Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ CHAPTERFOUR:–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 87  Insidethischapter:  CognitiveTechniquesandSkillsof StrategicThinking Imagine yourself as the NCOIC in midst of preparing your work center for an operations or compliance inspection. You have been assigned there for a while and feel very comfortable with the way operations are being conducted. However, during an inspection preparation meeting with key players, a member brand new to the unit questions the way your section conducts business. He suggests several never-seen-before ideas that will completely alter the way your section does business and, if implemented, will undoubtedly improve efficiency. Are you willing and able to consider this “new guy’s” perspective and suggestions? Why is it that he came up with these revolutionary ideas and you did not? What cognitive techniques and skills did he use to envision and create such ideas? "It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it." - Aristotle  x CriticalThinking x CreativeThinking x InnovativeThinking x AdaptiveThinking x ReflectiveThinking x AnalyticalThinking x FutureThinking x Synthesis CriticalThinking:ACloserLook TheCriticalThinkingSubǦSkills x Investigate x CreateandDevelop x Communicate x Evaluate CharacteristicsoftheCritical Thinker CriticalThinkingHindrances ApproachesforEvaluating Information x ConsidertheSource x Faciones’sScoringRubric ThinkingDeeplyAboutLeadership ImpactonNCOEffectiveness 88 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to: TERMINAL COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: Comprehend strategic thinking concepts and their impact on NCO effectiveness. Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior: 1. Explain how strategic thinking impacts NCO effectiveness. 2. Give examples of strategic thinking’s impact on NCO effectiveness. 3. Predict the impact of strategic thinking on NCO effectiveness. AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: Value strategic thinking and how it enhances NCO, subordinate, unit, and mission effectiveness. Affective Samples of Behavior: 1. Actively participate in strategic thinking opportunities that develop critical, creative, future, adaptive, innovative, reflective, systems thinking, and synthesizing information, ideas, concepts, conclusions that impact NCO, subordinate, unit, and mission effectiveness. 2. Willingly accept that strategic thinking techniques are important to NCO, subordinate, unit, and mission effectiveness. 3. Develop a preference for using strategic thinking techniques to enhance NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. 4. Commit to using strategic thinking techniques to enhance NCO, subordinate, unit, and mission effectiveness. Your cognition, or ability to think and learn, is vital to your success. Consider the following: Your skills and talents are the natural strengths you have, determination is the size of your dreams and imagination, effort is how much work you are willing to do, and cognitive ability refers to how well one utilizes the cognitive techniques and skills of critical, creative, future, adaptive, innovative, reflective, systems thought to compile various pieces of information, ideas, concepts, conclusions, etc. in new and different ways to reach desired results.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 89 Cognitive Techniques and Skills of Strategic Thinking Just because you have a sharp wit or belong to Mensa (an intellectual society that requires a high IQ to be a member) does not mean you are a proficient strategic thinker. There are geniuses that are renowned for their irrational beliefs and unreasonable opinions. Remember Dr. Ted Kaczynski (also known as the Unabomber)? He was a highly intellectual child prodigy! This chapter begins by examining the cognitive techniques and skills that support strategic thought (Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, Innovative Thinking, Adaptive Thinking, Reflective Thinking, Analytical Thinking Future Thinking, and Systems Thinking, and Synthesis) and how these skills enhance NCO, organizational, and mission effectiveness and that desired state of success. Strategic thinking refers to the ability to take a long-term view and build a shared vision that clearly defines and expresses a future state. It requires the ability to demonstrate innovative and creative insights/solutions for guiding and directing organizations. Critical Thinking Critical thinking is part of the human understanding process and embodies “those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome...thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task.”5 Creative Thinking Creative thought unlocks the power of possibility by fostering new and innovative ideas or as Professor Guy Claxton puts it, is simply the skill of “coming up with a new idea when you need one.”6 Although many psychologists believe this skill originates during childhood and the awe of wonder, creative thought exists throughout all facets of life. It is the cognitive ability to imagine and innovate. Imagination is simply the capacity to conceive what is not — something that does not exist or may exist but cannot be perceived. It is the ability to conjure new realities and possibilities.7 Consider the creative thought by one of the world’s most renowned scientists and modern-day thinkers, Albert Einstein. Albert Einstein conducted thought experiments that enabled him to make leaps that other scientists of his time (even the great ones) could not. It wasn’t that Einstein had lots more determination or computational brainpower than others who came tantalizingly close to many of Einstein’s most famous insights.  90 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  The difference, according to biographer Walter Isaacson, was imagination. From the time Einstein was young, he practiced visualizing things in novel ways. What would it be like, he asked himself, if you could run alongside a wave of light? What if you were in an enclosed elevator accelerating up through space? By starting with such questions and playing with them, instead of accepting the “givens” of normal science, Einstein was able to take his already extraordinary mind and open it even more, and thus his theory of relativity was born.8 If imagination is the capacity to conceive of what is not, then creativity, in turn, is imagination applied: doing something, or making something, with that initial idea. However, not all acts of creativity are inherently innovative. Innovation comes when an act of creativity has somehow advanced the existing form.9 Innovative Thinking The world has relied on innovation and has benefited greatly by the innovative spirit. From the creation of the wheel and telephone to the automobile and the Internet, these revolutionary feats have propelled civilization to new and never-before imagined technological and procedural frontiers. The contributions of innovative thinkers throughout military history led to the competitive advantage and advancement of operations planning, advanced weaponry, and organizational efficiency; all of which support America’s premier fighting force. Innovative thinking from an organizational standpoint can be simplified using The Innovation Value Continuum (above). ¾ Efficiency Innovation focuses on identifying new ideas for improving what already exists. This approach requires minimal investment since the team is building on the past and only looking for small changes to what is currently being done. These innovations are lower-impact improvements or adaptations of an organization’s existing products, services, programs, or processes. The strategy for Efficiency Innovations is usually to cut costs, reduce cycle time, improve quality, offset a competitor’s move, or attract new customers. Typically, only small gains are realized. ¾ Evolutionary Innovation focuses on identifying ideas that represent something “distinctly new and improved.” An example of an Evolutionary Innovation is the introduction of automatic banking machines that transformed the way banks viewed their staffing needs and shifted banking from set hours to banking at any hour. Evolutionary Innovation requires the team to look more broadly than cost-savings initiatives and see the “bigger picture” of what is really needed in the organization.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 91 Instead of duplicating what already exists, the team must look for new ways to bring value to the organization and its customers through new and improved products, services, and processes which can change the way customers relate to the organization or the way work is processed within the organization. ¾ Revolutionary Innovation focuses on radically new and better ideas that may dismantle the existing structure of the organization. For example, McDonald’s fast-food approach changed the restaurant business. Disney’s unique characters and interactive theme parks changed the entertainment business. MP3 technology revolutionized the music sales industry. 10 Note: Innovative thinking is not to be confused with Chapter Six: Adaption-Innovation (A-I) Theory. A-I Theory pertains to the preferred cognitive thinking styles of adaptive and innovative to solve problems whereas here, we concentrate on the cognitive skills and techniques of adaptive and innovative thought. Adaptive Thinking The term adaptive thinking refers to the cognitive behavior one demonstrates when confronted by unanticipated circumstances during the execution of a planned activity (i.e. military operation). The skilled adaptive thinker is able to make adjustments within his or her plan to either exploit the advantage or minimize the damage of the unanticipated event by adapting to the conditions for a more successful outcome. Developing adaptive thinking does not occur in controlled, predictable, or calm reflective environments. Rather, it occurs in complex, challenging, and often stressful situations and requires deliberate practice and repetition. Deliberate practice differs from simply exercising a skill or ability in that deliberate practice involves: ¾ Repetition. Task performance occurs repetitively rather than at its naturally occurring frequency. A goal of deliberate practice is to develop habits that operate expertly and automatically. If appropriate situations occur relatively infrequently or are widely spaced apart while performing “as you fight” they will not readily become habitual. ¾ Focused feedback. Task performance is evaluated by the coach or learner during performance. There is a focus on the critical parts of how one does the task and constructive criticism is provided at regular intervals. ¾ Immediacy. After feedback is provided on task performance, there is an immediate repetition so that the task can be performed more in accordance with expert norms. ¾ Focusing on weaknesses. Deliberate practice can be tailored to the individual and focused on areas of weakness. During "train as you fight" performances the individual will avoid situations in which he knows he is weak, and rightly so as there is a desire to do one’s best.11  Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 92  Reflective Thinking Reflective thinking is part of strategic thought that pertains specifically to the processes of analyzing and making judgments about what we know, what we need to know, and how we bridge that gap. This cognitive skill is the active, persistent, and careful consideration of beliefs or supposed bodies of knowledge where one “steps back” and thinks about how he or she will solve a problem and how the selected strategy will enable goal achievement. Analytical Thinking When you think analytically, you are examining (thinking comprehensively) about the different parts or details of something in order to understand or explain it. However, we must realize that analytical thought is not simply left brain, logical activity, but a whole-brain, purposeful, and necessary approach for developing creative and innovative ideas. For instance, when analyzing a concept, object, or problem, you may be required to consider the following: x Cause and effect x Complexity x Similarities and differences x Possible solutions and alternatives x Associations and disconnections x Steps within a process x Relationships between all parts x Trends x Sequences of events x Examples One well-known method used to help in analytical thought include Asking the Five “W” questions (Who? What? When? Where? Why?) as well as What if? and So what? Another is called mind mapping. This is a diagram that begins with a central topic usually placed in the middle with sub-topics and relevant details “branching” from the topic. Here is one example that may assist you with your next vehicle purchase.