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the second part of the paper, data analysis, results and conclusions. (qualitative quantitative research). I have completed the research through a questionnaire and have received the 20 responses I needed. Basically I want you to help me complete my thesis and write around 9500 words.I would like you to deal with chapters 6 and 7, the ones on research. The paper must be written according to the apa 7 system
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Democritus University of Thrace
Interdepartmental ProgramPostgraduate Studies
Science Teaching and ModernTechnologies
Postgraduate Diplomatic Work
"The cultivation of students' communication skills in the epistemological
and intercultural dimension of modern education"
Supervisor:
Kavala, Year 2025
Democritus University of Thrace
Interdepartmental ProgramPostgraduate Studies
Didactic of Scientist and Modern Technologies
Postgraduate Diplomatic Work
"The cultivation of students' communication skills in the epistemological and
intercultural dimension of modern education"
Supervisor:
Approved from the three-member commission at /
……………………Name Adjective
……………………Name Adjective
……………………Name Adjective
Kavala, Year 2024
2
/
STATEMENT NON
RESPONSIBILITY
PLAGIARISM
AND
WITHDRAWAL
PERSONNEL
With complete awareness of consequences of law about spiritual rights, declare
undersigned that I am exclusive author her present Postgraduate Diplomatic Work (MDE),
for the integration her whose eachassistance is fully recognized and detailed in this MDE.
I have fully and clearly cited all sources of data use, opinions, places and proposals, ideas
and verbal reports, either against literally, or based on scientific paraphrase. I undertake
the personal and individual responsibility that in case failure in the implementation of
above declared data, I am liable for plagiarism, which means failure in my MDE and
consequently failure to obtain a Degree, in addition to the other consequences of copyright
law. I declare, therefore, that this MDE was prepared and completed by me personally and
exclusively and that, I fully assume all the consequences of the law in case against the
which proven, over time, that or work she or part her notmy belongs to because it is product
plagiarism another's spiritual property.
Signature (monograph)
Date (Day – Month – Year)
3
Table of Contents
Supervisor:........................................................................................................................ 1
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................. 6
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................. 8
Cognitive Dimension .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 The Cognitive Dimension in Education ........................................................................................ 8
2.2 Learning ...................................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Communication Skills: Definitions and Their Importance ......................................................... 15
3.2 The Use of the Internet and its Advantages in the Educational Sector ....................................... 20
CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Greece: A Historical Crossroads of Civilizations ....................................................................... 25
4.2 The Protection of Refugees through International Conventions. ................................................ 26
4.3 Education in Greece: Challenges in the 21st century . .................................................................... 29
4.4 Education in Greece: Interculturality and Educational Perspectives .......................................... 30
4.5 .......................... Strengthening Students' Communication Skills through Intercultural Education
.......................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.6 Difficulties in Intercultural Education ........................................................................................ 40
5.1 The Influence of Environments on Students' Cognitive Development ....................................... 42
5.2 Social Environment: A Determinant Factor for the Student's Cognitive Development ............. 45
5.3 The Influence of the School Environment on the Student's Cognitive Development. ................ 46
5.4 Family Environment: Support or Obstacle to the Student's Cognitive Development ................. 49
CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................... 51
6.1 Purpose of the research ............................................................................................................... 51
6.2 Research Methodology ............................................................................................................... 52
6.3 Research Design.......................................................................................................................... 53
6.4 Sampling Method ........................................................................................................................ 54
6.5 Data Collection Instrument ......................................................................................................... 56
6.6 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER 7 ........................................................................................................................... 59
7.1 Data Organization ....................................................................................................................... 59
7.1 Quantitative Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 60
7.11 School-Family Collaboration ................................................................................... 60
7.12 Intercultural Education Implementation .................................................................. 63
7.13 Technology Integration ............................................................................................ 66
7.2 Qualitative Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 69
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7.21 Thematic Analysis of Open-Ended Responses ........................................................ 69
7.3 Key Findings ............................................................................................................................... 74
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 77
Limitations and Future Research ...................................................................................................... 77
Practical Implications........................................................................................................................ 80
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 82
5
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the conditions under which, the The cultivation of
communication skills can contribute to the epistemological and intercultural dimension of
education, which is reflected in the best possible cognitive training and development of
students' interculturality.
Today's societies, due to the new conditions that have arisen from the formation of multicultural
societies, open borders and the free movement of ideas, have undoubtedly led to the reshaping
of education. People are faced with significant political, social and cultural changes, and this
adaptation is becoming particularly difficult. In a society in which individual freedom is
guaranteed, citizens will be protected from the abuse of power, and through education they will
be given the opportunity to know the natural world based on critical thinking and sound reason.
Then, citizens who manage to acquire this education will be in a position to respect the human
rights of all, free institutions and will exercise sound criticism of values and rules. Their
relationships will be determined by mutual respect and equality (Barbarousis, 2022). Perroti
mentions the need to perceive immigrants as individuals who wish to express themselves and
be accepted by society and not as ghettoized communities ( Perroti , 1997, pp.124-125).
Education is considered a fundamental element of a country's culture and a necessary condition
for the smooth functioning of society. Therefore, the contribution of education contributes to
the fight against xenophobia, racism and all kinds of stereotypes. It promotes a climate of open
dialogue and free expression of ideas, with the aim of cultivating tolerance and respect for
different opinions and origins. The rapid restructuring that has prevailed in recent decades in
the cultural arena, due to the immigrant and refugee profile of influx groups, requires citizens
with a conscience and education. And these foundations are built through the moral education
that must be provided in schools (Barbarousis, 2022). Children from different cultures interact
with each other more and more often, thus providing parents and teachers with unique
opportunities to strengthen intercultural understanding. In these circumstances, it is not
surprising that classrooms have become the focus of efforts to achieve this understanding. The
notion that schools reach all children, regardless of their background, remains relevant today.
After all, inclusion has emerged both in the field of education and in societies in general and
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advocates the integration and integration of all into the whole regardless of the differences or
difficulties that each individual may face. Supporting children from different cultures to
maximize their potential, while adapting to each other, requires innovative strategies from
parents, teachers and policymakers ( Elliott , et al ., 2000).
Therefore, the cultivation of communication skills is an important chapter in the educational
process and a cornerstone in the foundation of modern education. In order for there to be social
interaction and coexistence between groups of different cultural and cognitive origins, constant
communication is necessary. However, this communication is not a sterile communication
limited to the exchange of information only, but it is a communication that supports and
promotes essential dialogue, critical thinking, understanding of different cultural and linguistic
backgrounds, different values and traditions and different cultures. In other words,
communication is not limited only to language, but goes beyond these borders and extends to
the skills of managing people with different cultural backgrounds and cultures and empathy
towards these groups. Therefore, modern education should aim to promote the epistemological
and intercultural dimensions of communication, with the first concerning the cultivation of
students' skills to communicate clearly and decode complex concepts, and the second
concerning communication and interaction within multicultural contexts that accept and
understand diversity.
7
CHAPTER 2
Cognitive Dimension
2.1 The Cognitive Dimension in Education
Democracy, philosophy, sciences and arts are considered among the unique achievements of
Greek civilization that are universally accepted, having global significance and concerning all
humanity, regardless of race, language and cultural background. Through these principles,
peace, unity of the world, knowledge through creative thinking and reconciliation of peoples
are promoted. Therefore, philosophy contributes to rational thought and its organization
(Barbarousis, 2022).
W olff (one of the most important German philosophers), argued that philosophy is defined as
the science of the possible , opposing the view that the main task of philosophy is the
knowledge of the real. In contrast, Rudiger, (a German physicist and philosopher), argued that
true philosophy must connect its concepts with reality, and this connection is possible only
through sensory perception. Modern philosophy, within the framework of epistemology, gives
priority to internal experience, which creates doubts about the possibility of knowing the
external world ( Windelband & Heimsoeth , 2005 ).
Epistemology is a basic branch of philosophy and examines issues related to knowledge,
especially the relationship between science and philosophy. It is the scientific study of
knowledge and its difference from belief (Stavropoulos, 2014; Roussopoulos, 2009). It
concerns the philosophical study of knowledge, its nature, its requirements and its limitations.
The purpose of this philosophical approach is for people to understand in a provisional way the
reasons and means thanks to which knowledge seems to deserve or even require philosophical
investigation. The field of epistemology is one of the oldest fields in philosophy ( BonJour ,
1943). Plato's epistemology was an attempt to understand the individual what knowledge is
and how knowledge benefits the knower ( Neta M. & Neta R .,2024). The Platonic perspective
argues that the epistemological dimension concerns the conventionality of the phenomenal
world and the “truth” that arises from the empirical substrate. In this context, Plato
distinguishes the immanent from the transcendent, while at the same time differentiating the
subject from the object of knowledge. He argues that reason can lead to knowledge of the
absolute without relying on the senses. Furthermore, he separates the information provided by
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sensory experiences from knowledge, which is found in the world of the intellect (Papalexiou,
power point ). According to Fine , who states in the book that although Plato’s views are often
considered controversial, some modern epistemologists support the position that knowledge
constitutes a high-level cognitive achievement, which requires an understanding of how and
why events occur and how they are related to each other ( Fine , 2003, p.7). In the long history
of epistemology, many different aspects have attracted the attention of the sciences ( Neta M.
& Neta R. ,2024).
Socrates identified knowledge with virtue and expressed crucial questions such as , “What is
knowledge and how do we acquire it?” , referring to the way in which man lives. There are
three approaches to thinking about knowledge. Initially, it is considered as knowledge that
something is true, as knowledge of how we can do something and as knowledge in the sense
that something is familiar to us, that we know it. Furthermore, “it is argued that knowledge is
acquired through sensory perception, that it is true belief and that it is justified true belief”. The
first version was rejected by Plato, as knowledge presupposes judgment, which constitutes a
mental process, and not a function of the senses. The second version was also rejected by Plato
because it argued that one can have true beliefs without them constituting knowledge, since the
factors that contributed to their formation do not meet the requirements related to the standards
of knowledge. Plato supported the third version that "knowledge is true judgment with
justification or explanation, that is, with reason" ( Grayling , 2021, p. ?).
Knowledge is a springboard for the development of human thought and human action. It is a
product of human intellectual processing and is based on the cooperation and mutual influence
of logic and experience, which are two of the most basic elements for the development of
knowledge (Dafermos, 2009). The philosophical theories that have had an influence on the
development and formation of knowledge and at the same time continue to influence modern
educational reality are empiricism and rationalism. The theory of empiricism argues that
knowledge is developed and acquired through experience and sensory perception of things and
the environment (Kalogirou, 2015), while the theory of rationalism argues that knowledge, and
its subsequent acquisition and assimilation, is the product of a completely logical relationship
(Kazazis, 2004).
