6 Tracking Ideas and Sources Learning Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to do the following: • Understand how tracking ideas and sources can be effectively used to improve scholarly writing. • Apply the utility of generating reference notes and idea notes to track the sources reviewed and the ideas extracted, respectively. • Identify a useful method of tracking ideas and sources, whether paper-based or digital, weighing benefits and pitfalls of the different methods. • Recognize the importance of both analysis and synthesis in social science research, and understand that synthesis is a complex (and valuable) skill acquired over time and practice. • Appreciate the challenge of tracking the source of ideas, whether those ideas are original to the student, believed to be common knowledge, or cited using appropriate APA conventions. • Realize the dangers and pitfalls of plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, and be able to apply tactics from this chapter to minimize the risk of plagiarized work. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 93 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes CHAPTER 6 T he process of writing in the social sciences is precisely that—a process. The previous chapter emphasized the notion of critiquing, critical thinking, and being a savvy consumer of existing research. This chapter provides the next steps in the process of writing like a social scientist. The analysis and evaluations of prior work will be the central focus of writing an introduction section, but the ability to generate ideas and track sources is critical for making proper attributions and avoiding plagiarism. There are so many rules and regulations about formal scholarly writing in the social sciences that it may seem like a jungle out there, with dangers and pitfalls awaiting at every turn. By utilizing the methods, techniques, and advice offered throughout this chapter, one can avoid some of those potential risks and concentrate more on a successful journey. This is like a preventative treatment to avoid cavities! Think about the student who has given much thought to the assignment. He or she fully understands what the instructor wants and has an idea about a good story to tell about a selected topic in the social sciences. Exploration of the databases is complete, looking both broadly and deeply, and resources that appear relevant have been identified (mostly journal articles, but some books, and other sources). Immediately available resources have been downloaded as PDFs or HTML files, and the rest have been requested through interlibrary loan. When all articles and resources arrive, the student might assume that now it is time to start writing the first rough draft of the introduction section, which contains the literature review. Not quite! That same student needs to read and process each of those resources retrieved and acquired. This chapter describes different approaches for analyzing and extracting information, organizing it, and then putting it back together (synthesis) such that the introduction is more coherent and demonstrates the student’s ability to write like a social scientist. 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes A fter gathering the sources for the paper, it is time to critically read and analyze what parts of these multiple stories may be pertinent for the writing assignment. There is no “right or wrong” way to do this, and there are numerous approaches. The organization of ideas beforehand will make composition later seem easy. In essence, this is a “pay me now or pay me later” scenario. Crafting a well-written research document that analyzes and synthesizes the available research on a complex topic is hard; there are no easy shortcuts except to plagiarize (more on avoiding plagiarism at the end of this chapter). Naturally, the “pay me now” option Organizing research and ideas beforehand allows for a smooth is preferable: Getting to know writing process. what the sources contain and Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 94 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes CHAPTER 6 truly understanding the individual ideas extracted may be time-consuming upfront, but it often results in better writing—and thus better grades and skill development. Having a method of note taking will allow one to scan through many potential sources relatively quickly and systematically. Also, integrating multiple sources from the research in a paper shows signs of scholarly writing. When the literature is exhausted and the topic is understood top to bottom, chances are that the synthesis of these ideas will be well done. The difference between a good paper and an excellent paper is often the level of synthesis. By taking notes while reviewing the literature, writers organize their thoughts and ideas beforehand rather than at the moment of paper creation/typing/completion. Of course, before taking notes, one needs to have the topic identified, making sure that it adheres to the instructor’s assignment. While searching databases for relevant work, start to flesh out an outline of the three or four major points. One may have already formed these ideas before starting, or just reading the titles and abstracts of some of the resources retrieved through the literature search may have provided ideas for points and sub-points of an outline. Tracking Ideas Essentially, there are three different strategies for taking notes on one’s sources—quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing (Harris, 2005; University of Maryland University College, 2005). Harris (2005) offered a number of situations in which students would be interested in using a direct quotation from another source in their own work: expert declaration, direct support, effective language, historical flavor, specific example, controversial statement, or material for analysis. Use direct quotes sparingly, and be sure to adhere to the instructor’s assignment guidelines. Scholarly writing does not involve a string of quotations; scholarly writing involves the interpretation and communication of ideas in the proper form. A string of direct quotations in a paper essentially means that other authors “wrote” the paper. Use a direct quotation only when an author has said something so eloquently that a paraphrase or a summary would dramatically lessen the meaning or impact of the original statement. For many writers, it is difficult to know when to use a direct quote and when not to use a direct quote. Sadly, there is no “rule” to follow. But think about this: Would the deletion of that quotation from the paper make the paper more difficult to comprehend? Also remember to think about the nature of the assignment and the instructor’s preferences—if in doubt about the use of direct quotes in an assignment paper, ask for help! Direct quotes used sparingly and purposefully can be powerful; too many direct quotes and it may look like laziness to an instructor. When considering the potential use of a direct quote from a particular source, write down the direct quote and note the page number from the original source. In APA format (APA, 2010), the use of a direct quotation requires reporting the page number (or in some cases, paragraph number) from the quotation source. Also, if a long quote is used (more than 40 words), APA format requires that the quote be indented in the text (see the Publication Manual for more specific details). One last concern about quoting: Too much quoting should not occur from a single source (Harris, 2005). If the goal of the assignment is to integrate and summarize previous research, quoting (or even citing) the same source over and over again shows no comprehensive review of the literature or synthesis of ideas from multiple sources. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 95 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes CHAPTER 6 A paraphrase is very different from a direct quotation in that a paraphrase is a translation of the writer’s original words into one’s own words, roughly using the same amount of words (Harris, 2005; University of Maryland University College, 2005). Paraphrasing is seen as more scholarly than most because it demonstrates a deeper understanding of the original work; in fact, it is quite a talent to be able to take others’ ideas and convert them into a less complex form (it is an important part of what good teachers do). Paraphrasing allows rewording, simplifying, or clarification of the meaning of the original writer. When recording ideas, most notes should be paraphrases. A summary is similar to a paraphrase in that one translates the author’s original words into one’s own, but a summary is shorter than the original (Harris, 2005). Key benefits to summaries include simplifying and condensing the author’s original ideas. The writer of a paper may not have the luxury of unlimited space to communicate his or her ideas, so summaries may help the writer adhere to assignment guidelines. Summaries are also a good strategy when extracting information for later notes. Tracking Sources A student should also be recording a source’s details—author, publisher, and so forth— while reviewing the literature. (In fact, it might be easier to write down the full reference first and then start reading. The next section discusses how a researcher might keep ideas linked with their references.) Whether using a direct quote, paraphrase, or summary, giving credit where credit is due is important—failure to do so means plagiarism, which can have serious repercussions (more on plagiarism in a bit). APA format requires a references page that lists every reference cited in the main text of the paper. These references are more important than a student might originally think. The reference list shows off an “academic pedigree”; that is, it shows the line of thinking and research that the writer followed to place the present work in its proper context. When writing about a particular topic, knowing which references are important enough to include is an acquired skill; so by expressing the proper context of why a particular study is important, the writer communicates an understanding of important studies. Often, an instructor will know how much effort the student put into the writing assignment by examining the extent of the references cited in the paper. The reference list should be meticulously prepared, and note that there are many different APA format rules for the different types of materials referenced. The sample papers in the appendix provide some tips on properly preparing reference citations in APA format, as does the Ashford online library. As always, be sure to heed the instructor’s advice and use the preferred referencing method; several other methods outside of APA also exist. It may appear that taking notes involves much work; it does. But the benefits are clear: A student will better understand the research materials before writing the paper. However, taking notes works best if used completely: that is, every reference examined and every idea that could be used is written down. If this is done upfront, then creating the final product—the final research paper—is greatly facilitated. There will be no need to scramble at the last minute for the journal title or volume when typing the references—or flip through pages and pages to locate some tidbit of information. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 96 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.2 Note-Taking Strategies CHAPTER 6 6.2 Note-Taking Strategies T here are certainly many different ways to record information about a topic for later use in writing a paper. This section presents one such system for taking notes—an “old school” method using paper-based notecards—but also discusses more current digital alternatives to the paper approach. Find a way that works, and then augment and adapt the system for personal preference. “Old School”: The Notecard Method In this age of computers, it is likely that many students will choose to record ideas and references in some electronic form. These digital alternatives will be discussed in depth, but not before we explore something a little more old-fashioned: the notecard method. Think of it this way—when a student first learns how to do math, that process starts with paper and pencil, doing the problems long-hand. After mastering the concepts, then a calculator is made available. The same holds true here—work with the paper version first to truly understand the process, then switch to the electronic version if preferred. The notecard method involves noting single ideas on 4 × 6-inch index cards—“idea notecards,” for tracking ideas—and coding those ideas to their sources, which are noted on 3 × 5-inch index cards—“reference notecards,” for tracking sources. To create a reference notecard (see Figure 6.1), write down only Tracking sources can be an overwhelming task, but following one reference on a 3 × 5-inch the notecard method, either “old school” or digital, easily notecard. In the upper left cor- organizes references and ensures each source is cited correctly. ner, give each reference a code (A, B, C, etc.). Write each reference in APA style (see Appendix A). Writing the reference notecard in APA format saves time later when one is typing the reference section of the paper, and putting one reference per card makes it easy to alphabetize the references. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 97 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.2 Note-Taking Strategies CHAPTER 6 Figure 6.1: Reference notecards Here’s a reference notecard, reduced in size. This comes from a journal arcle. It is as close to APA format as can be hand-wri