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 93 Future Thinking Future thinking (sometimes referred to as futuring) is an intellectual process of peering into the future through creative visioning, speculation, brainstorming, and disciplined research with the intent of deflecting or controlling these events in a desired direction.12 It is the practice of visionaries, those who skillfully see desired goals and outcomes through their mind’s eye. Now futurists are not mythical fortune tellers or able to predict the future; future thinking assists those with vision to design alternative futures based on available data. They then incorporate creative and innovative thinking to solve existing social and technical problems.13 Systems Thinking In essence, systems thinking is a discipline of seeing the “whole,” recognizing patters and interrelationships and learning how to structure more effective, efficient decisions. The two systems of thinking include: System 1 – Reactive Thinking and System 2 – Reflective Thinking. ¾ System 1 (Reactive Thinking) relies heavily on situational cues, prominent memories, trial and error, and heuristic thinking (discovering solutions for self) to arrive quickly and confidently at judgments, particularly when situations are familiar and immediate action is required. ¾ System 2 (Reflective Thinking) is broad and informed problem-solving and deliberate decision making. It is useful for judgments in unfamiliar situations, for processing abstract concepts, and for deliberating when there is time for planning and more comprehensive consideration. Argument making is often part of the deliberation process when making System 2 decisions. The concept of systems thinking is covered comprehensively in the Continuous Improvement chapter. Synthesis Synthesis, a higher order of thinking that pertains to critical thinking and the ability to combine various pieces of information, ideas, concepts, conclusions, etc. in new and different ways. It requires the cognitive flexibly to determine alternatives and explore new methods to accomplishing a given task (i.e. problem solving). By utilizing the cognitive skills and techniques of critical, creative, innovative, adaptive, reflective, analytical, and future thinking; we are able to construct, compile, formulate, modify, discuss, and eliminate existing thoughts and ideas to construct, create, design, develop, propose, and test, new thoughts and ideas that are new, improved, and innovative. Keep in mind that the ability to synthesize thoughts and ideas relies heavily on one’s ability to think abstractly. Often referred to as “outside of the box thinking,” abstract thinking is the ability to conceptualize, generalize, or understand that encountered concepts can have multiple meanings.  94 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Such thinkers may see patterns beyond what is considered obvious and are able to use various patterns, ideas, and clues to solve complex problems. Abstract thinking helps to solve problems in more creative and innovative ways. Take a moment to appreciate this abstract painting by the famous surrealist painter, Salvador Dali. Titled “The Paranoiac Visage,” this painting (circa 1935) is an example of double imaging. For some, it depicts a village. For others, it portrays a face. What did you see first? Can you see both images? Try this: Distance yourself from the picture as this allows you to take in all aspects of the painting’s attributes like the colors, shapes, shades, dimension, and contrast. You may even realize Dali’s point of view and intent for painting this masterpiece!   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 95 Progress Check 1. Match the cognitive technique and skill to its respective definition. Note: All responses are only used once.  __ Adaptive Thinking a. Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making __ Analytical Thinking b. It is the cognitive ability to imagine and innovate __ Creative Thinking c. Thinking that results in efficiency, evolutionary, and revolutionary improvements and advancements __ Critical Thinking d. Thinking one demonstrates when confronted by unanticipated circumstances during the execution of a planned activity (i.e. military operation __ Future Thinking e. Thinking that concentrates on what we know, what we need to know, and how we bridge that gap __ Innovative Thinking f. Thinking that requires generative thinking (divergent thinking): the development of ideas __ Synthesis g. The practice of visionaries, those who skillfully see desired goals and outcomes through their mind’s eye __ Reflective Thinking h. ability to combine or compile various pieces of information, ideas, concepts, conclusions, etc. in new and different ways 96 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Critical Thinking: A Closer Look Of the cognitive skills and techniques noted in this chapter, critical thinking is the most dynamic and requires a deeper understanding. Before we delve deeper into critical thinking, take a moment to attempt the following mind-bender. Exercise: Connect the Dots Link all 9 dots using four straight lines or fewer, without lifting the pen and without tracing the same line more than once. Hint: To solve this puzzle you need to think “outside the box.”                “Ultimately, it is not we who define thinking; it is thinking that defines us.” - Carey, Foltz, & Allan It is the critical appraisal of beliefs, perspectives, and claims to arrive at well-reasoned judgments.14 Often considered consequential (far-reaching or momentous) thinking, critical thought is used to solve problems in practical, creative, or scientific ways; engaging in psychological reasoning; and adopting different perspectives when evaluating ideas or issues.15 We use critical thought when handling those tough topics and tasks, sampling different approaches to problems, evaluating strategies, and internalizing appropriate questions and concepts. Therefore, in order to think critically we may have to consider and adopt a new way of thinking. Consider the story of Dr. John Snow, a mid 19th-century British physician.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 97 Dr. Snow was faced with the arduous task to discover the reason for a massive cholera (a water-borne bacterial infection) outbreak that plagued neighborhoods in and around London. Using a map of the city, Dr. Snow plotted the addresses of all the known dead— around 500 people— as well as the location of all the local public water pumps. After much analysis, investigation, creativity, logical theory development, and discussions with fellow health professionals and water treatment specialists, Dr. Snow realized that the majority of the cholera-related deaths occurred near one particular water pump. He ordered the removal of the pump and within a few weeks, the epidemic ended.16 Humans synthesize their perception of reality in the context of their basic emotional needs, values, and principles in order to create new ideas and draw conclusions. During this process, they may or may not use critical thinking as this requires us to combine our rational logic, creativity, common sense, and intuition into structured expressions of clear solutions and ideas that are useful and relevant to the task. Critical thinking is very important in the global economy driven by information and technology. You have to be flexible, be able to deal with the abundance of new information, and be able to analyze and integrate information to solve problems at an incredible pace. How many times in your career have you had to come up with new ideas or to pick from ideas to determine the best one to accomplish the mission? Military members across the Air Force and at all levels use critical thinking to solve perplexing problems on- and off-duty that endanger personal and organizational morale, welfare, task completion, and ultimately mission accomplishment. For instance, to determine the resources needed to meet specific objectives, ways to procure them, and logical alternatives for those resources if they are simply unavailable; we must apply the critical thinking sub-skills demonstrated by Dr. Snow which are: investigate, create and develop, communicate, and evaluate.  98 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  The Critical Thinking Sub-Skills Investigate Investigation involves identifying the real problem(s), gathering pertinent data, asking appropriate questions, analyzing and judging the value of available information, constructively challenging ideas, and questioning assumptions. There are three actions that support one’s ability to investigate: interpretation, analysis, and Inference. ¾ Interpretation is extremely important when investigating and is the ability to “comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.”17 ¾ Analysis assists investigations where one identifies “the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions.”18 ¾ Inference means “to identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to educe the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation.”19 Create and Develop Critical thinkers use his or her imagination and understanding of a matter to create logical ideas and explore possibilities. While expanding (developing) ideas with all the information gathered, they are constantly on the lookout for patterns, recognizable differences, generalizations, and plausible conclusions and predictable outcomes. Oftentimes, we are faced with situations where all the information is simply unavailable. It is during these instances that the critical thinker relies on his or her abilities to creatively think and “fill in the blanks” with logical information and assumptions. Communicate Critical thinkers interact with different audiences not to argue, debate, or criticize, but to collect, consider, and accept the inputs of others. Within and across organizations, we are often teamed with other adaptive and innovative thinkers to investigate situations, and create [develop] logical thoughts. With this in mind, we must always remain cognizant, considerate, and open to the perspectives and inputs of others as we seek best possible solutions to problems and strategies to situation improvement. The sub-skill set of explanation is essential to effective, intellectual communication. ¾ Explanation: the ability to present in a cogent and coherent way the results of one’s reasoning.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 99 It is “to state and to justify that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations upon which one’s results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments.” 