. In the 20th century, while
physical toys still exist, technology such as computers, mobile phones, and the internet
allow for children to also play games and imaginary worlds using virtual objects. For
example, in the 1800s, a child could have a tea party with a doll, manipulating it, feeling its
porcelain or cloth face, moving its arms and legs, brushing its hair, making clothes for it,
smelling the tea stained on its face. In the 2000s children can still do this, but could also
watch a movie about the doll, buy clothes for the doll and matching clothes for self, or play
a video game with a virtual version of the doll, using a mouse to brush its hair, change its
clothes, feed it, and possibly have a tea party with it (if the game is designed for such
things).
What is the difference between players being consumers of media and players playing
with media? Players playing with media may use media influences as inspirations for their
play, and may include in their play devices with media communication properties. Players
as consumers of media combine play with commercialism, and may be inclined to buy
things in order to facilitate their play.
Think about play that occurs outside the home (or classroom). How might that play be
transferred into the home (or classroom)? What are some examples from earlier eras of
play that have moved from out of the home to into the home? As technology changed,
some play that occurred outside the home/classroom could move inside: earlier arcade
games became available on personal computers; children’s entertainment (previously
puppet shows, plays) came into the home (or classroom) first via radios and television
programming, and later through movies, and websites. Pretend play also has new
possibilities in the home/classroom: children can pretend via MORGs with children from
other locations, and communicate with kids in other cities or even countries. In the
classroom, children can now take virtual field trips via websites and online video sites, and
they can even design their own media and toys through easily-accessible programming
and robotics.
Think about play that began as activity for older people, such as adults or teens. How does
that play become part of younger children’s play worlds? Many video games and online
games were originally designed for adolescents and adults, but game developers now
design games for even very young children. Touch-screen technology and handheld
devices enable young children to access video and online games even if they cannot yet
read. These types of play become part of children’s play worlds when parents provide
them, and/or when friends, or older siblings share them.
Locate a computer game (perhaps online). What connection does that game have to other
media (such as movies, television, music, books), or other games (real or virtual)? What
synergy can you identify? Was the game generated from the media, or did the game serve
as a basis for the media? Answers will vary. Have students discuss the differences
between video games that spawned media, games that were developed in response to
media, games that were designed as platforms for advertising, and games that were
designed for educational use.
What thinking skills are necessary for players of online games? What do they need to
know, and how does technology enable them to learn? Players have to learn to navigate
the virtual play world, develop strategies for advancing and winning, decipher signs, learn
game rules, and properly manipulate equipment to proceed through the game. They need
to have some understanding of how the equipment and visual output work together, and
the game must be the appropriate level of difficulty for the player to remain engaged and
to learn. If well designed, a game will have enough information to allow the player to
begin, and will provide enough success and motivation that the player will wish to
continue and progress.
How is the social world of technology play different for contemporary players? How does
it differ from traditional, interactive play? What new layers of social relationships are part
of the online play world? Both traditionally and currently, players can get together and
decide how to play, comment on each other’s’ play, support each other, and have fun
together. However, with online gaming, children are now able to socialize with others who
are not physically present, including players who are unknown (and could be friendly or
unfriendly). While gesture, facial expression, and tone of voice are common modalities
utilized in traditional interactive play, in online play the availability of these modalities is
varied (or even limited/non-existent). Players can also learn from each other and
participate in other social environments related to the game, such as online cheat sites.
Locate an online role-playing game for a young child. What skills must the player have to
begin playing the game? What online resources support these skills? Could this child play
the game without adult assistance? Answers will vary. In addition to considering the
elements within the selected game, remind students to consider the age of the child, and
that child’s physical (i.e. fine motor) skills, and their reading/writing skills in relation to
the available assistance.
Ask a child to describe what is going on while he plays an online game. Is the child telling a
story? What story elements are present: character, setting, motivation, plot, and so on?
Answers will vary. Remind students that the possibility of story depends on the type of
game played. Some online games offer practice for various skills (i.e. matching, memory,
etc.) while other games involve some type of role-play.
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