en, including the journal name and volume number in italics. Here’s one more example of a reference notecard, with two authors. Note the ampersand (&) rather than the word “and.” Also, this format is specific to a journal arcle. To create an idea card (see Figure 6.2), while reading, write down any idea that might be used in the paper on a 4 x 6-inch notecard. Write only one idea on each card. So for Reference A, there may be four separate ideas possibly incorporated into the paper, labeled A1, A2, A3, and A4 in the top corner. Recording a single idea on an idea notecard will make it an easy task to organize, arrange, and rearrange ideas into a coherent story, complete with reference material and integrated in such a way to demonstrate one’s scholarly writing ability. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 98 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 6 Section 6.2 Note-Taking Strategies Figure 6.2: Idea notecards This is a 4x6 in. idea notecard from Reference A. Put only one idea on each idea notecard. This idea is a paraphrase from the book cited. Here’s an example of an idea notecard from the B reference, but this is a direct quote. Note that this is a direct quote and that the exact page number is cited. Notes in the Digital Age The notecard method can be adapted for electronic use and still be tactile (i.e., if printed, the notes can be physically ordered) or entirely paperless. Although some like the old-school notecard method, in fairness, there are disadvantages: It is laborious, time-consuming, and uses many cards (Eisenberg, 2002), for example. To that end, a number of computer-based alternatives are available for use. Some of these techniques make use of existing computer programs, whereas others are programs specifically designed for note taking and writing. The advantages to taking notes via a computer program include the ability to • • • • Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 99 download from websites directly into a note file, cut and paste data directly, move information around electronically rather than physically, have a legible set of notes no matter one’s handwriting, and 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.2 Note-Taking Strategies • CHAPTER 6 cut and paste bibliographic information directly (Wiley Publishing, 2007). However, to be fair here as well, there are disadvantages to computer note taking: • • • • Backing up the notes frequently is necessary, or work may be lost. Scrolling to see the work makes seeing the big picture all at once a difficult task. Moving bits of information around using cut and paste until the ideas are in the order desired is time consuming. Entering notes on a computer interrupts reading (Wiley Publishing, 2007). Some of these disadvantages also apply to the paper version, such as interrupting reading to take notes on notecards. In the end, experiment with different approaches to see what works best. Existing software programs can be used to customize one’s computer-based notetaking approach. Microsoft Word™ can be used to organize references and ideas for the integration of ideas. However, some people like the tactile feedback of moving the cards around. Thus, after typing into Word, idea notes could be printed and the printed ideas cut into strips and moved around physically until they are in a desired order. One might also use Microsoft Excel™ and create a spreadsheet that tracks reference materials and ideas (Geldon, 2002), or perhaps a relational database like Microsoft Access™ could be used to organize large volumes of complex ideas. Eisenberg (2002) suggested using Microsoft PowerPoint™ for the notecard method. The nice feature of this approach is that once the notecards are created as separate slides, the slide sorter feature in PowerPoint can be used to arrange the ideas (slides) in any order desired. By including the bibliographic information in the header of each slide, the reference and idea notecards are combined in each slide—this appears to be a very nice alternative to using actual paper notecards if one is so inclined. There are other specialized notetaking programs as well. Microsoft offers the specialized program OneNote™ to assist in notetaking and information management. Some of the features of OneNote include the ability to capture web pages, hyperlink, use file attachments, create tables, access drawing tools, and recognize text embedded in pictures (Microsoft Corporation, 2007). Using this program could have the added benefit of direct integration with other Microsoft programs possibly in use. Another software alternative is Nota Bene™. This software is designed for academic research and writing, with numerous tools to handle word processing, organize a general database as well as a bibliographic database (all of your references), a search engine, and more (Nota Bene, n.d.). A less complex alternative to OneNote and Nota Bene would be a program like ndxCards™, which allows you to electronically take notes and then export those notes (and reference list information) to a word processor (TruTamil, 2004). More options that you might explore (with URLs) include: • • • • • • Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 100 Zotero (www.zotero.org/) Endnote Web (www.myendnoteweb.com/) Endnote (www.endnote.com/) Mendeley (www.mendeley.com/) ProCite (www.procite.com/) Reference Manager (www.refman.com/) 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.2 Note-Taking Strategies CHAPTER 6 A student should select whatever approach meets his or her basic needs without becoming too complicated. The bottom line is to be able to consider ideas individually and sort those ideas while preserving the source from which the idea originated. Using some variation of the notecard method in scientific writing will help a student tell a better story. Ashford University specifically offers the tool RefWorks (see Tips & Tools: Getting Started with RefWorks) to help its students manage citations and references. RefWorks is compatible with the other search databases Ashford subscribes to, so students can, for example, export a journal article’s citation directly from the database to RefWorks. From there, the student can store and organize these citations and generate APA-formatted bibliographies and citations during the writing process. However, it is important that students not depend wholly on RefWorks and other programs to take care of all their APA-formatting needs. When such digital tools are not available, students should have full confidence in their own abilities. As the stack—physical or electronic—of notes for the paper builds, the student can go back to the outline and work to fit