20 Evaluate Evaluation is assessing “the credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief, or opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions or other forms of representation.”21 Critical thinkers must often go to great lengths to thoroughly evaluate the Healthy Skepticism: Too much accuracy and validity of information, whether skepticism will lead you to doubt specific claims are true, if perspectives are everything and commit yourself to rational, and if identified solutions and nothing, whereas too little will lead one to alternatives are in fact reasonable. Other gullibility and credulousness. variables susceptible to evaluation also include: related arguments, interpretations, beliefs, theories, policies and regulations, and one’s own reasoning.22 Self-regulation is a sub-skill set of evaluation. ¾ Self-regulation means to “self-consciously monitor one’s cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities by applying skills in analysis, and evaluation to one’s own inferential judgments with a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s results.”23 Characteristics of the Critical Thinker Critical thinking is more than thinking logically or analytically, it also means thinking rationally or objectively. There is an important distinction. Logic and analysis are essentially philosophical and exacting concepts, whereas thinking rationally and objectively are broader concepts that embody the fields of psychology and sociology. The first step to becoming a proficient critical thinker is developing the proper attitude that embodies the following characteristics: open-mindedness, healthy skepticism, intellectual humility, free-thinking, and high motivation. The first two characteristics may seem contradictory; however, the critical thinker must be willing to consider, investigate, and evaluate viewpoints different from his or her own while recognizing that do not merit such consideration. A critical thinker must be neither inflexible nor naive.  100 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Therefore, being both open-minded and skeptical means simply seeking the facts, information, and data along with the reasoning to support issues you intend to evaluate. It is examining issues from as many perspectives as possible, seeking the positive and negative points of each, and even accepting the fact that you may be in error yourself. In the end, as a critical thinker we must always remain focused on seeking the truth rather than merely trying to please others or finding fault with their views. Intellectual humility means adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions and belief and being prepared to examine all new evidence and arguments even if such efforts leads you to discover flaws in your own cherished opinions and beliefs. This requires us to stop thinking that every complex issue can be reduced to a principle of right and wrong or black and white. Instead, we must begin thinking in terms of degrees of certainty and shades of grey. Sometimes, “I don’t know” can be the wisest position to take on an issue. Socrates once said, “Arrogance does not befit the critical thinker.” A critical thinker must also have an independent mind and be a free-thinker. To think freely, you must restrain your desire to agree and accept an opinion or belief because of social pressures to conform. This can be quite difficult and virtually impossible for some. You must be willing to ask if conformity is motivating your belief or opinion and, if so, have the strength and courage to at least temporarily abandon your position until you can complete a more objective and thorough evaluation. Finally, the critical thinker must possess a natural curiosity to pursue his or her understanding of a matter and be highly motivated to put in the effort necessary to evaluating multiple sides of the issue. This may require the critical thinker to ask many questions, which can be unsettling to those expected to respond. Isadore Rabbi, a Nobel-prize winning physicist, tells a story of his childhood in the Jewish ghetto of New York. When the children came home from school, their mothers would ask them, “What did you learn in school today?” But Isadore's mother would ask him, “What good questions did you ask today?” Dr. Rabbi suggests he became a physicist and won the Nobel Prize because he was valued more for the questions he was asking than the answers he provided.24 Asking questions is one of the most important things you can do on your journey to becoming a good critical thinker. A critical thinker cannot be a lazy thinker! A critical thinker must be careful not to fall into a drone mentality or being set on ”autopilot” where you fall into a pattern of not paying attention to the world around you—it can easily sneak up on you. Here is an exercise to see if you have drone creep.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 101 Exercise: Drone Creep So how much do you pay attention to the world around you? Can you identify a common, everyday object you’ve handled countless times throughout your life? SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How many times have you heard the saying, “This is how we’ve always done it?” How can having the critical thinking mindset increase your ability and affect the unit and mission effectiveness?  102 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Progress Check 2. What are the four sub-skill sets of critical thinking? 3. What does self-regulation mean? 4. What is open-mindedness? 5. How can you be open-minded and still maintain a healthy sense of skepticism? 6. What does intellectual humility mean? 7. What does it mean to be a free-thinker? 8. What does it mean to have a high motivation to become a critical thinker?   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 103 Critical Thinking Hindrances Each day of your life you become exposed to things that hinder and obstruct your ability to think clearly, accurately, and fairly. Some of these hindrances result from unintentional and natural human limitations, whereas others are clearly calculated and manipulative. Some are obvious, but most are subtle or insidious. Armed with the proper attitude, a critical thinker must next understand how to recognize and avoid (or mitigate) the gauntlet of deception that characterizes everyday life. These hindrances can be divided into four categories:  x Basic Human Limitations – These apply to everyone, including the greatest of critical thinkers. These limitations remind us that we are not perfect and that our understanding of facts, perceptions, memories, built-in biases, etc., precludes our ability of ever seeing or understanding the world with total objectivity and clarity. The best one can do is to acquire a sufficient or adequate understanding of the matter at hand. x Use of Language - Is inherently relevant to critical thinking. The choice of words themselves can conceal the truth, mislead, confuse, or deceive. From advertisements that guarantee fast and easy weight loss to politicians assuring prosperity and riches for everyone, a critical thinker must learn to recognize when words are not intended to communicate ideas or feelings, but rather to control thought and behavior. x Faulty Logic or Perception – This leads to misconceptions, which are the basis of false or mistaken ideas. 104 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  x  Psychological or Sociological Pitfalls - Perceptions can be misinterpreted due to psychological and sociological influences, and reasoning can be twisted to gain influence and power. Consider the following visual example: Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  105 Exercise: Critical Thinking Hindrances Match the hindrances/definitions number to its corresponding example. Indicate your responses by writing the numbers in the left-hand boxes. Then brainstorm one or two tips that will help you avoid falling prey to each hindrance. Basic Human Limitations Hindrance Example Air traffic controllers often have difficulty making good judgments after long hours on duty. Dramatic stories of Bigfoot sightings do not prove the existence of Bigfoot. If one believes that more murders occur during a full moon, then one will tend to take notice of murders that occur during a full moon and tend not to take notice of murders that occur at other times. Police officers should not show a photo of a possible assailant to a witness prior to a police lineup, or the actual memory of the witness may be unconsciously replaced. Some people are biased against claims made by scientists because their worldview appears too cold and impersonal.  Critical Thinking Tip 106 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Hindrances/Definitions 1. Physical and Emotional Hindrances: Stress, fatigue, drugs, and related hindrances can severely affect your ability to think clearly and critically. 2. Confirmation Bias and Selective Thinking: The process whereby you tend to notice and look for what confirms your beliefs, and to ignore, not look for, or undervalue the relevance of what contradicts your beliefs. 3. Testimonial Evidence: Relying on the testimonies and vivid anecdotes of others to substantiate your own beliefs, even though testimonies are inherently subjective, inaccurate, unreliable, biased, and occasionally fraudulent. 4. Personal Biases and Prejudices: Everyone has personal biases and prejudices resulting from their own unique life experiences and worldview that make it difficult to remain objective and think critically. 5. False Memories and Confabulation: Being unaware that your memories are often “manufactured” to fill in the gaps in your recollection, or that some memories or facts, over time, can be unconsciously replaced with fantasy. Use of Language Hindrance Example Naming detergents “Joy” and “Cheer” (positive), not “Dreary” and “Tedious” (negative). The military using the phrase “neutralizing the opposition” (less negative) rather than “killing” (negative). An ad that claims a battery lasts “up to” 30% longer but does not say it will last 30% longer, and if it did, longer than what. The dairy industry cleverly expresses fat content as a percentage of weight, not of calories. Thus 2% “low” fat milk really has 31% fat  Critical Thinking Tip Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  107 when fat is measured as a percentage of calories. Referring to a family as “a bounded plurality of role-playing individuals” or a homeless person as a “non-goal oriented member of society.” Expressions such as “As everyone knows…” and “Common sense tells us that…” From the statement “Lying expert testified at trial”, is the expert a liar or is the person an expert on telling when someone is lying? Hindrances/Definitions 1. Doublespeak Jargon: The use of technical language to make the simple seem complex, the trivial seem profound, or the insignificant seem important, all done intentionally to impress others. 2. Meaningless Comparisons: Language that implies that something is superior but retreats from that view. 3. Assuring Expressions: Using expressions that disarm you from questioning the validity of an argument. 4. Ambiguity: A word or expression that can be understood in more than one way. 5. False Implications: Language that is clear and accurate but misleading because it suggests something false. 6. Emotive Content: Intentionally using words to arouse feelings about a subject to bias others positively or negatively in order to gain influence or power. Faulty Logic or Perception Hindrance Example  Critical Thinking Tip 108 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Irrationally believing that how one wears their hat while watching a football game can influence the score. Making a claim that Printer A makes better copies than Printer B, while ignoring the important fact that only Printer B can also fax, copy, and scan. Arguing that two children sharing the same bedroom is wrong because double-celling of criminals in a penitentiary can lead to bad behavior. “Because regulators have controlled smoking in public places, their ultimate goal is to control everything else in our lives.” After using a magnetic belt for a while, a woman notices her back pain is less, even though there may be a dozen other reasons for the reduced back pain. Believing that there must be life on Mars because no one has proved that there is not life on Mars. Hindrance/Definitions 1. Pragmatic Fallacy: Arguing something is true because “it works,” even though the causality between this something and the outcome are not demonstrated. 