Knowledge forms a whole, which has a specific structure, and understanding some things
presupposes the prior understanding of other sciences ( Neta M. & Neta R .,2024). Rene
Descartes ( Rene Descartes ) or according to the Hellenized name Cartesius, was a well-known
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French philosopher and argued that beliefs that are guaranteed and true can truly be considered
knowledge. One must accept, that is, exclusively clear and distinct ideas, about which there is
not the slightest doubt ( BonJour , 1943). According to Descartes, knowledge has its
foundations in sound reason and therefore its beliefs constitute indisputable and irrefutable
elements. These irrefutable beliefs of knowledge, which Descartes spoke of, individuals have
the ability to reproduce through fruitful and systematic doubt. After all, according to Descartes,
the famous saying “I think, therefore I am” (1637/2018, pp. 32-36) is the starting point for the
investigation and construction of knowledge by philosophers. In contrast to the supporters of
rationalism, empiricists argue that the senses are the powerful elements that structure
knowledge about the world. Through sensory perception, the data that individuals perceive
from their environment are imprinted and established in their minds. For empiricists, the senses
play a significant role and their theory is based on the fact that knowledge is nothing more than
the formulation of the impressions that people perceive with their senses.
Pavlos G. states that epistemological knowledge, as understood by theorists, is nothing more
than "a peculiar dialogue between man and nature, and this dialogue depends on the situation
in which man finds himself." Additionally, he states, "that when someone refers to
epistemology, they mean the possibility or impossibility or the degree of possibility regarding
the knowledge of reality. It focuses on the path towards the knowledge of being, being and the
real. A philosopher's journey towards knowledge" (Pavlou, 2015, p.31).
According to traditional epistemology, the primary point of learning is defined as knowledge
itself, which contains objective truth, unchangeable, absolute and without any negotiation. The
presentation of the truth of decisions and propositions is presented as irrefutable and objective,
regardless of who formulates it or the cultural context in which it is found. Modern
epistemologists have focused their interest not on knowledge itself, but on the bearers of
knowledge and the social contexts in which it is formed. The new epistemological trend in
education does not place at the center of its interest what students will learn and why they will
learn it, but on the way in which they will learn it, that is, it focuses on the way young people
are educated and not on the content of knowledge, through group activities and activities that
require their active participation. Regarding the epistemological dimension in the field of
education, one observes that it is divided into two distinct trends: aretaic and social
epistemology. In aretaic epistemology, emphasis is placed on the evaluation of an individual's
abilities in the cognitive part, such as understanding information and not on the beliefs that he
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has developed through the knowledge he has received. Social epistemology concerns
knowledge, not at an individualistic level but in a broader social context within which it has
developed. The personal approach and beliefs of the teacher are taken into account, while often,
in collaboration with students, relying on already existing knowledge, they try to offer different
interpretations, based on their own attitudes and perceptions. Social epistemology in the field
of education arises from the actors of its formation and from systems of meanings and needs.
It therefore follows that the process of acquiring knowledge and the methodologically designed
path towards it is determined by the experiences and personal experiences of individuals, but
also by their general perception and attitude towards life. In this case, knowledge is not treated
as an authority, but is open to further interpretation and analysis. In the effort to apply this
perception in school, teachers together with students shape knowledge through a critical
process, based on investigating questions and formulating positions (Voutsina, 2016). After all,
the classroom is a microcosm of a broader social group in which individuals, through their
engagement in activities and their intersection with knowledge and experiences, discover
concepts and their origins and see how they are related.
Knowledge is perceived and understood as a result of social, historical, cultural, racial, and
political factors, and is therefore influenced by the sociocultural context and not detached from
it. It comes from the context that shaped it and is reintegrated into it, provided that the
individual has developed a personal relationship with it. Consequently, knowledge is linked in
the learner’s consciousness to their position, perspective, personal experiences, perceptions,
and bodily experienced state. Therefore, its negotiation acquires significance through the
conditions that define and shape it (Voutsina, 2016).
The general propositions that form the basis of all philosophical knowledge are "subjective
necessities", by which the thinking soul realizes its essence ( Windelband & Heimsoeth , 2005,
p. 250).
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2.2 Learning
Learning is an individual process, but at the same time it is also considered a social affair. This
is because the student is educated under the guidance of the teacher and the relationship that
has been formed between them, as well as through interaction with his classmates, parents or
even with a computer. The purpose of learning is to mobilize the cognitive and emotional
system to acquire knowledge. Human behavior is shaped through learning. Through the process
of learning, man has the power to influence society, nature and himself. (Illeris, 2002; Elliott
and al ., 2000) . Because learning is an interactive process that takes place in the classroom,
teachers must create an environment where daily activities flow smoothly, and teaching
facilitates personal connections between new educational material and the individual's preexisting knowledge. At the same time, students' attention is maintained, while they are often
encouraged to produce and utilize information. The material is reviewed and retaught at regular
intervals, as each student learns at different rates and in different ways ( Elliott and al ., 2000)
.
Plato argued that all knowledge is not acquired, but rather is an innate part of the organism
from birth. Learning was seen as an illusion, a simple inability to recall what was already in
the mind. This theory of Plato was called nativism. This particular position argues that the
ability to learn is largely innate, or part of the genetic material of a species, and is largely
independent of any experience acquired after birth. During the 20th century , many thinkers
attempted to explain human learning. It has been argued that organisms are born with an innate
tendency to perceive, react to, and structure various events in a predetermined way after their
birth. In the early 20th century , however, learning was thought to arise mainly from the behavioral
responses of individuals. Learning is considered a collaborative process, in which students
actively participate in setting learning goals, in the process of learning with peers, in group
learning, as well as in peer and group assessment. Raising the awareness of teachers in the
educational sector and designing learning and assessment environments contribute to
facilitating and more effective learning for children (Mikre, 2015).
Every form of learning involves a content of skills. The acquisition of this content is primarily
a cognitive process, involving the dimension of learning described as knowledge or skills. This
process enhances the student’s understanding and abilities, including both knowledge and the
learning of motor skills, both of which are controlled by the central nervous system (Illeris,
2002 p.18). The concept of learning is based on the idea that the human capacity to learn is a
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fundamental element of human life and the ability to survive. Learning is understood as a
totality in which the cognitive, emotional and social dimensions coexist as a single whole
(Illeris, 2002, p.227).
Regarding learning, various theories and proposals have been formulated regarding how not
only learners will be able to achieve better results but also educators will be more effective.
Learning promotes different theoretical approaches regarding teaching methods, which
approaches are related to the way in which the proponents of these theories respond to Guba's
(1990) ontological, epistemological and methodological questions. The ontological approach
concerns the nature of the object we know, the epistemological one to the nature of the
relationship between what is asked and what is expected to be known, and the methodological
one to the way in which the subject should practice in order to ask for what he wishes to acquire
as knowledge.
The most widespread learning theories are the behaviorist and the constructivist, opposite to
each other, but both with a particular structure and organization. Behaviorism in learning, with
Piaget as its main representative, aims at achieving the desired behavior through stimuli and at
rewarding and rewarding after achieving the desired result. Reward, for a successful outcome,
plays a significant role in the entire learning process, as it constitutes the motivation and is the
starting force, so that a behavior can be formed and manifested and, by extension, this positive
behavior, can be reinforced and repeated in the future. Constructivism, or otherwise
constructivism, as a learning theory, is represented by Vygotsky and is mainly an exploratory
learning theory. According to this, students are called upon to build new knowledge and
cognitive stimuli that they receive from their external environment on the basis of pre-existing
knowledge. It is linked to cognitive psychological theory and focuses mainly on the way in
which knowledge is produced in the human mind and argues that mental processes can be the
subject of investigation and further analysis. It is also worth mentioning the inquiry learning
process by which students acquire knowledge by searching for information through questions.
This means that they actively participate in the process of learning and acquiring knowledge
by engaging in research and searching for information. The result of inquiry learning is the
creation of knowledge of general application.
When students with a migrant background are surrounded by native students and are not
concentrated in another school separately from the rest, then their performance increases, as
well as their ambitions. They show progress both in learning the language and in the subjects
13
they attend (Kyrgiou, 2019). As Markou has pointed out, “non-native speakers attend school
not to learn the language, but for the same reasons that all other students attend: to be educated”.
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CHAPTER 3
3.1 Communication Skills: Definitions and Their Importance
Communication is an indispensable tool for meeting the needs of modern life. It is considered
a human need. Effective communication skills, such as clear expression of thoughts and
feelings, verbal and non-verbal communication, active listening, as well as effective response,
facilitate interaction and understanding, regardless of the type of relationship people maintain.
( Eliöz , 2016; Marantos, 1999). Communication is structured in specific stages, which begin
with the formation of the message by the sender and end with its understanding by the receiver
(Kandylaki, 2008).
For communication to be considered successful, it is necessary to effectively use
communication strategies and behaviors among students, between students and teachers. More
specifically, words, facial and body movements, tone of voice, and clothing contribute
decisively to the creation of a system of symbols, which must be interpreted in order to achieve
communication in a school environment that has different communication codes from other
institutions of society. Communication, after all, is more than the ability to speak, listen, and
make correct use of vocabulary ( https://www.ed2go.com/uh/online-courses/interpersonalcommunication/ ) (how to write the reference).
Specifically, it is considered the exchange of information and ideas and is carried out through
non-verbal and verbal processes. Non-verbal communication is an extremely interesting form
of communication. In the family, social and work environment, attitude, behavior and messages
create interactive relationships. It can be characterized as a silent form of interaction between
individuals, without, however, using any verbal means, in order to attract the attention of the
other interlocutor. Specifically, the behavior of one can be perceived as a reaction to the other.
The purpose of its use is to attract interest and express the thoughts of the interlocutor. In
addition, it exerts a great influence on the social environment and on the entire communication
process. Non-verbal communication is considered a regulatory factor in relationships and in
many cases can replace or support verbal communication. It is defined as a process through
which the individual has the ability to influence his surroundings at the level of emotions and
thoughts, utilizing one or more non-verbal channels. Each culture and race uses nonverbal
communication in a different way, which can affect interpersonal relationships. It can positively
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or negatively affect effective communication . There are many different types of nonverbal
communication that complement verbal communication, such as paralanguage, body
movement, facial expressions, eye contact, attractiveness, clothing, accessories, touch, time,
smell, and mannerisms. In cases of conflict between verbal and nonverbal communication,
individuals choose to rely on nonverbal cues, as they are considered to be more truthful in
conveying the meaning of a communication. It is a necessary complementary function of verbal
communication, in order to enhance the emphasis of speech, making it more convincing,
understandable, encouraging, or to negate what is being expressed (Phutela, 2015 ; Kandylakis,
2008 ) .
On the other hand, verbal communication is a human characteristic and one of the most
important. The most conscious form of communication, which includes oral and written
speech. Important information, thoughts and emotions are transmitted through speech. As a
person acquires a better knowledge of language, communication with others will improve
accordingly. And this is one of the main goals of school. Language and speech, with their
richness and complexity, provide a wide range of possibilities both for the expression of
emotions and for the formation and exchange of thoughts and ideas. However, limited and
insufficient vocabulary often constitutes an obstacle to verbal communication (Kandylaki,
2008; Marantos, 1999).