the notes into the outline. The outline Students wanting to use RefWorks may require adjustment based on the will first need to create an account. Visit http:// information gleaned, or one may diswww.refworks.com/refworks2/ and use the cover that a point in the outline is unsupgroup code RWAshfordU to start creating an ported by evidence, prompting a return individual user account. to the literature to retrieve more inforThis information and other helpful RefWorks mation (and take more notes). A student links are available at the Ashford Writing Center should go back and forth here as much as and the Ashford online library. needed because all of this work is going to pay off when writing begins—particularly on the first draft of the introduction section to the research paper, which contains a review of the literature on the topic. A student should keep repeating this process—looking at the road map (outline) and planning the route (notes)—until he or she is comfortable enough to start the journey. Careful preplanning upfront often makes complicated tasks go smoother in the long run. Tips & Tools: Getting Started with RefWorks Now, it’s time to actually start writing the paper. Of course, at this point, much of the writing and idea formation is complete, thanks to an assembled outline and organized notes. Some points to remember: The text must be readable, providing the necessary transition between ideas. Be sure to include a title with the rough draft. Remember that this is a rough draft, not the finished product. See if the instructor will review the rough draft without assigning a grade. If this option is not available, a classmate might be available to read the paper. With the rough draft, the reference list is typically not required, but a student should check with the instructor. The reference list normally appears at the end of the paper, although sources should be cited in the draft text using APA format. Finally, a student should welcome numerous edits and comments on a returned draft as free advice. Remember, the rough draft is not the final version; the comments should help to improve the paper. At some point, we all need outside consultants to help us improve and sharpen our skills. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 101 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism CHAPTER 6 6.3 Proper Attributions: Your Own Ideas Versus the Ideas of Others T he entire concept of the notecard method and related strategies is designed to help track the ideas of others and to be able to give credit where credit is due (and avoid plagiarism, discussed in the next section). But it is difficult to determine at times where an idea came from—that is, did the student read about the idea elsewhere, or is it the student’s original idea? This is analogous to early childhood memories—as we get older, it is sometimes hard to differentiate our memory for an event versus our memories of hearing the family stories about an event. So it is not as straightforward at times to figure out the source, as is (purposely) oversimplified in Figure 6.3 (Harris, 2005). Further, what one assumes to be “common knowledge” might not be as common as once thought. So how does a student write a paper giving credit where credit is due but also expressing original ideas? Harris (2005) offered expert advice about common knowledge and some of the pitfalls of relying on common knowledge in scholarly writing. He described the types of common knowledge as easily observable information (e.g., many trees lose their leaves in the fall), commonly reported facts (e.g., the founding date for psychology is 1879), and common sayings (e.g., pay me now or pay me later). However, Harris also offered a number of warnings and cautions about relying on common knowledge, especially without attribution (citation) in a scholarly paper: • • • Hearing or reading the information in multiple locations does not make it “common.” A person’s interpretation of common knowledge often gets intertwined with the knowledge. There is often disagreement about the accuracy of common knowledge. Finally, Harris (2005) offered what he described as the “Golden Test”: [Ask] yourself about how your reader might understand the source of the information. In other words, ask the question, “will my reader likely believe that this information originated with me when it did not?” If the answer is “yes,” then you need a citation to correct your reader’s misunderstanding. (p. 23) 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism E ssentially, plagiarism is when one borrows intellectual property without crediting the original source. Giving credit where credit is due is vital. In all of the social sciences, we are ultra-careful about this, which is one of the reasons we pay so much attention to references and the format of the references: They provide the breadcrumbs, so that the reader can follow the intellectual path of the writer. There are at least two different categories of plagiarism: intentional and unintentional, although other authors sometimes refer to unintentional plagiarism as sloppy writing (Harris, 2005). Intentional plagiarism means what it says: cheating on purpose. Oftentimes intentional plagiarism occurs when Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 102 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 6 Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism students procrastinate and panic when they are under a deadline to complete a writing assignment (Roig, 2008). Some examples of intentional plagiarism include • • • • • downloading and turning in a paper from the Web; including a graph or table from someone else’s work without proper citation; copying phrases, sentences, or paragraphs from others’ work without using proper citation or quotation format; paraphrasing or summarizing others’ work without citation; and turning in one’s own previously written work when prohibited to do so by the instructor (Harris, 2005). Roig (2008) referred to this last practice as “double-dipping.” So to give credit where credit is due, there are three basic strategies: paraphrasing, summarizing, and quoting (the same three strategies for recording information and ideas). Recall that paraphrasing is putting someone else’s ideas or words into one’s own words, and the amount of words used is roughly equivalent to the amount of words from the original source. Summarizing is providing an overview of the main points of someone else’s work, and the result is shorter than the original (Harris, 2005). A direct quote is just that—using the exact words of the original author. Harris suggests, “If the information came from outside your own head, cite the source” (p. 16). In this photo, University of Maryland professor Chris Hansen discusses the ethics of plagiarism with