2. Slippery Slope Fallacy: An argument that assumes as adverse chain of events will occur but offers no proof. 3. Irrelevant Comparisons: Making a comparison that is irrelevant or inappropriate.  Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  109 4. Argument from Ignorance: A logical fallacy claiming something is true because it has not been proven false. 5. Apophenia* and Superstition: Erroneous perception of the connections between unrelated events. * Meaning “unmotivated seeing of connections” accompanied by a "specific experience of an abnormal meaningfulness" has come to represent the human tendency to seek patterns in random nature in general, as with gambling, paranormal phenomena, religion, and even attempts at scientific observation. 6. False Analogies: Making illogical analogies to support the validity of a particular claim. Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls Hindrance Example “Anyone who supports removing troops from Iraq is a traitor!” Making jokes about one’s own character in order to disarm critics and evade having to defend policy. Advertisements that appeal to one’s vanity, pity, guilt, fear, or desire for pleasure, while providing no logical reasons to support their product being better than a competitor. “You should not believe a word my opponent says because he is just bitter because I am ahead in the polls.” “You are either with us, or with the terrorists!” Thousands of years ago the average person believed that the world was  Critical Thinking Tip 110 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  flat simply because most other people believed so. Hindrances/Definitions 1. Evading the Issue, Red Herring: If one has been accused of wrongdoing, diverting attention to an issue irrelevant to the one at hand. 2. Poisoning the Well: Creating a prejudicial atmosphere against the opposition, making it difficult for the opponent to be received fairly. 3. Ad hominem Fallacy: Criticizing the person making an argument, not the argument itself. 4. Fallacy of False Dilemma, Either/Or Fallacy: Intentionally restricting the number of alternatives, thereby omitting relevant alternatives from consideration. 5. Ad populum, Bandwagon Fallacy: An appeal to the popularity of the claim as a reason for accepting the claim. 6. Emotional Appeals: Making irrelevant emotional appeals to accept a claim, since emotion often influences people more effectively than logical reasoning.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ Progress Check 9. What are the four categories of hindrances to critical thinking discussed in this chapter? x x x x 10. Provide your own example for each of the categories above. x x x x  111 112 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Approaches for Evaluating Information When first learning a musical instrument or a sport, you can tell that some of your peers are better at the instrument or the sport than others. Everyone makes progress, and soon everyone is doing better than when they first started. You do not have to be an expert to begin to see qualitative differences and to make reasonable evaluations. This, too, is true of critical thinking. There are some readily available ways to begin to make reasonable judgments concerning stronger or weaker uses of critical thinking. Consider the Source Aside from your personal experiences, where do you usually acquire information? Sources such as the Internet, TV, media publications, statistical reports, and surveys probably come to mind. In today’s information age, there is an overabundance of sources, but how do you know which ones you can trust? While there is no simple answer, a critical thinker should look for information sources that are credible, unbiased, and accurate. This will depend on such things as the source’s qualifications, integrity, and reputation. Does the source have a motive for being inaccurate or overly biased? It is extremely easy to fool people with numbers—so you may consider becoming educated in the fundamental principles of probability and statistics before believing statistical information that supports an argument. These are the types of questions a critical thinker will consider. "Knowing a great deal is not the same as being smart; intelligence is not information alone but also judgment, the manner in which information is collected and used." - Carl Sagan  Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  113 Exercise: Source Credibility Consider the following question, and then determine whether you believe each source would be credible to consult on this question. Briefly explain your answers. What other sources might be worth consulting? “Should television stations be prevented from broadcasting children’s shows that contain violence?” Source A vice president of an advertising agency that sells toys and electronic games A child psychologist A Nobel Peace Prize winner An owner of a video store A representative from a parenting group A doctor specializing in neurology A programmer from a television station Friends of yours who have children A police officer who deals with “juveniles” Your congressional representative  Credible? Why or Why Not? Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 114  Fascione’s Scoring Rubric In the following exercise, you will use a tool designed to evaluate statements in terms of critical thinking called the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR). This tool, developed by Dr. Peter Facione and Dr. Noreen Facione, relies on the ordinary meanings of common terms used to talk about thinking. It can aid you in evaluating real-life examples of critical thinking because it only requires you to consider four evaluative definitions: strong, acceptable, unacceptable, and weak. This simple tool is sufficient to get you started evaluating critical thinking. Naturally, as you learn more about critical thinking, you will become better at applying the rubric. Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR)25 4 (Strong): Consistently does all or almost all of the following: x Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. x Identifies the salient arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con. x Thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view. x Draws warranted judicious, non-fallacious conclusions. x Justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions and reasons. x Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead. 3 (Acceptable): Does most or many of the following:  x Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. x Identifies relevant arguments (reasons and claims) pro and con. x Offers analyses and evaluations of obvious alternative points of view. x Draws warranted non-fallacious conclusions. x Justifies some results or procedures, explains reasons. x Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.  Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 115 2 (Unacceptable): Does most or many of the following x Misinterprets evidence, statements, graphics, questions, etc. x Fails to identify strong, relevant counter-arguments. x Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view. x Draws unwarranted or fallacious conclusions. x Justifies few results or procedures, seldom explains reasons. x Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on selfinterest or preconceptions. 1 (Weak): Consistently does all or almost all of the following:  x Offers biased interpretations of evidence, statements, graphics, x Questions, information, or the points of view of others. x Fails to identify or hastily dismisses strong, relevant counter-arguments. x Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view. x Argues using fallacious or irrelevant reasons, and unwarranted claims. x Does not justify results or procedures, nor explain reasons. x Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on selfinterest or preconceptions. x Exhibits close-mindedness or hostility to reason. 116 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Exercise: Evaluating Student Statements Imagine a professor has assigned a group of four students to comment on the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act. Among other things, the bill, signed into law on April 21, 2009, designates September 11th as a national day of service. The group of four students has access to the information outlined below. Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act “The bill encourages voluntary service. The legislation provides for gradually increasing the size of the Clinton-era AmeriCorps to 250,000 enrollees from its current 75,000. It outlines five broad categories where people can direct their service: 1) helping the poor, 2) improving education, 3) encouraging energy efficiency, 4) strengthening access to health care, and 5) assisting veterans.” “AmeriCorps offers a range of volunteer opportunities including 1) housing construction, 2) youth outreach, 3) disaster response and 4) caring for the elderly. Most receive an annual stipend of slightly less than $12,000 for working 10 months to up to one year” “The bill also ties volunteer work to money for college. People 55 and older can earn up to $1000 education awards by getting involved in public service. Those awards can be transferred to a child, grand-child, or even someone they mentored” “Students from sixth grade through senior year of high school could earn $500 education awards for helping in their neighborhoods during a new summer program” Read each of the students’ statements below and refer to the scoring rubric that follows. Apply the scoring rubric by evaluating each student’s statement to see which level of the rubric offers the best description of the reasoning evident in that statement. Place a label of 1, 2, 3, or 4, next to each student’s statement.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ Students’ Statements Student #1: “My take on it is that this bill requires national service. It’s like…a churchy-service-sorta-thing. But, you know, like run by the government and all. We all have to sign up and do our bit before we can go to college. That’s a great idea. Think about it, how could anyone be against this legislation? I mean, unless they are either lazy or selfish. What excuse could a person possibly have not to serve our country? The president is right, we need to bring back the draft so that our Army has enough soldiers, and we need to fix health care and Social Security. I don’t want to pay into a system all my working life only to find out that there’s no money left when it’s my time to retire” Student #2: “Well I think this bill is a stupid idea. Who’s going to agree to work for a lousy $12,000 a year? That’s nuts. I can earn more working at Target or by enlisting in the Navy. This legislation is just more foolish liberal nonsense that takes our nation one step closer to socialism. Socialism is when the government tries to control too many things. And now the president is trying to control volunteer service. Maybe you want to build houses for poor people or clean up after hurricanes, but I don’t see how any of that is going to help me pass physics or get me a better job after college.” Student #3: “I think there are problems with the legislation, too. But you’re wrong about people not wanting to volunteer. The number of hits on the AmeriCorps Web site keeps going up and up each month. Retired people, students, and people who just want to make a difference go there and to Serve.gov to see what opportunities might exist near where they live. On the other hand, I do have issues with the government being the organizing force in this. Volunteerism was alive and well in America before Big Brother got involved. I don’t see why we need to spend 5.7 billion dollars getting people to do what they were already going to do anyway. We shouldn’t pay people to be volunteers.” Student #4: “That’s the point, some of them wanted to do volunteer service but they need a small incentive. Nobody is going to get rich on the stipends the government is offering. I think that people who want to keep government at arm’s length are going to have problems with this bill. They are right that it is another way that government is worming itself into every facet of our lives. But a lot of people feel that way about religion, too; that’s why they do not want to volunteer in programs sponsored by religious groups because they don’t want to be seen as agreeing with all the beliefs of that group. The real question for me is the effect that this legislation might have on the future politics of our nation. All these volunteers could become,  Label 117 118 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  in effect, people the Administration can call on in the next election. Organizing tens of thousands Americans who basically agree with the idea of public service at public expense is like lining up the Democratic voters who will want to be sure these policies are not reversed by the Republicans. I’m not talking about a vague idea like “socialism,” I’m talking about clever politics, positioning the Democratic Party for success in 2012. On balance, that’s OK with me. But we need to understand that this legislation will result in more than just a lot of wonderful work by a large number of generous Americans who are willing to give of their time to help others.”   