Language, as an organized and systematic set of symbols, provides the fundamental basis for
communication with other people. Each person expresses himself in a unique way, shaped by
his temperament, his personal values and beliefs, his experiences, his morals and customs, his
prejudices and cultural values, his social origins and the professional values that characterize
him. It is considered the tool through which one expresses the desired behaviors, thus allowing
the development of a society and its culture. For this reason, language teaching is a primary
concern of every educational system. It is inextricably linked to the way of thinking and
understanding the individual and the social environment. It enables people to reflect on the
individuals as well as the objects in their surroundings and to convey their thoughts to others (
Feldman, 2009 ; Kurt , 2020; Kandylaki, 2008 ).
Communication is considered an integral part of the socialization of the individual and his/her
general social activity. Through communication, man is recognized as a social being. It is
considered a determining factor in shaping perceptions, which have a different effect on each
individual. Communication “is understood as the interpersonal transfer of messages with a
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clear conceptual content that has as its immediate purpose understanding and the ultimate
goal social coexistence”. With the use of verbal and non-verbal signs and signals, the
communication of intentions, information, opinions, etc. is achieved (Stamatis, 2003, p.16).
Communication refers to the process of transmitting messages, which can be direct or indirect,
one-sided or two-way, conscious or directed, between individuals. It constitutes a set of actions
through which messages are formulated and transmitted during human communication and
interaction, as well as a set of actions aimed at shaping or influencing the behavior of others.
Consequently, personal development is greatly influenced by communication as a form of
social behavior and by social interaction (Kandylaki, 2008).
Interpersonal communication is a method of communication in which messages are sent and
received simultaneously. The process of simply exchanging messages between interlocutors,
incorporating control mechanisms for the messages being exchanged. This process culminates
when substantial interaction between the communication partners is achieved. (You had
emphasized this to me last time, but I didn't understand, is it wrong ?) It requires at least two
participants for a continuous sequence of events to occur, in which each is influenced by the
other in a climate of mutual determination. The process takes place within a defined context
and consists of various elements of the communication process, which include sending
messages, transmission through various media, the source, the channel, the presence of noise,
feedback, the environment, and the destination. It is multidimensional, intentional, and
inevitable. Interpersonal skills are influenced by the gender, age, ethnicity, physical appearance
and personality of the interlocutors. Interlocutors function simultaneously as senders and
receivers of messages. However, according to Stamatis (2003), their role can in no way be
simplified through characterizations such as sender and receiver but as communication
partners. Each person simultaneously perceives the other within the context, understands what
is happening, decides how to react and responds accordingly. It is very important not to ignore
non-verbal communication elements, such as body language. (Eliöz , 2016; Hargie, 2011 ;
Proctor and Adler, 2016 ; Stamatis, 2003 ) .
Interpersonal communication is the culmination of a successful dialogical conversation (in any
form), which reflects the relationship between the speaker and the audience, effective listening,
self-disclosure, understanding of listening-empathy, perceptive ability, alertness of all
communication channels and the effective use of non-verbal signals. More specifically,
effective listening is related to understanding the perceptions and ideas expressed by the
17
speaker and self-disclosure. It was a process of evaluation and selection regarding the right
time to share personal information with third parties. Understanding listening-empathy
concerns the state of the interlocutor, with the aim of providing more effective assistance and
his perceptive ability. The alertness of all sensory communication channels emphasizes the
importance of the sender, the identity of the recipient and the content of the message. More
specifically, in the context of sensory communication channels, the utilization of sensory
perception abilities constitutes a tool to assist the recipient in understanding the combined
verbal and non-verbal signals. This process makes the speaker fully understandable (Stamatis,
2003).
The phenomenon of communication has three dimensions. The first dimension concerns the
type of communication in comparison to the needs of the person communicating. More
specifically, it is an autocentric function of communication, which can manifest itself in
different ways, such as the egocentric speech of a child or the internal dialogue of an adult.
This specific dimension must always be placed in quotation marks, because the concept of
communication requires the presence of interacting interlocutors and includes the element of
feedback . The second dimension concerns communication in relation to the human
environment, with the satisfaction of the needs of the other. It constitutes the allocentric or
otherwise heterocentric function and can take various forms, such as teaching and education,
which, however, constitute complex interaction processes. The third dimension is related to the
relationship that exists between the communicating persons, society, and the meeting. It
constitutes the homocentric or otherwise interlocutory function of communication and there is
also the possibility of it being presented in various forms. These three important dimensions
coexist in every type of communication and are combined depending on the situation, as well
as their stage of development (Stamatis, 2003, p.16).
Education is a form of communication, and communication is a prerequisite for learning.
Therefore, without the channels of knowledge exchange and sophisticated methods, developed
human civilization would not exist, as communication is the essence of human existence.
People have a deep and fundamental desire to interact with those around them. A deep-rooted
need for communication that the more it is cultivated and developed, the more satisfying and
rewarding their lives will be . People cope more easily with stress as well as the various
transitions in their lives. They cultivate closer interpersonal relationships, expand their circle
of acquaintances and friends, and acquire social prestige. It is considered a key component for
18
the nourishment and maintenance of personal growth and well-being, as it contributes to the
good life and happiness of the person. Conversely, those who are unable to create social bonds
are more vulnerable to depression ( Hargie, 2011 ).
Children who have better developed attention skills are more likely to attend academic courses,
benefit from learning opportunities and as a result have increased chances of academic success
. (Rhoades et al., 2011). After all, learning is the key factor for the development of skills. It
involves stimuli from the environment, which are interpreted by the central nervous system in
order to provoke a response. Therefore, learning is determined by the sensory systems, their
efficiency and the quality of their functioning. The consistency of the proper functioning of the
sensory systems should be evaluated as the final product of this process ( Eliöz , 2016). Skilled
students know how to communicate effectively with the teacher, therefore receiving more
attention in the classroom, and their ability to interact leads to the creation of friendly
relationships, giving school the opportunity to create enjoyable experiences ( Hargie, 2011) .
Pedagogical communication refers to “the development and implementation of every
communication process that takes place in the broader field of education during the interaction
between the educator and the learners. In other words, it is communication with pedagogical
intent.” (Stamati, 2003, p.22).
Communication, according to the epistemological approach, "is a process of interpersonal
exchange of thoughts and information through the use of language, which is perceived as a
system of signs." A process of interaction, that is, that takes place through the mental
conception as well as the expressive formulation of speech acts having syntactic structure and
conceptual meaning (Stamati, 2003, p.54).
Beyond spoken language, written language is a critical communication skill, which is a
particularly complex process of expression. It is the ability to think, combined with the control
of the structure of spoken language and focusing on syntactic form. It includes the cooperation
between the hand and the eye, the understanding of the fundamental principles of linguistics
and various, more complex skills and abilities. Some of the basic writing skills considered are
“kinesthesia (the perception of muscle movements and contractions), visual perception (visual
attention, visual memory, visual discrimination and spatial perception), visual-motor
coordination, postural control, lateralization, muscle tone, fine motor skills and bilateral
coordination of the upper limbs” (Amarantidou & Douitsi, 2022, p.299, kinesthesia, 2022) .
19
3.2 The Use of the Internet and its Advantages in the Educational
Sector
Over the past three decades or so, the world has seen an increasing use of online technologies
and electronic devices in people's everyday lives ( ITU, 2018) . The most widespread process
of human communication is primarily face-to-face communication. However, new
technologies have created radical changes in the field of human communication at the
individual, educational, political and social levels. At the same time, the methods of
information exchange have evolved . Technology, new media as well as new forms of
computer-based communication have an impact on interpersonal communication. The
continuous development in access to communication with the help of new technologies has led
to a change in the interaction of people. Interpersonal communication between the teacher and
the student is now becoming mediated, since various means of communication are involved.
The goal, however, is to combine the two types of communication in order to achieve better
results in the learning process (James & Busher, 2009; Manning, 2020 ; Nordby, 2011 ;
Marantos, 1999 ).
21st century
skills include a digital dimension, as skills such as digital functioning, information
navigation, social interaction and content creation enhance the safer and more efficient use of
new technologies ( ITU, 2018) . The increase in the use of smartphones and wireless technology
has made it necessary to include them in education. Technological changes that have occurred
over time have led to changes in both human behavior and interactions and the acquisition of
knowledge. Technology is widespread and inextricably linked to various and multifaceted
aspects of modern life and society ( Haleem and al .,2022). The digital revolution, which is
spreading worldwide, has also begun to affect the education sector. Educational learning
patterns have been transformed, going beyond traditional classroom teaching models. Learning
has evolved into modern and asynchronous models, with an emphasis on interactivity and
collaboration. All these changes have been further enhanced through the evolution of the World
Wide Web in the form of Web 2.0 , which introduced interactive applications and social
networking platforms, as well as the tools and approaches of social networks. Social networks
are defined as the process of exploring knowledge through creating contacts with people who
have common interests. Communication between people is made possible regardless of their
location, through technological services and software. In addition, there are online spaces that
provide users with the ability to create personal profiles, facilitating connection with others.
20
Therefore, social networking tools will contribute to the change and evolution of the methods
by which one thinks, acquires knowledge and interacts with those around him (Gunawardena
et al ., 2009).
As the promotion of educational software and computer and network systems increased,
educational technology was increasingly extended to school classrooms. Educational
technology has begun to be considered a valuable tool for education and especially for
intercultural education ( Elliott, et al. 2000) . “A revolution in the classroom as well as the
arrival of computer virtual reality and the classroom without walls” ( Giddens, 2009, p. 564) .
Technology has contributed radically to the change of education. Innovative teaching media
are constantly evolving and offer impressive capabilities and tools, which improve everyday
school life. Within a few years, the Internet has established itself as a powerful platform,
bringing innovative changes in the way people communicate. New communication channels
have emerged, expanding the options for transmitting and accessing educational updates and
information. Communication now also occurs through interactive channels, which include emails , telephone calls, radio broadcasts, and online learning programs. It can be divided into
immediate information exchange and delayed interactive communication. More specifically,
with immediate information exchange, the sender provides the information immediately and
the audience receives it without significant delay. Messages can be expressed through
telephone calls and online chat programs. On the other hand, there is delayed interactive
communication in which messages are transmitted and the audience receives them when they
access the information system, such as e-mail and school platforms. (James & Busher, 2009;
Manning, 2020 ; Nordby, 2011 ; Marantos , 1999 ; Purdue University , 2024; Haleem et al.,
2022 ). The emergence of e-mail , instant messaging, online chat, and public online spaces has
transformed the possibilities, scope, and foundation of knowledge. This has affected the nature
of reality and existence in the social environment, as well as the nature of relationships that are
formed between individuals and communities ( James & Busher , 2009).
The use of the internet for educational purposes has brought about remarkable and significant
changes in the way adolescents obtain and collect information. Teachers, with the help of
technology, can address and support students who differ in terms of their ethnicity, cultural and
linguistic background, as well as their level of knowledge, perception, motivation and learning
style. This can be achieved through appropriate personalized teaching using computers.
Educational technology is intended to help improve learning, not make it more difficult.