his journalism students. These types of conversations are happening in universities all over the globe in order to communicate the severity of plagiarism. Unintentional plagiarism can occur through a number of methods. For example, a student might not completely understand the rules for citation, might be careless when taking notes, might be citing uninformed opinions from the Internet, or might be sloppy in following APA rules for citation (Harris, 2005). A common phrase is “ignorance of the law is no excuse for breaking the law.” The same principle applies here: Just because one may be unaware of the plagiarism does not make the plagiarism acceptable. The best protection is to know, understand, and apply the rules for proper citation in APA format. Following this chapter’s suggestions for taking notes—whether in analog or digital form—can help to minimize the risk of plagiarism. Harris (2005) suggested this guideline: “If the information came from outside your own head, cite the source” (p. 16). Instructors can help make the distinctions between what needs to be cited and what doesn’t. Be careful with common knowledge as well (see previous section) because sometimes it’s not always as common as everyone thinks. If the information to be presented as common knowledge truly is common knowledge, then it should not be that difficult to locate a reference citation to support the claim as an added measure of avoiding plagiarism. Although some may not think that plagiarizing is a big deal, it often is. This listing in Table 6.1 is modified from Appleby (2005, p. 9). Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 103 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism CHAPTER 6 Table 6.1: Reasons plagiarism is wrong 1. It is considered a criminal offense (i.e., the theft of intellectual property) and can result in fines and/ or imprisonment. 2. It is academically dishonest and can lead to serious sanctions from the university. 3. It undermines the academic integrity and ethical atmosphere of the university. 4. It violates the mission of higher education to emphasize “a respect for knowledge.” 5. It involves a passive learning process that obstructs the acquisition and understanding of meaningful academic material. 6. It stalls or retards intellectual, moral, and social development. 7. It is contrary to the concept of critical thinking. 8. It promotes feelings of lowered self-esteem in those who believe they must practice it to survive academically. 9. It produces alumni whose inferior knowledge, abilities, and moral standards tarnish the public image of the college and lower the perceived value of a degree in the eyes of those who evaluate current students who are seeking employment or admission into graduate school. 10. It violates the code of ethics of professional societies that represent the social sciences. What Is and Is Not Plagiarism? Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between plagiarism and sloppy citation style, which emphasizes the importance of learning about proper citations in APA style and how to avoid plagiarism. This section presents some of these “sticky situations,” and readers can practice a bit with determining whether the writing constitutes plagiarism or the misuse of sources. The idea and source of this exercise come from Shadle (2006), but the actual source material comes from Price (2002). Here is the original text with the proper APA reference: But plagiarism is not stable. What we think of as plagiarism shifts across historical time periods, across cultures, across workplaces, even across academic disciplines. We need to stop treating plagiarism like a pure moral absolute (“Thou shalt not plagiarize”) and start explaining it in a way that accounts for these shifting features of contexts. Price, M. (2002). Beyond “Gotcha!”: Situating plagiarism in policy and pedagogy. College Composition and Communication, 54, 88–115. If a student was going to use that as a direct quote in an APA style paper, here is what it would look like (note that the text is indented because the quote is longer than 40 words): But plagiarism is not stable. What we think of as plagiarism shifts across historical time periods, across cultures, across workplaces, even across academic disciplines. We need to stop treating plagiarism like a pure moral absolute (“Thou shalt not plagiarize”) and start explaining it in a way that accounts for these shifting features of contexts. (Price, 2002, p. 90) Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 104 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism CHAPTER 6 But what if a student was to write a paragraph in his or her paper exactly like the one in the box below—would this be plagiarism? Plagiarism is very difficult to understand because it is not stable. What we think of as plagiarism shifts across historical time periods, across cultures, across workplaces, even across academic disciplines. We need to stop treating plagiarism like a pure moral absolute and start explaining it in a way that accounts for these shifting features of contexts. For many faculty, the answer would be YES, this is plagiarism. Not only are most of the phrases identical to the original, but there is absolutely no attribution to the author— remember, we must give credit where credit is due. When instructors read a paragraph like this in a student’s paper, they typically assume that this idea was the student’s original idea because of the lack of attribution. The preceding example is fairly blatant, but what about this one: According to Price, plagiarism is not stable. What we think of as plagiarism shifts across historical time periods, across cultures, across workplaces, even across academic disciplines. We need to stop treating plagiarism like a pure moral absolute and start explaining it in a way that accounts for these shifting features of contexts (“Beyond ‘Gotcha,’” p. 90). For this example, an instructor might consider this either unintentional plagiarism or just using a sloppy citation method. The example text does give credit where credit is due, which is good. However, after the first sentence almost everything else is a direct quote, and thus should be presented as a direct quote. Also, the typical APA citation style (author, year) is not followed, and that may be troublesome to instructors. Students should make sure they follow the citation style the instructor wants, not necessarily a style previously learned in another class. Protecting Against Plagiarism Students play a role in the prevention of plagiarism as well. Students need to (a) understand that intentional plagiarism harms their character, (b) that intentional plagiarism cheats themselves, and (c) that plagiarism is not a practice that is accepted as a trait of a well-rounded, educated citizen. There are strategies to be followed that will help students avoid a charge of plagiarism should one occur. The strategies in Tips & Tools: Avoiding Plagiarism are adapted from Harris (2005), and they are excellent suggestions for protecting against charges of plagiarism. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 105 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism CHAPTER 6 Tips & Tools: Avoiding Plagiarism 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. Protect your data and your computer passwords to protect against theft. 2. Do not lend, give, or upload any paper—even if a student just wants to “see” what an APA-formatted paper looks like. Report any theft immediately, including the proper authorities, and in the case of academic work, your instructors. Save and print all drafts and notes—especially having paper or electronic notes will help support the originality of your written work. Photocopy, print, or electronically archive all of your sources—and do not cite something that you have not actually read yourself. Be proactive in seeking out the advice of your instructor and/or teaching assistants. If someone has been reviewing your work all semester, it will be easier for you to make the case that your work is actually your work. Plagiarism is a form of cheating with serious consequences. Many instructors agree with Harris (2005) when he stated, “The goal of education is not to get through, but to get better” (p. 15). If students intend on cheating their way through college, why bother? Think about the ultimate ramifications—as a society, do we want our loved ones to go to the hospital for a surgical procedure by someone who cheated his or her way through medical school? What about seeking advice from a lawyer who cheated throughout law school, or a therapist who cheated during graduate school? Plagiarism and cheating have the potential to be harmful to others and ourselves. Sometimes students become frustrated with the necessity for citation, and when they look at their completed APA-style manuscripts, they see citations all over the place. They wonder, where is the creativity if the research paper is about everyone else’s ideas? The creativity in the social sciences is in the combination of ideas, that is, how the writer put the ideas together. When a student observes trends in the literature or identifies common threads across different areas of social science, that’s creative. The creativity comes in the combinations of new ideas, or the development of a new method to test a hypothesis, or an innovative approach to understanding an age-old problem. Social scientists are highly creative (think back to the journal article topics that opened Chapter 3), but they also highly value the intellectual property of others, which is why they are so careful to give credit where credit is due and avoid plagiarism. Roig (2008) articulated the importance of ethical writing this way: Clear and effective writing is critical to academic success, and it is one of the most valued skills in the modern workplace. However, whether it is being used for academic or professional purposes, writing must not only be mechanically sound, clear, and persuasive, it must also be accurate and, above all, honest” (p. 33). Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 106 4/24/12 9:35 AM Concept Check CHAPTER 6 Chapter Summary S cholarly writing requires the skilled creation of new work products that add to our collective knowledge about behaviors, groups, and cultures as well as demonstrates the thinking and cognitive abilities of the writer. Successful writing in the social sciences is a complex task wherein a number of potential pitfalls await. By fully using the notetaking method presented in this chapter (either in analog/paper form or digitally), writers can systematically track ideas—both the source of the idea and the idea itself. This methodology provides a number of advantages, one being that the analysis of ideas is facilitated, and by dealing with ideas individually, higher-order synthesis is achieved in a more parallel form. Another advantage of meticulously tracking ideas and sources is the avoidance of improper misattributions, such as confusions between common knowledge and knowledge that needs to be cited. Finally, adherence to the suggestions offered in this chapter can help students minimize the risk of plagiarism, which is essentially the theft of the work of others, whether that theft is fraudulent (intentional) or unintentional. Questions for Critical Thinking • • • What is the big deal about plagiarizing someone else’s work? It is unlikely that the other person would ever know that their work was borrowed without permission. What harm is there in taking the work of someone else and claiming it as your own? In reality, how does one determine whether something is “common knowledge” or not? How does a scholar differentiate between an idea read about or heard about, and that same idea but with a twist that is an original creation? Can one protect the intellectual property rights of an idea? Is an idea copyrightable, trademark-able, or patentable? How might you feel if someone stole your ideas, such as a research paper that was created from scratch? Do you think you will ever actually use the notecard method? Of course it might be used if it was required by an instructor—but otherwise, does it appear useful? Do you have some form of the notecard method that is in current use? What parts of your present method are superior to the notecard method, and what tips or techniques from the notecard method (if any) can any student use to improve one’s method for conducting systematic research? Concept Check 1. When using a direct quote in writing in APA style, which of the following must appear with the text of your quotation? a. the city or state where published b. the book or journal article title c. the author’s first name or initials d. the page or paragraph number Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 107 4/24/12 1:52 PM Web Links CHAPTER 6 2. Borrowing the intellectual property of someone else’s writing without proper attribution of the source (that is, the author) is known as a. plagiarism. b. misattribution. c. confabulation. d. replication 3. A/An ______ is a translation of the writer’s original words to your own words, of approximate length as the original source material. a. annotation b. paraphrase c. summary d. appendix 4. A/An ______ is a translation of the writer’s original words to your own words, but shorter than the original source material. a. annotation b. paraphrase c. summary d. appendix 5. As described in this chapter, which of the following would appear on a reference notecard? a. a paraphrase of the author’s original ideas b. an annotation that describes the work’s importance c. the