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 119 Progress Check 11. As a critical thinker, what are some questions you should ask yourself about any source of information? 12. What is the Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric (HCTSR) and how is it useful to critical thinkers?  120 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Thinking Deeply About Leadership The purpose of the following activity is to get you to think deeper about leadership. The questions are critical thinking questions designed to allow you to explore the subject; however, there is no correct or best answer. The NCODL course includes many chapters that help you think deeper about these issues, so you may find it useful to record your answers so you can revisit them during associated chapters throughout the course. Leadership Questions Whether from a subordinate, peer, or supervisor, what do you really want when you ask for feedback: What does it mean when people (especially superiors) say they want feedback? How much feedback should you offer to others? We all need feedback, but is feedback always necessary? If feedback is not needed, but as the leader you ask for it anyway, what will happen? How do you get real feedback? Do awards motivate people? What else might they do? How do you feel when people win awards they don’t deserve? How do you know they don’t deserve them? Can awards cause more harm than good? How? Why? What motivates the people you work with? How do you know? What does it take for a leader to effectively motivate others? What is meant by: For leaders, asking questions—the right questions— is essential. Do you think the statement, your power within an organization comes from dependent relationships—those you depend on and those who depend on you” is true? If so, why? If not, how would you rephrase the statement? What is it that gives the word “no” power? Why does the word “yes” lack the same power? Which is easier to say, “yes” or “no”? Why? Which word is more powerful over the longterm? Why? Should you encourage your followers to question authority? Why or why not? Why might you take the blame for something that wasn’t your fault? What might happen if you made it a habit to take on more blame in your organization? How can taking blame help your organization? How can taking blame help you personally? What are some reasons why leaders don’t or won’t fix broken processes even when they know about them?   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 121 What is meant by: The cause of a problem is never the cause. It cannot be the cause. The cause always has a cause which also cannot be the cause. Consider the following types of employees and then answer the questions below. Benevolent Obedient Employees: Genuinely care about the organization and follow all the rules. Benevolent Disobedient Employees: Care about the organization but usually do things their own way. They push the boundaries of the organization and can instigate change. Malicious Obedient Employee: Don’t care about the organization, but follow all the rules to the letter. Malicious Disobedient Employee: Are antagonistic to the organization and do not follow the rules. Assume you lead an organization with exactly 100 members: x Which type(s) of employee(s) would you keep? Why? x Of the types you keep, how many of each would you want? Why? x What would be the impact of having only Benevolent Obedient Employees? x How hard would it be to get rid of a Malicious Obedient Employee? Why? How would you go about it? x What examples of priming do you see at work? Is it possible not to prime people with whom you interact? As a leader and considering priming, can you ever afford to have a bad day? How might priming increase or decrease your effectiveness? Note: Priming, which emerged in the 1960s, is summarized as, “The language and expressions leaders use on a daily basis prime followers to think in a certain way. It’s one of the subconscious processes which occurs continuously in all organizations” x What is meant by: “The heart of leadership is constant inquiry?” Note: One group of people is content with their regular routine and never seeks to learn anything. Another group of people never seems to be satisfied with what they know. They have a constant desire to seek a better understanding of themselves and the world in which they live.  Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 122  x What purpose do meetings serve even when they don’t seem to have a purpose? x Can you please everyone at work? If not, whom should you aim to please most? Why? x Do you agree or disagree with this statement: Effective leadership is grounded in purpose. As an enlisted leader your purpose is to seek a better understanding of the complex interrelationships within the unit or work center you are leading? Why? x What does it mean to be fair? If things are perceived as unfair, what can a leader do to change the perception? x Is there someone in your organization who you just can’t stand to be around but everyone else seems to like? What is it that causes you to feel this way? To what extent might your effectiveness be limited if you refuse to acknowledge your inner motivations and emotions? x Do you know what your subordinates expect of you? Are you willing to fulfill that role for them? How likely is it that you will fail to live up to subordinate expectations? How will you deal with it? How “human” do people expect their leaders to be? Impact on NCO Effectiveness Critical thinking is very important in today’s military. You must be able to analyze and integrate information to solve problems at an incredible pace. Critical thinking requires you to combine your rational logic, creativity, common sense, and intuition into structured expressions of clear solutions and ideas that are useful and relevant to the task. How many times in your career have you had to come up with new ideas or pick from ideas to determine the best one to accomplish the mission? Critical thinking not only helps you become more effective in mission-related decisions, it is also useful when it comes to reflection and life choices.   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 123 Critical thinking skills help you:  x Make well-reasoned judgments about what to believe and what to do x Make consistent and well-reasoned decisions x Remain open-minded and fair-minded x Analyze and interpret better in order to and solve a myriad of problems x Ask better questions so that you (and your subordinates) learn better, learn more x Better regulate your actions, decisions, and behaviors, x Consider multiple perspectives and approaches and study complex problems without bias x Analyze situations critically and reach conclusions that may not follow the conventional wisdom but could be the key to success x Understand that, in many situations, there is no right answer 124 Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰  Progress Check 13. How might critical thinking skills impact your effectiveness as an NCO? Exercise: Self-Test Turn to Attachment 1 at the end of this chapter and take a few minutes to complete the self-test. SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Do you welcome feedback whether it’s from a subordinate, peer, or supervisor? Are you able to objectively assess the feedback? How can this enhance you, the unit, and the mission effectiveness? What will you do to encourage critical thinking in your unit?   Šƒ’–‡” ‘—”ǣ–”ƒ–‡‰‹ Š‹‹‰ 125 Summarize and Reflect Strategic thinking is a compilation of active, cognitive ability imperative to the effectiveness and credibility of today’s military enlisted leader and essential as he or she faces complex and unstructured environments with constrained resources. Existing problems and ambiguous situations detrimental to mission progress and success demand a proactive approach by all involved and impacted. As NCOs, we must actively learn as much as possible about each problem and situation we encounter so that we can begin formulating feasible solutions and alternatives. As we move toward possible resolution, we must continue to think deliberately about all facets of the existing situation to include probable, unanticipated surprises, uncertainties, and changes that may (or even may not) occur along with the appropriate actions to take in the event these situations arise. This chapter began by examining the eight cognitive skills and techniques that make up strategic thought. It continued by exploring critical thinking further, immediately offering you an opportunity to your critical thinking skills with an exercise. This chapter presented various concepts pertaining to critical thought to include: the attributes of a proficient critical thinker, known habits of the critical mind, and the essentials to adopting the attitude of a proficient critical thinker. It then investigated various hindrances to critical thinking from basic human limitations to the use of language, recognizing faulty logic and perceptions, as well as understanding psychological and sociological pitfalls. Next, you explored approaches to evaluating information sources and did some brainstorming of your own. In this chapter, you were given a chance to evaluate four students’ thinking process using Facione’s Scoring Rubric. As you evaluated their thinking process, hopefully, you learned a little about your own thinking process. Lastly, the chapter challenged you to spend some time thinking critically about leadership and on the impact critical thinking skills have on NCO effectiveness. So, how do you rate as a Strategic thinker? Be honest with yourself so you can truly gauge where you stand in the realm of personal thinking patterns. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, your success is determined by your skills and talents, determination, effort, and cognitive ability. Therefore, you are in complete control of your success. It all depends on your determination and effort, and of course, your strategic thinking skill.  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 169 CHAPTERSIX:†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Insidethischapter:  PreferredCognitive(Thinking) Approach  AǦITheory’sBasicPrinciples  AdaptionǦInnovationTheory  ProperTermsandPerception  ImplicationsforUseofAǦITheory   “To problem solve successfully . . . we need to view problems and conceive solutions in terms of what is needed. . . we need to understand how each person in our problem-solving team works, so as to get the best out of everyone as the nature of each problem changes” – M .J. Kirton  170 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: TERMINAL COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: Comprehend how A-I Theory impacts NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior: 4. 