Teachers were concerned when computers first appeared in classrooms, believing that students'
21
social development and interactions would be limited. However, this was not proven to be the
case; on the contrary, children were able to enhance their social interactions and activities with
their classmates ( Elliott , et al ., 2000). It can be considered as a tool for achieving the purpose
of education, emotional and cognitive development of students, as well as integration into the
society as a whole. With the help of the Internet, students have the opportunity to search for a
wealth of information, which may be difficult to find, government statistical surveys, books,
sounds, videos, texts from electronic libraries and even live images from space. It is clear that
adolescents perceive and utilize the Internet in various and skillful ways, both for personal and
educational purposes ( Feldman, 2009 ; Marantos, 1999 ) . New horizons are opened through
the technology offered by computers, which can be characterized as geniuses. The learning that
students acquire through new technologies can shape their future like never before. Now, access
to learning opportunities offered through technology is unprecedented in both scope and variety
of topics . The experience that students gain from the use of technological tools is an integral
part of the educational process and strengthens their dedication to the subject of study,
preventing distracted attention. (Elliot et al., 2000 ; Purdue University , 2024; Haleem and al
.,2022 ).
New technologies are the means by which the student will enhance his learning process. They
have adaptability, speed, two-way interaction and active participation (Marantos, 1999 ) . The
use of projectors, modern computers and advanced technical equipment in the classroom
creates an exciting and fun learning environment. Teaching using multimedia, such as visual,
verbal and auditory elements, aims to meet the needs and preferences of all students, with the
aim of maintaining their interest in the lesson. Setting tasks that integrate technological
resources, oral presentations and group participation leads to a more dynamic and interesting
learning process . This technological equipment has led to a dynamic change in schools and
educational institutions (Haleem et al., 2022) . Technology offers new forms of communication
and collaboration, which connect different countries together. Students enter a social
networking environment with their own reasons, bringing with them language, culture and
gender perceptions. They develop ways of expressing themselves through their socialization in
various social and state groups and institutions, beyond the initial socialization in their family
environment and relationships with their peers. They share these experiences and knowledge
with students from other states through group projects , blogs , podcasts and various other tools
based on new technologies such as google docs and wikis . They also have access to educational
platforms and programs, which offer organized and structured learning with the aim of
22
acquiring knowledge and certifications from global educational institutions (Gunawardena et
al ., 2009; Purdue University , 2024). In addition, students have the ability to share files
between their devices and computers, and in this way they learn to collaborate more easily with
others in groups, without meeting face to face (Schnackenberg, 2013) .
Along with education, the role of teachers is also changing thanks to the development of
technology. The classic model that prevailed in previous years, in which the teacher was the
main source of information and students passively received it, has now changed. Students
gather information on their own, thanks to access to technology, while the teacher takes on the
role of “guide next to them”. Developments in technology have turned it into a powerful tool
that can facilitate teachers in creating educational materials and offer new methods of teaching
and collaboration. However, harnessing the potential offered by technology to transform
education, making it effective and accessible for all, will depend on educational designers and
technology educators ( Purdue University , 2024).
The use of information and communication technology in education leads to constructive
learning, which increases the energy and responsibility of students. The role of the teacher now
focuses on supporting, guiding and advising their students, rather than being limited to
transmitting knowledge (Mikre . 2011).
It is understood that students, through the use of new technologies in schools, have increased
performance in school subjects as well as in learning completely new skills that are necessary
to support a growing economy. Also, teachers develop their technological skills, enrich their
educational approaches and adopt new attitudes and methods towards teaching. At the same
time, students are more exposed to professional and technological skills, and each student
individually develops greater enthusiasm for learning. Teachers come into contact with new
sources of information and knowledge, while communication with students improves, creating
strong collaboration. The contribution of new technologies to education also improves the
efficiency of educational administration as well as management at all levels of the school, from
the classroom and the school library to organization, distribution of educational materials,
communication with parents, resource management and all aspects related to the operation of
educational institutions. At the same time, access to quality educational services is expanded
for students at all levels of the education system, ensuring equal and effective learning (Mikre
. 2011) .
23
Digital skills enhance positive learning outcomes and contribute to successful school careers.
Content creation skills help produce quality work, while social skills enhance student
collaboration in group projects. All of these skills, acquired through modern technologies in
education, lead to improved educational outcomes and facilitate future employment. At the
same time, the efficient use of new teaching tools will contribute to the creation of a generation
of teachers who will recognize the importance of human connection in the classroom. These
teachers will take advantage of innovative technologies and the increase in online capabilities,
as well as network capacity. A new era has emerged thanks to the global spread of the internet
and the abundance of smart devices connected to it. The use of advanced technology to provide
effective and efficient education, available in all educational units, will be the responsibility of
educational program designers and educators ( ITU, 2018 ; Haleem et al., 2022) .
24
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Greece: A Historical Crossroads of Civilizations
Greece has always functioned as a passage for population movements and often a large
percentage of the population chose to remain in its territory. Consequently, for decades it has
been a center of various population movements either as a starting point, a passage or even as
a final destination. With the end of the Cold War, Greece, as well as the rest of European
countries, became a base for the mass origin of a large number of people ( Christopoulos, 2020
). Since the 1980s, it has been realized that Greece had now become a host country for refugees
and illegal immigrants ( Sitaropoulos, 2000 ). In 1990, Greece's economy was developed,
wages were high and there was stability in terms of its socio-political stability (Soultani, 2018).
Its geopolitical location between Europe, Africa and Asia and the easy access of people by land
and sea have made the country one of the most important member states of the European Union
in the areas of border migration control and refugee protection (Sitaropoulos, 2000 ; Soultani,
2018).
From 1990 onwards, an unprecedented arrival of foreigners began in Greece, who remained
for many years legally foreigners and in a state of alienation. Throughout the 1990s, the country
was in an observer role to the continuous influx of individuals, for whom it did not act
immediately for their legal rehabilitation or deportation. Migration is considered a phenomenon
of global dimensions with multifaceted dimensions, not a problem to which an opportunistic
solution is sought. Consequently, the phenomena require addressing and not hasty solutions.
The indicators changed, the tension increased and multiculturalism now began to be perceived
within society. The perceptions and reality experienced by Greek society had begun to change
(Christopoulos, 2020). In the 2000s, Greece was faced with the phenomenon of economic
migration, the movement of various population groups from their homelands to other countries,
aiming for a better life. A new situation prevails in the country and a multicultural environment
has now begun to be created. Children who grow up in a common multicultural context tend to
develop similar personality traits (Kakouros & Maniadaki, 2002 ) .
In a multicultural and multi-ethnic nation-state, a member of the European Union and a
globalized society, tolerance of diversity, such as linguistic and religious diversity, and the
values of the members of society, is an essential element. This applies both to those members
25
who have constitutionally guaranteed rights and to those whose circumstances have forced
them to enter the Greek space. The various cultural activities that offer the possibility of
participation, education, as well as the ability to exchange ideas and values, constitute a way
out of fear and insecurity in the face of diversity (Mascha, 2015).
4.2 The Protection of Refugees through International
Conventions.
The 1951 Convention, also referred to as the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, is
a multilateral international agreement of the United Nations. It is intended to clarify who is
considered a refugee, who is eligible for asylum, and what the responsibilities of states are for
granting it. The convention is based on Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights of 1948. This article recognizes the right of individuals to seek asylum in other countries
when they are persecuted in their home country (Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees,
2022)
In Article 1 of the Convention, according to the revision of the 1967 Protocol, the definition of
a refugee is: "A person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of
race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is
outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail
himself of the protection of that country, or who, not having a nationality and being outside the
country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such
fear, is unwilling to return to it." (Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 2022 ).
Countries that have signed the Refugee Convention must comply with the provisions, which
include cooperation with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR) and
supervision of the implementation of its provisions, updating the laws and regulations to ensure
the implementation of the convention by the contracting states to the Secretary-General of the
United Nations and exemption from the principle of reciprocity. Specifically, the principle
concerns the protection of refugees by the host state, without requiring the corresponding
treatment of citizens of the host state, by the country they fled (Convention relating to the Status
of Refugees, 2022 ). In June 2013, the Asylum Service, created under Law 3907/2011, operated
for the first time. It was the first independent structure in the country and its responsibility was
to examine applications for international protection. The same law created the Refugee
26
Authority and the Reception and Identification Service. The former examines and decides on
appeals filed by applicants whose applications have been rejected by the Asylum Service, while
the Reception Service records the data and needs of those who enter Greece without completing
the required legal procedures, as well as of people who intend to submit a request for asylum.
The UN High Commissioner for Refugees maintains close cooperation with the competent
Greek authorities with the primary concern of the formation and operation of an asylum system
in the country ( UNHCR Greece, 2015 ) .
In every country, as is the case in Greece, the Constitution and the laws have an obligation to
protect the rights of each person, whether at an individual, social or political level. These laws
concern Greek citizens. The protection of the rights and security of foreigners is ensured by
international conventions together with certain articles of the Constitution. Therefore, it is
understood that intercultural respect is considered fully integrated as well as institutionalized
by the Greek state. Cultural diversity is fully respected and protected (Vatitsas, 2023).
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was established in
Switzerland in 1950 by the United Nations General Assembly. Its aim was to guide and
coordinate international action in the protection of refugees and to seek durable solutions. Its
main purpose is to ensure the right of everyone to seek asylum in a safe country, to protect their
rights and to provide effective and immediate assistance to asylum seekers, refugees and
internally displaced persons ( UNHCR , 2001).
European governments are obliged to act with absolute respect for all the rights of children on
the move. Providing quality education to displaced children and young people is a recognized
fundamental right that everyone deserves. However, this is only partially achieved. In
particular, the European Union and some European countries such as the United Kingdom have
adopted stricter and sometimes lethal measures aimed at discouraging refugees and migrants
from other countries from reaching Europe ( Gorevan , 2024 ; UNHCR & Global Monitoring
Report, 2016) . According to a study by Krawczyk M. et al. found that European citizens seem
particularly willing to provide protection to women and children as well as to people without
Muslim religious beliefs. There is a preference for refugees from Eastern Europe over refugees
from Africa or the Middle East. Furthermore, they show greater support for people who leave
their homelands due to war rather than for economic reasons ( Krawczyk M. et al., 2023) .
Usually the Balkan countries are considered transit countries and the asylum systems and
27
protection services they have are often developmentally inadequate and differ from country to
country ( Gorevan , 2024) .
When refugees are forced to flee their homelands, their lives are disrupted (UNCHR, 2023) .