names of the authors of the cited work d. a direct quotation that includes a page or paragraph number Answers: 1) d, 2) a, 3) b, 4) c, 5) d Web Links This website provides good tips for taking research notes: http://www.clark.edu/ Library/iris/start/research_notes/research_notes.shtml This website offers more help for tips about APA references and citation style: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ This website gives details on how to recognize plagiarism: https://www.indiana.edu/ ~istd/examples.html This website describes the consequences of plagiarism: http://mail.baylorschool.org/ ~jstover/plagiarism/consequences.htm This website chronicles some of the top plagiarism scandals of all time: http://www .onlineclasses.org/2009/10/21/top-10-plagiarism-scandals-of-all-time/ Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 108 4/24/12 9:35 AM Key Terms CHAPTER 6 Key Terms intentional plagiarism Purposely claiming ideas of others as your own without proper credit. plagiarism Claiming the ideas of others as your own without providing proper attributional credit. notecard method A technique using 3 x 5- and 4 x 6-inch lined notecards where students can organize the reference materials and ideas needed to write a term paper that includes appropriate levels of analysis and synthesis. unintentional plagiarism Sloppiness or misunderstandings on the writer’s behalf that leads to the use of others’ ideas without proper attribution. Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 109 4/24/12 9:35 AM Lan66821_06_c06_p093-110.indd 110 4/24/12 9:35 AM 7 Quick Overview: Research Designs Learning Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to do the following: • Identify and differentiate between the concepts of independent and dependent variables as applied to social science research. • Understand the four basic components of research designs, and be able to identify what key features are related to the types of conclusions that can be drawn from different research approaches. • Differentiate between within-groups and between-groups research designs, and comprehend when each is used (and when a mixed-design approach would be beneficial). • Explain the benefits of various nonexperimental research designs, including quasiexperiments, observational designs, archival research designs, and survey research. • Comprehend the complexity of designing research, and be able to identify the key ideas needed before effective research design can occur. Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 111 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.1 Variables CHAPTER 7 S o far, this text has explored how a student might analyze and synthesize others’ research. However, in this course—and likely at some point in his or her career—a student will have to design and perhaps conduct a research experiment to answer a question of interest. In research, the type of design chosen influences the type of conclusion that can be drawn from the research. This chapter begins with a basic overview of independent and dependent variables before moving on to major types of research designs and a brief review of different types of research approaches. 7.1 Variables W hen designing an experiment, the first thing a researcher must do is identify the variables at play. A variable is an entity that can take on different values (Harmon & Morgan, 1999). The term variable is probably familiar to most students. In fact, if a student studied any math in grade school, junior high, and high school, then the term is familiar; students might remember solving for variable X or variable Y. The term variable is not restricted to math and can be used as an adjective as well as a noun. There might be a variable speed drill press out in the garage, or some believe that a meteorologist has variable success in predicting the weather. Thus, variable can describe things that are inconsistent or capable of change, or it can refer to something that can be manipulated. In the social sciences, we build on this general definition of variable with more specificity. First, we divide the variables we are most interested in into two broad categories: independent variables and dependent variables. (There are other types of variables—extraneous variables, nuisance variables, confounding variables—but these are outside the scope of this text.) Again, the key idea to remember for now is that a variable—whether independent or dependent—must be able to take on different scores, numbers, outcomes, or values to be considered a variable. Independent Variables At its most basic level, the independent variable is the variable a researcher manipulates, controls, arranges, or organizes. For example, in studying the behavioral effects of caffeine in college students, a researcher may desire to control or manipulate the consumption of caffeine during the experiment. Different students receive different amounts of caffeine, measured in milligrams (mg). By doling out varying caffeine dosages, the experimenter is controlling caffeine consumption, defined as the number of milligrams consumed by the student. The researcher could designate specific levels of caffeine consumption, such as 50 mg, 100 mg, 200 mg, and 400 mg. This type of independent variable is called a non-subject variable (or an active independent variable; Harmon & Morgan, 1999) because the actual value of the independent variable—in this case, the number of milligrams of caffeine received—is not determined by the person receiving the caffeine but determined by the researcher. Sometimes the value or level of the independent variable is determined by the individual participant. For example, the experimenter does not manipulate a person’s level of extroversion; however, it may be measured and used to assign that person to a specific group: high, medium, or low extroversion. This type of variable is known as a subject variable Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 112 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.1 Variables CHAPTER 7 (sometimes called an attribute independent variable). The researcher can only arrange or organize subject variables; they cannot be controlled or manipulated. Variables such as gender, personality traits, natural hair color, and race are subject variables: a characteristic each person possesses that can only be organized into different groups in a study and not controlled or manipulated. How can one tell the difference between a subject and non-subject variable? Use the coin-flip test. Imagine that students are arriving at the research study, each coming through the door one at a time. As each participant enters the room, the researcher assigns each to a level of the independent variable. If one can make this assignment based on a coin flip, then the variable is