5. 6. Explain how A-I Theory impacts NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. Give examples of A-I Theory impacting NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. Predict the impact of A-I Theory NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: Value A-I Theory and how it enhances NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. Affective Samples of Behavior: 1. 2. 3. Read about A-I Theory concepts with an open mind and remember new information (receiving). Complete all activities (progress checks, exercises, and selfreflection), and question concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them (responding). Accept the idea that effective use of A-I Theory concepts positively impacts individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value). Willingly develop a preference for using A-I Theory concepts to enhance individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value). Commit to using A-I Theory concepts to enhance individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value). mission effectiveness (value) Imagine this. The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force has been levied with the task of creating a new performance system for enlisted personnel. He forms a team of the leading experts in enlisted force development. The experts begin to propose different designs to use to build the new performance system. There are strains developing within the team. They seem to bicker a lot and lose track of the objective. It appears they will never develop the new performance system. What problems do you see? You could label them Problem A: creating a new performance system for enlisted personnel; and Problem B: getting the team to work toward the common objective of creating a new enlisted performance system. Why should NCOs be concerned with Problem A and Problem B situations? NCOs typically work in teams on the job. Teams typically solve problems better than individuals solve and therefore, are seen as superior in handling complex problems involving intertwining competencies and expertise. Teams are superior only if they can solve the problems for which they were created. Teams are superior only if they can stay focused on Problem A. Teams that are consumed with Problem B will never solve Problem A. Leaders must learn to solve difficult problems that are complex and hard to define. Because change is 4. constant, problem solving has to change and flex with the situations as they develop. A vibrant solution in 5. one situation would be a disaster in another. Problem solving teams rely on blending different talents in different combinations in order to reach viable solutions at the strategic levels of the Air Force. The A-I Theory helps you understand attributes that enhance the team. It also makes you aware of another aspect – that of diversity. This chapter will convey useful information to help you understand the A-I Theory. Don’t confuse the A-I theory with the techniques of adaptive thinking and innovative thinking that you learned about in Chapter 4, Strategic Thinking. The techniques in chapter 4 augment our “preferred style of problem solving” covered in this chapter. In order for you, as a supervisor, to understand the A-I Theory, you will look at preferred cognitive (thinking) approach, A-I Theory’s Basic Principles, understanding adaption-innovation, proper terms and perception, cognitive gap, bridgers, and coping behavior.  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 171 Preferred Cognitive (Thinking) Approach Thinking is the means by which we solve problems and are creative. We cannot “see” thinking occur so we have to devise means to identify one’s preferred thinking (cognitive) style. The Kirton Adaption-Innovation Inventory (KAI) is a precise measure of preferred thinking style. The KAI is a psychometric instrument that has been tested across many cultures, and for over 40 years, proven to be one of the world’s most reliable and valid instruments for measuring cognitive preference. Kirton’s work proves that preferred styles are established by the late teenage years and remain stable throughout life. The instrument is so reliable that if you took it when you first joined the Air Force and then take it again today, your score today would be within one half of a standard error of measurement (10 points) deviation from your original score. A-I Theory’s Basic Principles A-I Theory Emphasizes Three Key Issues: 1. When we problem solve we are limited by the way we are built (e.g. our intelligence, no one has endless capacity or flexibility). 2. All of us are intelligent and creative, at different levels and with different styles, and therefore, all of us are capable of learning to contribute to team problem solving, as long as there is both motive and opportunity. Problem A: This is an ‘actual problem’ that two of more individuals come together to solve. Problem B: This encompasses all of the problems (team dynamics, interpersonal skills, communication, collaboration, etc.) that stem from ‘human interactions’ and it steals time and energy from efforts needed to solve Problem A. 3. Leaders interact with people to solve a myriad of problems every day and to be truly successful at solving both problem A and problem B, leaders must be able to effectively manage the diversity that stems from people whose A-I preference ranges from highly adaptive to the highly innovative and every point in between. Adaption-Innovation Theory One could spend years reading and learning about this theory and still not understand fully its power. Even today, Dr. Kirton, along with his closest colleagues from the University of Pennsylvania and the Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education are learning new things about the theory and new ways it can be used to help organizations, and the leaders of those organization solve problems and manage change. With that said, our purpose here is to provide a basic understanding of the theory in order to help you better understand yourself and those you lead. As they say, leadership begins with selfawareness.  172 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  The Adaption-Innovation Theory is founded on the assumption that all people solve problems and are creative, and that both are outcomes of the same brain function. “The theory sharply distinguishes between level and style of creativity, problem solving, and decision making, therefore the theory is ONLY concerned with style” Level: Refers to potential capacity (intelligence or talent) and learned levels (such as management, supervisory and leadership competency). It is important to understand and remember that both styles (adaption and innovation) are found at every level—from the highest to the lowest. Style: Refers to “how we think,” our preferred cognitive approach to problem solving, and decision making. These style differences, which lie on a normally distributed continuum, range from strong adaption to strong innovation. Progress Check 1. What is the difference between Problem A and Problem B? 2. The Adaption-Innovation Theory is only concerned with ___________. 3. What is the difference between style and level?  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 173 Proper Terms and Perception Although people tend to use the terms adaptors and innovators, we should always use the more precise terms of “more adaptive” and “more innovative.” These are better because they keep us from labeling others as only adaptive or only innovative. The fact is, although your position on the continuum remains stable over time, how you are perceived is relative and changes depending on who (individuals/groups) you are interacting with. The bell curve below shows the distribution of style preferences along the A-I continuum. All numbers refer to the general population relative to a normal distribution of the responses (Bell Curve): 1. 68% fall between Mild Adaptor and Mild Innovator (34% on each side of mean) 2. 26% are moderate adaptors or moderate innovators (13.59% each) 3. 5% are strong adaptors or strong innovator (2.14% each) Bell Curve Refer to Perceptions Figures below: Example 1: In this example, you (Y) are in the Mild Adaptor area of the continuum and the people (P) you work with are very close to your position on the continuum. These people perceive you (and you perceive them) as being very similar, e.g. all of you take a very similar approach to problem solving. You may also notice that it is easy to communicate with the members in this group.  174 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Example 2: Although your position (Y) on the continuum has not changed, the people you interact with fall in the Moderate and Strong Innovator areas of the continuum, and as a result, they may perceive you as conforming, predictable, inflexible, wedded to the system, and intolerant of ambiguity. You probably see them as unsound, impractical, risky, abrasive, and a threat to the established system. You may also notice some challenges in communicating (getting your thoughts across) to this group Example 3: Once again, your position has not changed, but this time, the people you must interact with fall below you in the Strong Adaptor area of the continuum. This means they will more than likely perceive you as unsound, impractical, risky, abrasive, and a threat to the established system, just as you perceived the people in example 2. Again, you may also notice some challenges in communicating (getting your thoughts across) to this group. So, it is all relative! Although your position on the continuum does not change, how others perceive you and how you perceive them depends on where you are on the continuum in relation to their position. Perceptions  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 175 So what is the take away from these examples: First, it is equally important that you understand how others perceive you, and why they perceive you that way. Remember it is relative to where you and others fall on the continuum. Second, although large gaps between styles means greater chances of conflict (i.e. Problem B), it also offers greater potential/ability to solve problems (Problem A) because of cognitive diversity. Regardless of where we fall on the continuum, we can all be equally creative, which also means we can all be equally good or equally bad at handling change. Before moving on, let’s be clear about Problem A and Problem B. Problem A: This is the ‘actual problem’ that two of more individuals come together to solve. Problem B: This encompasses all of the problems (team dynamics, interpersonal skills, communication, collaboration, etc.) that stem from ‘human interactions’ and it steals time and energy from efforts needed to solve Problem A. In the examples above we used words and phrases such as predictable, inflexible, wedded to the system, and unsound to describe the more adaptive and words like impractical, risky, and abrasive to describe the more innovative. In reality, both styles have many traits, tendencies, and characteristics as described below. See if you recognize any of them in yourself.  176 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Adaptors exhibit the following tendencies:  Innovators exhibit the following tendencies: - Prefer more structure and more of it consensually agreed. - Prefer less structure and can tolerate less of it consensually agreed - Improve or extend the paradigm in order to solve problems. - Challenge or break the paradigm in order to solve problems. - Use rules to solve problems. - May break the rules to solve problems. - Bring order out of turbulence. - Catalyze the necessary turbulence. - Revitalize current systems for tomorrow. - Help create break from worn-out systems. - Work within the system to bring about new improvement, ideas, and greater efficiencies. - Work outside the system to bring about different ideas and different structures for the high Adaptors - Value themselves for being: - Value themselves for being -- Improvers -- Full of Ideas -- Resource Effective -- Provocative -- Supportive -- Assumption Challengers -- Consistent -- Accepting of Change -- Methodical -- Intuitive -- Masters of Structure -- Mold Breakers -- Sound -- Shocking -- Prudent Risk-takers -- Daring Risk-takers Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 177 Progress Check 4. What is a more precise term for adaptors? 