Due to the abrupt change in the environment in which they grew up, children who move to a
foreign country often suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder or exhibit symptoms of sadness
and anxiety ( Gorevan , 2024) . They seek a safe country in which they can build their lives
from scratch (UNCHR, 2023). The conflicts that drive people to refugeehood are long-lasting
and have devastating effects on education. The education of refugee children is disrupted . (
Dryden-Peterson, Dahya & Adelman, 2017 ) . In 2014, there were 33 conflicts worldwide, the
average duration of people being displaced from their homes was 25 years , almost three times
higher than in the early 1990s. In 2015, the number of people forced to flee their homes
worldwide reached its highest level since the end of World War II. For this reason, education
planning must go beyond long-term emergency provision to be sustainable over several years,
in line with development plans. Refugee children are five times more likely to be out of school
than native children . As Malala Yousafzai, a student, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and cofounder of the Malala Fund, has stated, “No child should pay the price of war by staying out
of school” (UNHCR & Global Monitoring Report, 2016 ; Yousafzai, 2016, UNESCO,
https://world-education-blog.org/2016/06/20/no-child-should-have-to-pay-the-cost-of-war/ Is
that how I write it? ) . The challenges they face do not only concern living in the new country
they have chosen to settle in but also in the educational sector. Without the necessary state
investments in quality education, refugee children will not be able to receive the necessary
education for their later life in the host country ( UNCHR, 2023 ). The difficulty of the
language, the long distances from schools, the lack of transportation and financial resources,
make their consistent participation in educational activities even more difficult. Several
European countries face serious challenges in ensuring the integration of refugee children into
the school environment. The lack of certificates and necessary documents leads children into
situations of exploitation and prevents their access to education and security . Participation in
schools contributes to well-being as they are considered safe havens of exceptional importance
for the social integration of refugee children in host countries ( Gorevan , 2024) . Many times,
when children go to school, they are protected from risks such as trafficking, illegal adoption,
sexual exploitation, forced labor and illegal marriage . Education lays the foundation for the
development of skills that enhance the self-reliance and resilience of the individual.
Furthermore, when children are integrated into the school community, they develop feelings of
28
well-being and self-confidence. According to refugee education coordinators, it was observed
that children who participated in the courses showed positive results, were more sociable and
showed increased self-confidence ( Gorevan , 2024 , UNHCR & Global Monitoring Report,
2016) . This situation demonstrates the importance of the epistemological and intercultural
dimension of education. (THE CONTRIBUTION OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION TO
THE INTEGRATION AND UPGRADE OF STUDENTS' COMMUNICATION SKILLS -. To
develop it)
4.3 Education in Greece: Challenges in the 21st century .
In recent decades, through reforms in educational systems, the concerns of the education
stakeholders have emerged, with the ultimate aim of achieving benefits both for students and,
in a broader context, for society (Rapti, 2022). The current political, social, cultural and
humanitarian conditions that have developed in recent years reflect a rapidly changing reality.
This reality is defined by crises, uncertainties and threats, but at the same time by opportunities,
transformations and radical changes. The arrival of immigrants in the country has led to the
linguistic and cultural diversity of the school population. Education is considered a social
phenomenon that constantly interacts with the social environment, is influenced by it and, at
the same time, has the ability to shape it, assuming a strong role in addressing the challenges
of the modern era ( E dweek , 2022, https://www.edweek.gr/synedrio-ekpaideysi-ston-21aiona-syghrones-prokliseis-problimatismoi/ , Kyrgiou, 2019 ). In addition, “education is
understood as the institutionalized (today), systematic, educational process between the teacher
and the learner, of providing and acquiring knowledge, skills and education, which is carried
out, mainly, within educational institutions” (Barbarousis, 2022, p.68). Education is the
fundamental basis of a free and open society, with educated citizens and giving them the
opportunity to develop all the desired abilities, skills and interests they have. Its purpose is the
development of critical, rational and self-critical thinking as well as valid knowledge
(Barbarousis, 2022).
However, societies today are called upon to face unprecedented and rapid development in the
field of science and technology. This development requires particular specialization and the
receipt of a huge amount of new information. The cultural reshaping experienced by modern
societies, the changes in borders, the internationalized economy and the development of
technology have contributed to the creation of challenges in the field of education. Through an
29
inclusive intercultural education, the feeling of self-esteem of “different” children is
strengthened. Equivalent relationships are formed between children with the aim of respecting
their rights, while at the same time aiming to combat prejudices, aggressive and persistent
phenomena (Barbarousis, 2022). For this reason, the last few years have been exciting for
teaching and contributing to student development. At the same time, to improve the quality of
education for a diverse student population in schools, the existence of good teachers is essential
( Elliot, et al. 2000) .
The heterogeneity that prevails in school classrooms often leads to conflicts between teachers,
students, parents and society. This is due to the lack of respect and non-acceptance of diversity.
After all, schools are based on a monocultural education system, while the staff has insufficient
training in such issues. This leads to the need to reshape the pedagogical process as well as the
role played by the teacher (Geraris, 2001).
Another important problem faced by educational units is the issue of student adaptation. The
performance of students from foreign countries is mainly traced to issues arising in the
language area, their cultural diversity, customs and traditions. Verbal communication during
the learning process becomes difficult and ineffective. In addition, the language barrier often
makes it difficult for teachers to interact with parents ( Gorevan , 2024) .
4.4 Education in Greece: Interculturality and Educational
Perspectives
Education is considered a tool for social integration and a means by which an individual's
identity is shaped. Access to information and knowledge contributes to finding employment,
to easier integration of the individual into society, as well as to improving their economic
situation and personal and social development. In addition, education cultivates the personal
identity of each student, their values, and shapes the perceptions they have about themselves
and society, whether they are objective knowledge or ideologies and cultural beliefs (
Triandafyllidou & Gropas , 2007). One of the main goals of education is to provide its students
with the appropriate resources to be able to contribute and actively participate in society. The
necessity of acquiring specialized knowledge and skills, essential for the future integration of
students into the labor market ( Batelaan & Van Hoof, 1996) . Compulsory education in Greece
includes pre-school, primary and lower secondary education. Therefore, compulsory education
30
for children begins at the age of four ( AIDA, 2024) . Refugee children need safe access to and
certified educational services. To ensure the quality of education, a prerequisite is the
continuous attention of national authorities to strengthening national capacities and
infrastructure, creating favorable legal frameworks and policies, adopting an appropriate
curriculum, as well as ensuring the language of instruction. The responsibility for including
refugee children in national education plans lies with states. It is necessary to strengthen the
education system in order to absorb refugee children, to enshrine the rights to education in
national laws and policies, to activate flexible education options in order to meet different needs
and to ensure sufficiently trained and enthusiastic teachers to ensure high-quality education for
refugee students. In 2005, with the Immigration Law n.3386, it was stipulated that minor thirdcountry nationals residing in Greek territory and who have applied for asylum themselves or
their parents have the right to compulsory school attendance, just like Greek nationals
(Christopoulos, 2020, UNHCR & Global Monitoring Report, 2016 ). They are also given the
opportunity to enroll in nursery schools and kindergartens before the age of five. The
authorities have an obligation to support and provide the necessary and sufficient resources for
the smooth conduct of the registration process in school centers ( AIDA, 2024) . In addition,
they have access to the activities of the educational or school community, without restrictions.
Upon completion of secondary education, third-country nationals have the opportunity to
continue and develop their learning path by entering higher education, having the same terms
and conditions as nationals. (Law 3386/2005). The inclusion of children and young refugees in
the national education system is the most effective and at the same time durable way of
addressing and meeting their needs ( Gorevan , 2024) .
In recent decades, a change has been observed in the educational landscape in Greek schools.
Educational units must incorporate pedagogical values, goals and practices of intercultural
education into the principles and curriculum, in order to successfully prepare students for the
challenges set by a multicultural society. (Kesidou, 2007). This is due to the strong presence of
children from different countries of origin. Mainly, from countries in Africa, Asia and Europe.
Refugee children in Greece are often excluded from the education system, as they have
difficulty understanding the curriculum, despite the efforts of teachers. According to refugee
children, the lack of Greek language lessons makes it difficult to understand and learn the
curriculum, as well as their social ability to integrate into host communities and interact with
their Greek classmates. However, due to their strong desire to learn, they hope that by being in
the classroom they will be able to acquire knowledge that will be useful for their future (
31
Gorevan , 2024). After all, education can be considered a unique opportunity to ensure the
inclusion in society of children living under conditions of social exclusion, poverty and
discrimination (Kandylaki, 2009) .
As mentioned above, societies, especially in the Western world, have changed in their
composition and are considered multicultural (Vavitsas, 2023). Of course, many argue that
societies have always been characterized by rich cultural diversity (Vavitsas, 2023;
Christopoulos, 2020). The multiculturalism of societies in Greece dates back to the ancient
Greek world, culminating in the Hellenistic period ( Hansen, 2023). Understanding and
cooperation between people with different cultural backgrounds are considered extremely
important in order to achieve harmonious coexistence. This is made possible through
intercultural education. The recruitment and training of teachers with the aim of their
effectiveness in a divided and diverse society is considered an extremely difficult task. In terms
of learning, teaching and critical questioning, teachers are required to reject the classical,
traditional mindset and at the same time change certain values and beliefs. An educational
approach that includes the different cultural backgrounds of students and understands the
management of cultural diversity serves to resolve issues arising from this diversity. It aims to
address them within the school or even in society. Although in the past government policies
have not been able to address cultural diversity issues with particular success, intercultural
education continues to play an important role in educational issues today, without however
defining its epistemological framework (Vavitsas, 2023 ; Khalil , 2015 *).
To support the cultivation of cultural competence in students, a program was designed based
on educational elements, such as in-depth information and understanding of research methods
and practices used in multicultural education. Central to this is the cultivation of a positive and
respectful attitude towards local and other cultures, as well as the development of skills that
support culture-centered education and effective intercultural communication. In addition, the
integration of professional pedagogical practices, based on a humanistic approach and effective
interaction, is an important factor in the success of the program (Džalalova & Raud , 2012).
The intercultural policy of a nation-state is shaped by the influence exerted not only by its
educational context, but also by historical, social, political and economic conditions.
Intercultural education should not be considered as belonging exclusively to the educational
context, as this reinforces a one-dimensional approach and limits the understanding of the
broader social, political and economic factors. of the subject. On the contrary, educators should
32
adopt a multidimensional approach that includes society, the state and the economy (
Hajisoteriou & Angelides , 2016). The protest and contestation movements that took place in
the 1960s highlighted the need to address discrimination in education, leading to the creation
of intercultural education (Kaloforidis, 2014).
In Greece, intercultural education is governed by law 2413/1996, Government Gazette A'
124/17.6.1996. According to article 34, its purpose is the organization and operation of primary
and secondary education school units for the provision of education to young people with
educational, social, cultural or educational particularities. Also, intercultural education schools
implement programs of the corresponding public schools, which are adapted to the special
educational, social, cultural or educational needs of their students.
As Kappou states in her book, "intercultural education is a systematic educational effort
towards ethnic minorities with the aim of preserving and promoting their social and cultural
particularities and equal participation in the social and political life of the country to which
they belong" (Kappou, 2013, p.196).
In the last several years, the classrooms of many developed countries have been filled with
children from societies different from ours and with a multitude of different experiences.
However, especially in recent years, special attention has been paid to this diversity, as well as
to the effects it causes on education. Moreover, with the increase in the diversity of the student
population, including asylum seekers, refugees and immigrants in education, it has become
necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the diversity between individuals and groups.
One of the main goals of education is to create a mechanism through which knowledge and
values will be transferred to the younger generations. The diversity in the origin and
experiences of students is directly related to this goal (Kallinikaki, 2014; Feldam, 2008) .