5. What is a more precise term for innovators? 6. Why is it important to know where you fall on the Adaption-Innovation continuum? 7. Why does a large gap in style offer greater potential/ability to solve problems? 8. What are some of the tendencies adaptors exhibit concerning “structure”? 9. What are some of the tendencies innovators exhibit concerning “structure”? 10. What are some of the tendencies adaptors exhibit concerning “the paradigm”? 11. What are some of the tendencies innovators exhibit concerning “the paradigm”?  178 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Implications for Use of A-I Theory Cognitive Gap: There are two forms of cognitive gap. The first form is the distance between one’s preferred style and the behavior actually needed in a particular situation (i.e. the distance between ones preferred style and his/her task). The second form is, the distance in a social interaction, between the preferred styles of 1) two people, 2) a person and a group, or 3) two groups (refer back to figure 2). According to A-I Theory, the larger the cognitive gap, the greater the potential for conflict and for productive problem solving Potential for Conflict Small Gaps: A difference in cognitive styles becomes noticeable when the distance between two individuals (or two groups) falls on the extreme edges of a style (e.g. Moderate Innovators). The advantage of this small gap is there is very little, if any, conflict. If conflict does occur, both individuals find it easy to manage. The disadvantage of this gap is likeminded thinking can lead to less than optimal solutions. Large Gaps: These are when one individual (or group) has one style and the other person or group has an adjacent style (e.g. Mild Adaptor interacting with a Mild Innovator). With this difference, individuals find they must consciously manage the relationship due to minor, but very noticeable conflict caused by their difference in styles. The advantage here is that different perspectives lead to better solutions to Problem A (i.e. the task at hand). The disadvantage is that individuals must expend some energy and time coping and managing the relationship (i.e. resolution of Problem B). Significant Gaps: These are when one individual (or group) has one style and the other person or group has a style that is separated by one style (e.g. Strong Adaptor interacting with a Mild Adaptor). When the cognitive gap is at the extreme ends of the ranges for the groups, these individuals (or groups) experience a great deal of conflict and need increasing amounts of coping behavior to manage/maintain the relationship. Once again, the advantage of this cognitive gap is a wider range of thinking that can lead to outstanding solutions to Problem A. The disadvantage is that individuals usually end up expending way more energy and time coping and trying to fix Problem B than they expend on solving Problem A. In many cases, without help, these individuals or groups may never even get to Problem A. When the cognitive gap is separated by two or more styles (e.g. Strong Adaptor. interacting with a Mild Innovator), the effort required for successful coping rises exponentially with the size of the gap. Moreover, coping becomes even more difficult when this gap lies between two people, one of whom is the boss or when the rewards and penalties for success or failure are high.  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 179 Potential for Problem Solving Adaptors and innovators are equally good at solving problems…but optimal problem solving results from both adaptors and innovators working on the problem together because it brings all sides (perspectives) of a problem to light. Although this brings Problem B into the mix, leaders who manage this cognitive diversity effectively end up with the best possible solutions. Because all organizations naturally cycle through periods of steadiness-change-steadiness, they need a mix of adaptors and innovators to help with the myriad of challenges that stem from this cycle. Imagine an organization (or team) comprised of only adaptors. Given the information in table 1 above, we’d have an organization full of people who are extremely good at solving problems by “staying within the organization’s paradigm”, “working within the existing structure, rules, and policies’, and by ensuring they had group consensus on every decision before implementing any change. This organization would have great efficiency and operate like a well-oiled machine…at first. However, nothing in the United State Air Force is static for long. Missions change and when they do, the organization must be able to change and adapt as well. Organizations with only adaptors handle small, incremental changes just fine…but major changes send it into a death spiral. Now imagine an organization (or team) comprised of only innovators. Given the information in table 1 above, we’d have an organization full of people who are extremely good at solving problems by “breaking the rules”, “working outside the existing structure, rules, and policies’, and by having little or no concern for group consensus before implementing change. Although this organization might experience major success when new, it would not be very efficient in the long run because of the constant change and very little rule following (i.e. little stability). In summary, organizations with only adaptors or innovators quickly perish (or fail in executing its mission). The take away here is optimal problem solving results from both adaptors and innovators working on the problem together which also requires effective management of the cognitive gap (i.e. Problem B). An effective method for managing cognitive gap is through the use of Bridgers. Bridgers Ways to manage cognitive gap include changing jobs, changing the job, position or duties, delegating or reassigning team roles, reorganizing teams, and reassigning certain members. Although these methods may work occasionally, as members of the military, we seldom have the luxury of changing job or reassigning people. Thus, we must find another way to manage the cognitive gap. That’s where Bridgers come in. So what is a Bridger? - First, and foremost, bridging is a social role that requires: -- human relation skills (which can be taught)  180 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  -- bridger to be acceptable to those they bridge -- a willingness to fulfill the role To be a successful Bridger, one needs to be willing to undertake the role and ideally (albeit not mandatory) have a cognitive preference (style) between those to be bridged. For example, a Moderate Adaptor might help bridge the gap between a Strong Adaptor and Mild Adaptor. Likewise, a Moderate Innovator might help bridge the gap between Mild Innovator and Strong Innovator. Another example might be a Mild Innovator bridging between a Strong Adaptor and a Strong Innovator. Although being in the area between those to be bridged is ideal, a person can still bridge whose style is outside those to be bridged can still act as a bridger. For example, a Strong Innovator could bridge between a Strong Adaptor and a Mild Innovator. Successful Bridgers help those being bridged understand each other’s approach through the use of interpersonal skills, active listening, and effective questioning techniques. These help both parties understand why and how the other party approaches problem solving and they help both parties understand each other’s strengths and weakness, which helps both parties expend more effort on Problem A. Bridging is reaching out to people in the team and helping them to be part of it so that they may contribute even if their contribution is outside mainstream. Bridgers are important in maintaining group cohesion and can significantly reduce Problem B by redirecting group energy to solving Problem A. (Kirton, 2003, p. 247). The Bridger fills roles of counselor, mediator, and negotiator (Kirton, 2003, p. 253). Bridging is a learned skill, one that effective NCOs must learn to be effective…there are no official Bridgers as it is a learned skill. Kirton also observes “Bridgers need the skills necessary to intervene and the motive to want to risk it” (Kirton, 2003, p. 250). When we add the power of collaboration to Bridging, we add another effective way of facilitating problem solving. Although Cognitive Diversity increases the likelihood of coping behavior occurring, when used positively it can also be used to increase the team’s ability to solve Problem B and subsequently solve Problem A. When we build teams with Adaptors and Innovators, each provides or attend to the following for their team:  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 181 Adaptors - Supply consensus, sensitivity, and group cohesion Innovators - Provide the break with accepted theory - Provide stability and continuity - Provoke the group to reconsider consensus related issues - Provide a safe testing group for risky ventures - Supply the dynamics to bring about discontinuous change When no one is available (or willing) to fulfill the role of Bridger, NCOs may find themselves in a situation where they have no choice but to act as a Bridger…just one more reason for possessing a solid grasp of A-I Theory. Coping Behavior Having a Bridger certainly helps when there is a large cognitive gap between two people, a person and a group, or two groups of people. However, there are times when all of us must behave (i.e. problem solve) outside of our preferred style. To put it in simple terms: “Coping Behavior is effort required to do something that is not our preference” Why do we need Coping Behavior? We need coping behavior because we cannot always solve problems using our preferred style. There are two main reasons for operating outside our preferred style. The first reason is the nature of the problem and the second reason is the nature of the solution (desired by oneself or by authority). The Cost of Coping Behavior It is important to understand that everyone copes at some point, and that working outside one’s preferred style is psychologically expensive. When coping, adaptors must move away from familiar, consensually agreed structure into territory with more of the kinds of risk they carefully avoid. Of course, they can (and do) use techniques (which can be taught) to cope. However, there is a big difference between indulging in a brain storming exercise in a comfortable setting away from the job and carrying out the same exercise in an environment that is hostile. A person who is more innovative in the same situation would worry less. Innovators too have their difficulties when problem solving in adaptive modes/environments. They must constantly remind themselves that to survive successfully in an established group, they need to master the rules and operate intelligently and creatively within consensually agreed constraints just as the more adaptive people do. Why do people cope?  182 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  If operating outside our preferred style is psychologically expensive—why do we do it? The answer is Motive which generates additional energy and discounts additional discomfort until either the task is complete, or it becomes possible to solve the problem within limits closer to one’s preferred style. Of course, if there is no opportunity, then there is no motive. Although there are many definitions for motive and opportunity, for our purposes we define them as follows: Motive: “An emotion, desire, physiological need, or similar impulse that causes one to take action.” Opportunity: “An appropriate or favorable time, occasion, or situation favorable for attainment of a goal” When motive is switched off, coping behavior is also switched off! There at least four conditions where we simply “turn off” our coping behavior. Condition 1 When operating in an environment where we can use our preferred style (i.e. little to no Cognitive Gap exists) Condition 2 When operating in an environment where we cannot use our preferred style because of a large Cognitive Gap (e.g. Mild Adaptor working with/for Strong Innovator) Condition 3 When the opportunity (need) for/to cope no longer exists (new position, duties, assignment, boss, etc.) Condition 4 When the motive for coping no longer exists or is no longer important (unable to get promoted, recognized, or rewarded or something in life has changed, etc.) Effective Leadership Rarely do we get to work in an environment where we can operate entirely within our preferred style. Therefore, as enlisted leaders, we must recognize that actual behavior is always a blend of one’s preferred style and coping behavior. Effective leaders create environments where they only ask for minimum coping behavior most of the time and only have to ask for maximum coping behavior in times of crisis. The Cost of Coping Behavior Figure on the next page is a visual representation of the cost of coping behavior. SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: What are the disadvantages of working with team members that have the same cognitive style as the leader?  