Teachers are the core of education. The way of teaching, as well as its content, depend largely
on the teacher who teaches and the conditions under which it is carried out. This directly affects
the quality and quantity of learning that is transmitted. Therefore, teachers must initially
understand their motivations and aspirations, focusing on their challenges and needs, while at
the same time communicating and coordinating the required changes that arise in their course.
In this way, they will be able to intervene successfully in the educational process ( Khalil ,
2015). The equality of educational opportunities ensured by teachers aims to reward students
according to their qualifications, both in the school environment and later in their workplace.
33
In this way, teachers act in accordance with the principle of justice and the provision of equal
opportunities in education, thus contributing to the reduction of inequalities that arise
(Feinberg, 1996).
A society is difficult to accept and consider as multicultural. It is often not easy to accept the
different, to identify with the other, to compare and to adopt differentiated cultural elements.
To achieve the above, education based and defined on intercultural principles is needed. It is
defined as an adapted practice, which is based on the assumption. The assumption that
monocultural and nationally oriented education in the 21st century does not respond to the reality
of everyday developments (Kesidou, 2008).
UNHCR argues that improving and expanding a country’s school infrastructure and education
system benefits host communities as well as refugees. It strengthens existing educational
services for young people and promotes social cohesion among people from diverse
backgrounds. Refugee students, when given access and the same rights as national students and
integrated into national education systems, often excel . Through education, they are given the
opportunity to explore and discover their interests and aspirations. They recover from
hardships, become financially self-reliant and regain a sense of purpose ( UNCHR, 2023).
Undoubtedly, education can contribute not only to social integration but also to the promotion
of social cohesion in a society that is considered multicultural, multi-religious and multi-ethnic.
School is considered the first social institution as well as the first state body with which children
come into daily contact beyond their family environment. Children have the opportunity to
develop friendly relations with different nationalities, religious and cultural groups. To come
into contact with new customs, traditions, language and ideas. They are encouraged to develop
positive identities regarding their cultural heritage, race and social status, both for themselves
and for others. This, as a result, promotes their self-esteem and cultivates their ability and
willingness to interact with people from different backgrounds. They also acquire knowledge
and understanding with the help of the teacher and the lessons about other cultural groups with
which they coexist on a daily basis within society. The teacher encourages students to transcend
superficial differences and promote the perception that everyone is human, with more
similarities than differences between them (Kandylaki, 2009; Elliott , et al ., 2000). They have
the freedom to form relationships and friendships with other people, but without depriving
them of this right or trying to harm others in any way. The school must provide children with
the ability to perceive and understand the consequences of their social choices, as well as the
34
opportunity to learn about the diversity of human cultures. Furthermore, it emphasizes that
these differences enrich knowledge and contribute to the exploration of understanding the
world. They must be offered the choice of an alternative lifestyle, different from that of their
parents ( Feinberg,1996 ; Elliott , et al ., 2000).
Intercultural education promotes individual development and the right of each child to develop
their talent and skills and characterizes linguistic and cultural diversity “as a happy coincidence
and enrichment. It seeks to contribute to the development of the potential of all students who
attend the multicultural school, natives, returnees and foreigners”. At the same time, it aims to
create the appropriate conditions by the school for the development of students’ abilities, the
expansion of their knowledge and the broadening of their horizons. It also seeks to inform and
respect the different cultures that exist within society, without overemphasizing the differences
or underestimating the similarities and developing a sense of pride for their cultural heritage. (
Feinberg,1996 ; Kesidou, 2007, p.4). It is a global perspective that rejects the dominance of a
single culture. It is a principle, method or set of rules that govern interactions and shape
perceptions, attitudes and behaviors of individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
Intercultural education must apply some principles such as creating opportunities in the
classroom for students to collaborate in mixed groups and providing equal opportunities to
participate in educational activities that are organized within the classroom. The climate
prevailing in the classroom must be collaborative and not competitive or individualistic, as this
will result in the gradual decrease in the performance of intercultural students instead of
improving it. Furthermore, it argues that teachers should initially start with the knowledge and
skills that students already have and build on them, including linguistic and cultural abilities.
Finally, the educational program must represent the reality of a multicultural society. Therefore,
it should be free from ethnocentric approaches, preventing the reinforcement of stereotypes,
and provide an objective and balanced depiction of the “other”. Teachers should study, be
informed and show respect for the special characteristics of their students from different
cultural backgrounds, as well as for the cultural differences with the school environment. When
these differences are understood, teachers will be able to offer and ensure the best possible
academic success, as well as the personal self-realization of students. To achieve this, however,
it is necessary for them to recognize their own prejudices and be honest with themselves. They
should ask themselves whether they harbor prejudices against specific cultural groups or
whether their own value system clashes with that of their students. ( Batelaan & van Hoof,
1996 ; Michael & Rajuan, 2009 ; Elliott , et al ., 2000).
35
"When defining the concept of intercultural education, one is not only referring to the encounter
of cultures, but also to the encounter of each person's personal culture with that of their
neighbor. These cultures are by definition heterogeneous, even within the context of a
homogeneous national group ." (Geraris, 19th century, pp. 23-24).
According to Feinberg, informing students about other cultures through multicultural education
can present difficulties in interpretation and implementation, as the information is not neutral.
It raises questions about whether the emphasis is on political or educational issues, as well as
whether the presentation of information is done according to “the dominance/submission or
advantage/disadvantage dichotomy”. When children are taught about other cultures in school
according to the “advantage/disadvantage dichotomy”, the aim is to create a society accessible
to diverse and different people ( Feinberg,1996 , pp.187-189 ).
It can also be defined as intercultural education, “when it does justice to diversity, when it
contributes to the provision of equal opportunities and when it prepares all children for
coexistence in a democratic and pluralistic society”. However, it is not only concerned with
actions concerning doing justice to cultural diversity or celebrating diversity, nor is it
committed to combating inequality and anti-racist education. ( Batelaan & van Hoof, 1996 , p.
7).
Intercultural education aims at a set of educational approaches and school applications with the
aim of promoting social equality, regardless of racial origin, culture, language, social class and
gender. It must include all students, regardless of their origin, as each individual has their own
personality and psyche (Hajisoteriou & Angelides, 2016 ).
Through language teaching, the intercultural dimension aims to develop students as
intercultural speakers or mediators, who will be able to manage complexity and multiple
identities as well as be able to avoid stereotypical views that arise from the perception of an
individual, exclusively through a single identity. It is based on understanding the interlocutor
as an individual with unique characteristics, which must be recognized and not as a
representative of an identity that has been imposed on him by his society, environment or
culture ( Byram and al ., 2002, p.5)
Strengthening the intercultural dimension requires creating a framework in the classroom
where cultural differences are allowed to be expressed and acknowledged. To implement these
processes, a foundation based on respect for human rights, such as equal dignity and equal
36
rights, is required. These principles must be clear and accepted by all students ( Byram and al
., 2002).
The school that promotes the values of intercultural education, creates a receptive and
adaptable environment, also creates cultivated personalities with open thinking, a spirit of
solidarity, cooperation, respect for the different and the "foreign" as well as their cultures. A
substantial preparation of students for life after completing their school career. (Geraris, 2008).
It aims to resolve the problems that previous models of managing cultural diversity in school
failed to resolve (Kesidou, 2008).
Intercultural education is not considered a movement that is exclusively aimed at specific
ethnic groups or genders, but a movement that aims to empower all students to become
informed, caring and active citizens in a turbulent and ethnically divided country and world.
To contribute to the unification of a divided country, and not to divide the nation. Multicultural
pedagogy was developed to respond to the need to support children from different cultural
backgrounds, in order to reduce the chances of school failure. It includes the construction of
knowledge, the reduction of prejudice, the pedagogy of equality and the empowering school
culture. It encourages the meaning of the Latin phrase “ e pluribus unum ”, that is, “out of
many, one” and highlights the importance of unity through diversity. ( Banks, 1993 , pp. 2324; Ladson-Billings, 1999) .
It is necessary to point out that intercultural education should not be limited to schools
specifically designed for this purpose, but affects and is linked to many sectors of the education
system. It should permeate all levels, from pre-school to secondary education, and include all
schools, curricula, subjects and educational materials. Its aim is not only the integration of
foreign students into society, but also the contact of all students with a multitude of cultures,
different from the one they are used to, so that they can discover and understand their own
identity and participate in an intercultural dialogue. In conclusion, intercultural education
should be supported with the necessary resources rather than depending on the initiative and
dedication of teachers, as “intercultural communication is not a technique, but a condition,
which must be constantly cultivated and affirmed”. This is an admirable quality, which all
citizens must adopt within a democratic and multicultural society. Effective intercultural
communication must demonstrate respect for the various forms and different ways of
expression ( Ladson - Billings , 1999; Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007 ; Tsironis, 2008, p. 132)
.
37
4.5 Strengthening Students' Communication Skills through
Intercultural Education
Education and training contribute to the formation of "cultural personalities". Through learning
the language, students do not only know the grammar, vocabulary and the abundance of
expressions and compound verbs. On the contrary, they come into contact with the culture and
civilization of a country. The aim is to strengthen intercultural awareness and language skills,
so that learners can end up understanding people from different cultural backgrounds and
accepting different behaviors and values. Citizens who possess cultural knowledge and values,
which were acquired through their socialization and at the same time are willing and able to
adopt new elements from various cultural environments. Has developed the skill of
communicating with other people with different cultural backgrounds. Intercultural education
aims to develop “intercultural readiness” , i.e. acceptance of the different and the foreign, as
well as “intercultural competence-skill” , i.e. the ability to handle cultural heterogeneity. It is
also a form of education that is interested in educating the majority of students of the dominant
cultural and social group, and not only the minority (Kesidou, 2008, p.30; Lazar, 2008 ; Byram,
2002 ).
The role of teachers needs to change, so that the quality of the educational process can also
change. A creative climate needs to be established, autonomous, innovative with applications
of advanced educational methods, with experiential exercises, role-playing games, case studies,
as well as the use of teaching through art. In addition, the use of various projects and
collaborative methods leads foreign language students to develop their communicative speech
and language skills. This results in students creating communication codes among themselves,
respecting the diversity of their classmates, the opinions, perceptions and values they espouse,
and strengthening self-confidence and the drive to learn (Geraris, cc.) (I will write his
bibliography) . Engaging students in the curriculum and adopting sustainable and inclusive
methods leads to the development of a collaborative culture and promotes their critical
thinking, preparing them as socially active citizens. Furthermore, students will be able to
understand changes, exchange knowledge and opinions and ensure coherence (Hajisoteriou &
Angelides, 2014 ). It is now understood that children of immigrants carry mixed cultural
elements and influences, which leads to the creation of a new composition, which incorporates
the diversity of society. Furthermore, intercultural education recognizes both the individual and
collective reality of cultural and religious diversity ( Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007) .
38
According to Byram, the intercultural dimension consists of students sharing their knowledge
with others and exchanging their opinions. However, there must be rules in the discussions,
based on an understanding of human rights and respect for others. This results in students
learning both from each other and from their teachers. At the same time, they compare their
own cultural context with the unknown, into which learning a foreign language introduces them
( Byram and al , 2002 , p.20).
Through intercultural education, students' communication skills are improved. Students learn
to cooperate with classmates of different cultural backgrounds, which contributes to improving
learning performance, discussions are held on topics such as xenophobia, minorities, different
opinions and perceptions that exist within a society. Teachers highlight the similarities that exist
between peoples and different cultural groups. Interaction between children is promoted and
the marginalization of minority children is prevented. In addition, the aim of intercultural
education is to develop a balanced bicultural identity for students belonging to linguistic
minorities. This can be achieved through bilingual education, which recognizes both the
language taught at school and their mother tongue, which should also be promoted in the
educational system (Gourgiotou, 2001). Intercultural communication is based on respect for
individuals and the equality of human rights, which constitute the democratic foundation for
social interaction ( Byram and al , 2002).
Activities based on experience and group collaboration are based on important pedagogical
and teaching models, such as J. Dewey 's "learning through experience" and J. Brunner 's
"learning through discovery" . These approaches can be applied in both formal and non-formal
education. Students have the opportunity to personally perceive the events they investigate, to
develop ways to conduct smooth collaboration, to explore innovative methods of analyzing and
managing the human resources of their team and finally, to create a climate of empathy, selfawareness and review. For example, teachers can, through role-playing games, assign students
to play a character and interact by improvising based on their personal experiences. Also, by
organizing debate competitions, the class is divided according to the students’ opinions or
beliefs on a key issue, and then the arguments are presented and contrasted. Finally, through
the simulation activity, students choose a role with which they are called upon to realistically
represent a situation to the fullest (Tsironis, 2008).
39
4.6 Difficulties in Intercultural Education
One of the main difficulties that intercultural education faces in its implementation concerns
institutional racism, which manifests itself in the educational environment, in the training and
education of teachers, in school administration, in curricula, textbooks and in educational
practices. The layout of the school room favors conventional teaching approaches, which does
not serve the integration of culturally diverse students. More specifically, in many cases, a
competitive and dysfunctional way of managing the classroom is promoted, without applying
collaborative teaching methods. This is due to the incomplete training of teachers and the
hesitant approach to innovative and different methods (Gourgiotou, 2001).
The proper management of diversity by teachers is considered absolutely necessary, therefore
their appropriate training is required. However, despite the efforts that have occurred in recent
years for the best possible intercultural education, children with an immigrant background often
encounter unequal access conditions and opportunities in terms of their entry into all
educational levels. The lack of equality of opportunity becomes evident in educational
outcomes. The dropout rate of foreign students is particularly high during their transition from
one educational level to another, while inequality of opportunity is observed in the long-term
outcomes of education, especially in the opportunities for professional rehabilitation and social
development (Palaiologou & Evangelou, 2003).
In some cases, it has been observed that teachers do not adapt their teaching methods to be
understandable to linguistically diverse students. They also do not often use individualized
curricula or differentiate their materials on a daily basis to be understandable to students with
different cultural backgrounds. Teachers and students do not need to focus exclusively on the
differences that exist between cultures, but to develop discussions about the functioning of
diversity, that is, the prospects for understanding and cooperation within a multifaceted social
context (Hajisoteriou & Angelides, 2016 ).
The development of students is not only based on innate mental processes, but also on the
mediation of social events and their internalization. Also, students have social motivations for
learning and integrate interaction strategies in the formation of their identity and their positions
in social groups. The social reality that prevails in the school, such as the attitude and
communication of teachers or the possibilities for personal participation, indicatively plays an
important role in this process (Tsironis, 2008).
40
From a political point of view, it is obvious that the cultural specificities of students are often
not respected. More specifically, their educational background from their country of origin is
not utilized in the school context. Each teacher can choose one that will utilize the elements
and attitudes that students bring with them, promoting complexity in the classroom and
avoiding the prevalence of a monocultural curriculum. Of particular importance is the fact that
foreign students often have a mixed cultural background, which is not exclusively identified
with that of their parents, nor with that of the host country. Furthermore, it is vital to point out
that, as nationalist views are strengthened, the more difficult the position of these children will
be ( Triandafyllidou & Gropas, 2007) .
41
CHAPTER 5
5.1 The Influence of Environments on Students' Cognitive
Development
Although each child individually is entitled to the same opportunities as the others in the school
classroom, it is often observed that some groups of average and high socio-economic level cope
better in the lessons. They accumulate high grades and averages, achieve high performance in
school tests and complete more classes, resulting in the development of their educational ability
compared to people belonging to lower socio-economic groups. ( Feldman, 2009) .
Bronfenbrenner , a pioneer in developmental psychology, argued that to understand human
development, the entire ecological system within which development occurs must be
considered. He proposed an alternative approach, the bio-ecological one, which concerns the
existence of five socially organized subsystems that simultaneously influence the effects,
behavior, and guidance of individual development. ( Feldman, 2009) . Each system contains
rules and roles that jointly determine human development. By using the word ecology, it refers
to the Greek word “oikos”, which means “house”. Specifically, the ecological perspective
focuses on the development of the individual as a function of the interaction between the
developing organism and the resilient environment in which it exists and evolves. Emphasis is
placed not only on the survival of the organism but also on its well-being, its evolution and
focuses on the relationship between different environments. According to Bronfenbrenner ,
development can occur as long as the environment presents stability over time. However, even
the most stable environments change as they develop, exerting and being influenced by the
organisms that surround them. ( Bronfenbrenner , 1975 p.439) . It highlights the
interconnectedness of various influences in the course of development and argues that a change
in one system affects the desire to explore and learn and the remaining systems. It extends from
the microsystem, a pattern of activities and interpersonal experiences that the individual
experiences as he develops within a specific context, and the face-to-face interaction with
people who have specific social characteristics, which either allow or hinder his participation
in activities in the immediate environment. The microsystem includes parents, caregivers,
teachers, and the workplace. Then, the mesosystem concerns the elements and connections
from the microsystem. It connects the child with his teachers and parents and highlights both
the direct and indirect effects that develop between these individuals, as well as the influence
42
that the reactions of their social environment have on children's development. Then, the
exosystem refers to social institutions that indirectly influence the immediate environment of
the developing child. These institutions exert a significant influence on both the development
of the individual and the functioning of the microsystem and mesosystem. For example, the
relationship between the home and the work environment of the parents can affect the child, as
can the quality of the education they receive, which affects their cognitive development. In
addition, the macrosystem deals with the broader characteristics of a culture and the cultural
influences on the individual. It aims to emphasize the religious and political value systems,
customs, lifestyles, risks and life choices that are embedded in the macrosystem. Finally, the
timesystem is connected to all of the aforementioned systems. It refers to the changes or
stability observed over time, both in the characteristics of the individual and in the environment
in which he lives ( Feldman, 2009; Bronfenbrenner, 1994).
Each system coexists, interconnected with the others. The interactions of the mesosystem
mutually influence the practices applied in each interacting microsystem, making the child's
transitions between microsystems smoother. The various factors involved in the development
and well-being of a child have the potential to enhance their influence but at the same time
negate it and resist the influence exerted by the exosystem and the macrosystem ( Sadownik ,
2023).
Also worth mentioning is the socio-cultural theory of Vygotsky , a Russian theorist who
focused on social interactions to explain cognitive development. Through the process of
development, a child's speech, thought, and learning path can be explained. According to his
theory, in order to have a complete understanding of the development of an individual, the
cultural context in which the individual develops also needs to be studied. He argues that
students develop cognitive abilities through social interaction, as well as leading them to
explore language and practice their logic. That the social world is not based exclusively on the
interaction of children with teachers but includes external influences within the community. It
is based on the awareness of the ongoing historical process with its values and demands.
Vygotsky formulated the view that children can perceive and understand the environment
around them and through their interaction with adults and children, through games and
cooperation they perceive the important elements in their society as the ability to perceive the
world and its different aspects is strengthened. Also, the socio-cultural theory emphasizes that
development constitutes a mutual transaction between the child and the people who constitute
43
his social environment. It relates the already existing families to the values and demands with
which they live and appear in the social contexts of the institutions. Individuals, in combination
with the broader environmental context, exert an influence on the child while at the same time
the child influences the people and the context in which he lives. Therefore, the child is the
receiver of socialization effects and on the other hand a source of influence . It recognizes the
family as one of the most important contexts in a child's life ( Feldman, 2009 ; Sadownik, 2023;
Mikre , 2015 ; Elliott and al ., 2000).
Vygotsky argued that there were three basic concepts related to cognitive development . He
argued first that culture plays an important role in the field of learning, then that language is
the root of each culture, and finally that individuals develop and are educated according to the
role they play in their community. He defines culture as the morals, values, and beliefs of
members within a community, which are secured by legal systems, social structures, and
institutions. Over time, the results of specific events have led to the formation of different
cultural elements, which are transferred to the members of society. For this reason, Vygotsky
stated that culture influences cognitive development and at the same time human behavior is
also affected. He wanted to highlight the connection between a culture and human
development, that is, the influence that culture has on the individual as well as how the
individual then manages to create culture . He also suggested that within the social circle the
child receives stimuli that concern his perspectives, values and attitudes. Learning and culture
are interdependent and interact mutually. In conclusion, he argued that the combination of
cultural influences and genetics lead to the creation of an individual's personality. The student
shapes his identity through his participation in the community ( Kurt, 2022 ; Mikre , 2015) .
Interaction theory is one of the basic theories of sociology and is linked to Vygotsky 's
sociocultural theory . Specifically, it states that language develops through a combination of
genetically determined predispositions alongside environmental conditions. It recognizes the
existence of endogenous factors that determine the broader context of language development.
It argues that the course of language development is shaped by the language with which the
child interacts and the reward he receives when he uses it appropriately. Therefore, social
factors are considered extremely important in the way a language develops, as through the
child's interaction with the social environment and its members, they often lead him to use
language and at the same time develop language skills. Each individual has a unique way of
44
understanding his success or failure and this is often due to cultural differences in his socioeconomic background and racial factors ( Feldman, 2009).
Interaction theory began based on the assumption that society and the individual are two
interdependent concepts and are shaped through shared meanings. It was developed as an
alternative approach to understanding social life through symbols and interactions. It examines
the use of symbolic meanings, such as language and gestures, by people to create and maintain
a shared reality (Pascale, 2011) .
The above theoretical positions have incorporated different perspectives on the goals of
understanding human action, various ethical commitments, as well as methodological and
epistemological issues ( James & Busher , 2009).
The education of young people is not the sole responsibility of educational institutions. The
state, society and their family jointly play a primary role in their education (Barbarousis, 2022).
Children of immigrants face not only difficulties in adapting to the educational system of the
host country, but also socio-economic and cultural parameters that play a decisive role in their
social integration process. These factors can lead to exclusion from the educational process,
which often results in school failure and, subsequently, in the perpetuation of inequalities
through the same conditions that initially limited their access to education (Toulias, 2003).
5.2 Social Environment: A Determinant Factor for the Student's
Cognitive Development
According to research conducted by PICUM , a network of organizations working to ensure
social justice and the human rights of undocumented migrants, the negative effects on the
psychosocial and mental health of children who are in a country without documents have been
highlighted. They believe that in the future they will not be able to have the same opportunities
as their classmates and this has the effect of becoming a key part of their identity and life.