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 183 Cost of Coping Behavior The Cost of Coping Behavior figure above shows us two very important points: First, we can cope for long periods of time when the behavior required is not too far away from our preferred style. Second, the further we move away from our preferred style, the harder it is to continue coping. If we are unable to walk away from a situation for reasons outside our control, and must continue coping, the effort takes a toll on our mental and physical health. Eventually, the effort becomes so psychologically costly that, regardless of the consequences, we lose our motive and switch off our coping. When this happens, we see people make life-changing choices in order to get away from the situation so they can return to state where they can use their preferred style. When people switch off their coping, we often see a significant impact: switching career fields, no-notice retirements, and separation from the service without benefits, divorces, and suicides. SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: How can an understanding of coping behavior help you become a better leader?  184 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Progress Check 12. What are the two forms of cognitive gap? 13. According to A-I Theory, the larger the cognitive gap, the greater the potential for conflict and for __________. 14. Leaders who manage ______________ effectively end up with the best possible solutions. 15. Organizations with only adaptors or innovators quickly _______________. 16. An effective method for managing cognitive gap is through the use of ___________.  17. What is bridging? 18. Why do we need coping behavior? 19. Effective leaders create environments where they only ask for __________ coping behavior most of the time and only have to ask for __________ coping behavior in times of crisis.  Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”› 185 Matching Exercise Match the terms on the left to their definitions on the right. Each term will be used only once.  1. ___ Problem A A. potential capacity: intelligence or talent 2. ___ Level B. preferred approach to problem solving, and decision making. 3. ___ Coping Behavior C. precise terms use to describe the A-I Continuum 4. ___ More Adaptive or Innovative D. problem that two of more individuals come together to solve. 5. ___ Style E. problems that stem from human interactions 6. ___ Problem B F. distance between one’s preferred style and the behavior actually needed in a situation 7. ___ Cognitive Gap #1 G. social role requiring human relation skills, and an intermediate score (ideally) 8. ___ Opportunity H. effort required to do something that is not one’s preference 9. ___ Bridger I. emotion, desire, physiological need that causes one to take action 10. ___ Cognitive Gap #2 J. All of us are intelligent and creative, at different levels and with different styles 11. ___ Motive K. An appropriate or favorable time, occasion, or situation favorable for attainment of a goal 12. ___ Basic Principle of A-I Theory L. distance in a social interaction between preferred styles 186 Šƒ’–‡”‹šǣ†ƒ’–‹‘Ǧ ‘˜ƒ–‹‘ȋǦ ȌŠ‡‘”›  Summarize and Reflect The A-I theory rests on the assumption that all of us are intelligent and creative, at different levels and with different styles, and all of us are capable of contributing to team problem solving as long as there is both motive and opportunity. A-I theory is concerned with our preferred way of problem solving, so it is important to remember that no one style is better than the other; both styles (more adaptive and more innovative) have advantages and disadvantages. Kirton wrote, “To problem solve successfully . . . we need to view problems and conceive solutions in terms of what is needed. . . we need to understand how each person in our problemsolving team works, so as to get the best out of everyone as the nature of each problem changes” (Kirton, 2003, p. 24). If your team is efficient, you, your unit, and the mission benefit. Why does that matter to you? The relationship between cognitive style and diversity of a team is a strong relationship! Insufficient creativity /problem-solving diversity leads to poor problem solving (e.g., teams with a closely grouped style hinder the diversity of the team). Teams should not be all innovative or all adaptive, either can be fatal.  191 CHAPTERSEVEN: —ŽŽƒ‰‡‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’‡˜‡Ž‘’‡–  Insidethischapter: THEEVOLUTIONOFLEADERSHIP THEORY x TraitTheory x PsychodynamicTheory x SkillsTheory x StylesTheory x SituationalLeadershipTheory x ContingencyTheory x PathǦGoalTheory x LeadershipǦMemberExchange (LMX)Theory x AuthenticLeadershipTheory WhyFullRangeLeadership Development x FRLDLeadershipBehaviors MotivationalTheories Skinner’sOperantConditioning Theory “The task of leadership is not to put greatness into people, but elicit it, for the greatness is already there.” - John Buchan  x McClelland’sNeedTheory x ContemporaryMotivation x TransformationalLeadership RighttoLeadModel  192 Šƒ’–‡”‡˜‡ǣ —ŽŽƒ‰‡‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to: TERMINAL COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE: Comprehend Full Range Leadership Development (FRLD) concepts and their impact on NCO, subordinate, unit, and mission effectiveness. Terminal Cognitive Samples of Behavior: 1. Explain FRLD and its impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. 2. Give examples of FRLD and their impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. 3. Predict the impact of FRLD on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE: Value FRLD concepts and their impact on subordinate, NCO, unit, and mission effectiveness. Affective Samples of Behavior: 1. Read about FRLD concepts with an open mind and remember new information (receiving). 2. Complete all activities (progress checks, adult learning profile, IDDP exercises, and selfreflection), and question concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them (responding). 3. Accept the idea that effective use of FRLD concepts positively impacts individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value). 4. Willingly develop a preference for using FRLD concepts to enhance individual, unit, and mission effectiveness (value). 5. Commit to using FRLD concepts to enhance individual, unit, and mission affective values.  Recognizing and developing the leadership potential of our people has become a strategic initiative in many of today’s most successful organizations to include the U.S. military. The Air Force uses sociocultural concepts like training and mentoring to develop leaders for today and tomorrow’s air and space force. As NCOs, we remain committed to discovering, nurturing, and developing greatness in our Airmen. This chapter begins with background information pertaining to the development and evolution of leadership theory, focusing on four theories that attempted to capture the essence of effective leadership throughout history. Next, it explains various motivational theories and the methods we use to individually motivate others. This chapter then focuses on Full Range Leadership Development or FRLD for short, and a model that identifies various passive and active leadership styles. This reading also compares two formidable leadership styles (Transactional and Transformational, then concludes with an explanation of the Right to Lead Model. Šƒ’–‡”‡˜‡ǣ —ŽŽƒ‰‡‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– 193  Today, leadership is more than just moving people and teams from point A to point B and simply achieving goals. It includes displaying behaviors, designing structures, and implementing policies that develop subordinates along the way. It involves the movement of leaders and followers from a passive and ineffective form of leadership to one that is more active…and effective. This will increase follower motivation and performance to higher levels of excellence and sustaining both a positive and results-oriented organizational culture. SELF-REFLECTION OPPORTUNITY: Before you begin, how would you answer the following questions? ¾ Do you have a workable plan to cultivate the greatness of the people in your organization? ¾ How will you help them realize their potential to excel? ¾ Are you able to carefully scrutinize and evaluate their actions? ¾ Are you able to set goals for them and use rewards and discipline (even punishment) to move them closer to their goals? ¾ Can you (do you) role model in your own behavior what you expect from them? ¾ Do you inspire them to cooperate with your organization’s internal and external stakeholders? ¾ Are you capable (and willing to) of challenging them to rethink their basic assumptions and rework their ways of doing things? ¾ Are you patient enough to coach them in a way that develops their strengths to their full potential, while recognizing and addressing their weaknesses? The Evolution of Leadership Theory When was the concept of leadership first discovered? Why haven’t we mastered the art and science of leadership and why do we continue to examine and remain fascinated by it today? One could easily argue that leadership theory is as old as humanity itself. What is it that enables some members of their society to rise up through the ranks to leadership positions while others fail? The earliest attempts to answer these and other questions were the historical biographies written about some of the world’s great leaders. Other works by various scholars, psychologists, and sociologists not only attempted to define leadership, they revealed methods and techniques to hone the very skills necessary in becoming a great leader. Let us briefly explore some of history’s most prominent theories.   194 Šƒ’–‡”‡˜‡ǣ —ŽŽƒ‰‡‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– Trait Theory The first studies of leadership focused on fixed personal characteristics and innate qualities one possessed known as traits. Referred to as “The Great Man (or Woman) Theory,” one’s leadership effectiveness was said to be influenced by their intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. Trait-based leadership poses a few problems: how does one develop a trait?...
Purchase answer to see full attachment