Children who do not apply for asylum or do not have the necessary legal papers are often at
risk of being left out of the school environment. It is often observed that children feel ashamed
and unwanted in a country because it is not their place of origin. Personal attendance at lessons
in the school environment helps children develop their social skills, create friendly bonds with
their classmates and reduce feelings of isolation and loneliness. Younger children are more
capable and faster at learning new languages and integrating faster into host communities (
Gorevan, 2024) .
45
As children develop and enter adolescence, they focus primarily on understanding the world
around them, and for this they rely on the adults in their familiar environment. However, it is
often observed that they are significantly influenced by external factors outside their immediate
adult circle, with a particular influence exerted by the mass media (Illeris, 2002).
The presentation of the refugee transit by the media is often done in a negative way, which
leads to an increase in prejudices against these populations . At the same time, citizens who
maintain a negative attitude towards ethnic diversity are less favorable towards immigrants (
Conzo et. al., 2021) . An individual's origin and the educational level of their family are a key
factor in determining their educational development (Papachristos, 2010).
Erikson , a German child psychoanalyst, through his theory argued that “personality develops
according to the individual’s ability to interact with his environment”. Society encourages and
promotes interaction with the environment. Children constantly seek stimuli from society and
the environment in which they operate. The way they behave towards those around them and
the response they receive causes changes and shapes the behaviors of students ( Elliott, et al.,
2000 , p. 113 ).
5.3 The Influence of the School Environment on the Student's
Cognitive Development.
Children spend most of their day at school. For this reason, school plays a crucial role in a
child's development. During the early years, children need teachers to provide them with a
supportive framework that will help them overcome initial difficulties and that will gradually
be withdrawn as they progress. There, they learn to function in an organized environment with
other children, each of whom has grown up in different cultural contexts. In this way, children's
opinions, perceptions and values begin to take shape drastically. It shapes and shapes their way
of thinking and their actions. The period in which a student enters the school environment is
considered a milestone as the school tries to transmit knowledge, experiences, values and
perceptions to the next generations. "The school "learns" the student". The purpose of this
transfer is the success of students, in the future as citizens of the society and the world in which
they grow up. It is common for teachers to pass on their expectations to students, resulting in
them performing as expected. Student behavior is influenced by teachers’ expectations.
Inadequate teaching can often lead students to failure, at a time when they need good teachers
and structured educational programs. In an environment with more socio-emotional stimuli and
46
interactions, with more feedback from teachers and tutors, it is natural for children to develop
a positive self-concept, gain more motivation, and focus more on their studies in order to
achieve better academic performance. Compared to children who are often targeted and
experience neglect, they are generally treated negatively ( Feldman, 2009 ; Kakuros &
Maniadaki, 2002; Marantos, 1999, p. 98; Elliott, et al.,2000) .
School communities and their staff, due to the frequent problems they face with the integration
and acceptance of different students in the classrooms, offer linguistic and psychological
support. They seek appropriate pedagogical models, alternative learning strategies and
communication methods, with the aim of creating favorable learning conditions for all students
and promoting intercultural behaviors among them, aiming to improve the performance of all
students (Geraris, ec.). Teachers try to shape their teaching methods according to the cultural
specificities of their students. Through his role, he tries to direct, explain, examine and present
diversity to his students. To enhance students' understanding of the reasons why people from
different cultural groups behave in specific ways, and to guide them so that they do not
conclude that difference equals disadvantage. Students should develop intercultural awareness
and, in the future, integrate into society as citizens capable of respecting and communicating
with people who speak a different language, come from a different background and possess a
different culture and tradition. Only in this way will they be able to eliminate stereotypes and
prejudice (Ioannidou, 2015; Elliott, et al.,2000 ).
In their book, Kalyanpur M. and Harry B. , speak of the tendency of people to often ignore the
existence of an alternative set of cultural mores, at a time when their appreciation and respect
are necessary (Kalyanpur, & Harry, 2012). It is important for teachers and professors to
highlight the importance of the principles of classroom management. Principles such as the
arrangement of desks and the surrounding space, the ability of the teacher to make eye contact
with all members of the class, the rules and behaviors that must be maintained in the school
community, active participation in activities and the use of praise. This is a relationship between
a teacher and a student through which his emotional and intellectual development is enhanced
or suppressed and requires care and concern versus neglect (Kallinikaki, 2014). Furthermore,
communication and interpersonal relationships between teacher and student play an important
role in creating stable expectations in the learning process and behavior. Also, quality teaching,
which consists of questions, praise, and, in the case of the student, adapted feedback, plays an
important role (Elliot et al., 2000) .
47
Teachers seek cultural reciprocity. The different cultural values and beliefs among the students'
families are understood by teachers. They recognize the influence of parents from different
perceptions and values, in terms of communication, expectations and decisions for the future
of their children and their communication with the school. Communication channels are created
between students, parents, teachers and the community, with the aim of making the school
accessible to society, promoting the acceptance of diversity and the harmonious coexistence of
"foreigners" with "locals" within the school context. The different pedagogical practices
implemented by parents are perceived by teachers and often create obstacles to smooth
cooperation with the school ( Geraris, 2014; Kallinikaki, 2014). According to Kalyanpur and
Harry, the process of cultural reciprocity consists of four basic stages. The first stage involves
identifying the cultural values that may influence an individual's interpretation of the
difficulties they face, as well as examining how these values are incorporated into the
recommendations provided. The second stage concerns the affirmation and appreciation of
cultural values, ensuring the recognition and appreciation of teachers towards the individual or
family. Then, in the third stage, the mutual respect that everyone must show towards the cultural
differences that will be recognized is included. Finally, the last stage includes discussion and
collaboration with the aim of smoother adaptation of teachers to the value system of the
individual or family (Kalyanpur, & Harry, 2012).
However, the social education offered at school is directly related to other socialization factors.
The student's academic progress is not only due to the school but also to the influence exerted
by the family (Marantos, 1999). Of course, cooperation with the family is not always an easy
task, nor a given. On the contrary, it requires a specific approach from the side of teachers as
well as from the school. This can be achieved through targeted activities, for which appropriate
information and preparation are necessary (Liakopoulou & Papadopoulou, 2019).
In conclusion, the tactic that teachers used to apply, demonstrating harsh behavior, probably
alienated students and did not benefit them. On the contrary, support, teamwork and cultivating
the feeling of being part of a group, contribute more effectively to creating a positive learning
experience for students . If teachers show a real interest and appreciation for people from other
cultures and become an example for their students to follow, then children will follow this
example. They will imitate this behavior and enrich their lives with new knowledge and
experiences ( Elliott et al., 2000) .
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Education constitutes one of the main pillars of socialization and maintenance of social order,
while at the same time contributing to the reproduction of social inequalities. Nevertheless,
social inequalities are not limited exclusively to the field of school operation. On the contrary,
school can be considered as the final mechanism that either excludes or equally integrates
students into society. A multitude of other social institutions play a key role in shaping the
conditions and opportunities that children have to achieve upward educational and social
mobility. Of particular importance is the family environment, which influences both the
economic conditions that facilitate or limit school success, as well as the perceptions and
attitudes that shape the child's relationship with education and learning. In addition, the cultural
heritage in which a child grows up plays an indirect, but equally important role in his or her
educational path (Toulias, 2003).
5.4 Family Environment: Support or Obstacle to the Student's
Cognitive Development
As mentioned in the above subsection, school is the primary environment where students
develop and acquire systematic learning. However, the family is a determining factor that
directly influences the physical and psychological development of the child. This influence, in
turn, contributes to shaping their academic development and student performance ( Xing ,
2923).
The socio-economic level, educational level, nationality and cultural background of parents
have a significant influence on student performance (Zervoudaki, 2011). Furthermore, the
composition of the family, the particular personalities of its members, the nature of the
relationship between the parents, as well as their attitude and behavior towards the children and
their school performance, are decisive factors for the educational progress of students (Toulias,
2003). According to Demaine , the family, in combination with the educational system, are the
main institutions that transmit culture from generation to generation. Because of this, education
functions as an institution that not only influences, but is also influenced by other factors in
society ( Demaine , 1981 ).
Immigrant parents, however, often find it difficult to support and help their children with
schoolwork due to their unfamiliarity with the Greek language. Save the Children , a global
organization, has repeatedly highlighted the problems faced by refugee children in Greece in
terms of starting intensive Greek lessons in relation to the official start of the school year, as
well as their transfer to school ( Gorevan , 2024) .
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Families play a fundamental role in children’s education and development, significantly
influencing their academic performance. However, children’s educational trajectory is not
determined solely by family influence. It is also shaped by broader structural factors, such as
the political and institutional components of the education system, as well as the guidelines set
by the political context ( Lyu , Li & Xie , 2019). Furthermore, the family plays an important
role in the child’s socialization experience. Through socialization, students acquire and
maintain adequate relationships with others, and adapt their behavior according to the norms
and requirements of society ( Elliott et al., 2000) . A child’s interactions with their family
inevitably influence their perception of themselves and others. As children’s first and most
important teachers, families develop the younger generation’s cultural sensitivity, awareness
and appreciation for different beliefs and cultures. Interactions and the exchange of values and
beliefs between family members influence young people’s receptivity to diversity.
Relationships of mutual understanding and cooperation between all family members enable
parents or guardians of children to support their children in their learning needs, helping them
to meet school obligations. Furthermore, when parents have the necessary educational level to
provide substantial assistance, the chances of children achieving better performance increase
compared to cases where parents do not have the necessary time or educational background to
support them (Kacane,2020; Toulias, 2003). Parents' educational expectations do not appear
particularly high, while there is limited qualitative differentiation between the categories of
immigrants and returnees. Communication between teachers and parents becomes problematic,
due to the limited involvement with the children's school performance and the lack of available
time due to increased professional obligations (Toulias, 2003). Nevertheless, the cooperation
between school and family proves to be extremely beneficial, as it contributes both to the
smooth operation of the school and to the improvement of interpersonal relationships of all
parties involved, ultimately leading to a significant enhancement of the students' school
performance (Zervoudaki, 2011).
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CHAPTER 6
6.1 Purpose of the Research
This study aims to understand how developing students' communication abilities supports
epistemological and intercultural learning in contemporary education. The study is timely at a
moment when education systems worldwide are struggling more than ever to meet the demands
of increasingly diverse students. The aim is to figure out how communication skills, the
building blocks of learning and human sociality, can be harnessed to make education
cognitively (epistemologically) and culturally more effective. It is an approach that
acknowledges that to be successful in today's globalized world, learning must at once address
both academic attainment and cultural skills (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 48).
This research has one primary objective: to study the impact of school-family cooperation on
student growth. This goal follows from the realization that success in school does not depend
only on what happens in the classroom but is also strongly dependent on the quality and depth
of relationships between school and family. This study explores the influence of different types
of school-family communication on student performance, behavior and social integration.
These include assessing formal and informal communication channels, learning about
obstacles to practical cooperation, and learning how to bring families from all cultural
backgrounds together. This research is especially interested in how this collaboration can help
students cultivate communication skills while co...