a nonsubject variable. For example, the participant is standing in the doorway, and the researcher says, “Heads 50 mg caffeine, tails 200 mg caffeine.” If that can be done, then the variable is a non-subject variable. However, one could not stand at the The researcher manipulates the door and say, “Heads you are male, tails you are independent variable, and it is classified as female.” Gender is a subject variable—a charac- a non-subject variable or subject variable. teristic that is inherent to each person. Students In an experiment testing the effect of can only be arranged or organized into groups caffeine on college students, caffeine is the of males and females, not randomly assigned by non-subject variable because the research a coin flip into the male group or female group. team can control it. Subject variables comprise those traits, qualities, and characteristics that we carry around with us—they are not “randomly assignable.” However, a researcher can organize or arrange a group of males and a group of females, and strive to determine if there is a difference between the two groups. Dependent Variables Just as there are different types of independent variables, there are different types of dependent variables. Remember that the dependent variable is the variable that is measured— hopefully the direct result of the manipulations of the independent variable. Dependent variables can be either qualitative or quantitative. A qualitative variable is one in which the responses differ in kind or type. That is, there is a difference in quality (what form) rather than quantity (how many), and the outcomes of these qualitative variables are usually described in words. On a survey, if a participant is asked to tell about an experience today at the mall and to write a few sentences about it, this would be qualitative data. Quantitative variables differ in amount; there is more or less of some known entity. Quantitative variables are usually described by numbers, and some social scientists tend to strive to develop measures of behaviors (dependent variables) that yield a number. On a survey, if a participant is asked to answer multiple questions about an experience at the mall where 0 =terrible experience and 10 = best experience ever, this approach would yield quantitative data. Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 113 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 7 Section 7.2 The Basic Components of Research Designs Dependent variables can also be described in terms of the measurement process. See Table 7.1 for types and examples of dependent variables. An appropriate dependent variable is the result of careful, systematic observation, which is translated into a clear measure of behavior. Table 7.1: Types of dependent variables Dependent Variable Type Examples Frequency (how often a behavior occurs) Number of cigarettes smoked in a day; number of text messages sent in an hour; number of times studied before a test; number of times one hit the brakes upon approaching an intersection Latency (the amount of time until a behavior occurs) How long it took to learn the lyrics to a new song; after the semester started, how many days (weeks) it was until the textbook was opened; once a red light is observed, the amount of time it takes until braking commences Duration (the amount of time a behavior lasts) The amount of time spent playing XBOX 360; the amount of time studied (in minutes); the amount of time one’s foot was on the brake Amplitude (the intensity of a behavior) The amount of noise (in decibels) generated by a class of third graders; the degree of test anxiety (high, medium, low) exhibited by high school students taking the SAT; the intensity of braking (tapping the brakes vs. slamming on the brakes) Choice Selection (a decision from a number of alternatives) One’s answers to a multiple-choice test; responses on a personality inventory to determine introversion or extraversion; at a repair shop, which type of new brakes selected to be installed on one’s car When all goes well in a study, the measurements from the dependent variable are a function of the independent variable; in other words, the manipulations of the independent variable lead to changes in the values of the dependent variable. These terms for variables, independent and dependent, were popularized by Woodworth (1938) and later by Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954). The terms were used as a means of emphasizing the cause and effect relationship between what the researcher does (independent) and the subsequent outcome (dependent). However, not all studies yield cause-and-effect conclusions: Different types of studies can yield different types of conclusions for researchers. But before delving into the types of conclusions drawn from research, a basic understanding of the research design process is in order. The method by which a study is designed has a direct influence on the strength and type of conclusions that can be drawn when a research project is complete. 7.2 The Basic Components of Research Designs W • • Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 114 hen thinking about research designs, there are fundamental components or building blocks that need to be considered: whether the dependent variable is measured before and after the independent variable manipulation, or just after; whether or not there is one independent variable, or more than one; 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.2 The Basic Components of Research Designs • • CHAPTER 7 whether the participants are exposed to just one level of an independent variable, more than one, or across two independent variables there is a mixture of both approaches; and finally, the method by which participants are assigned into the different independent variable groupings. Each of these is discussed here in turn. Pretest-Posttest or Posttest Only? The first of these is to consider whether the dependent variable is measured before and after (pretest-posttest) the introduction of the independent variable, or just after (posttest only). Researchers often like to use Xs and Os to describe research designs. The X in a research design stands for some sort of intervention or independent variable manipulation—X marks the situation where something is happening. The O in a research design stands for an observation or a measurement—the dependent variable. As an example, consider a course’s cumulative final exam as a posttest-only scenario. The X would be the course (Xcourse) and the O would be the cumulative final exam (Ofinal exam). These events can be placed in a linear sequence, as follows, and this is an example of a posttest only design reading from left to right. Xcourse Ofinal exam Notice that there was no pretest at the beginning of the course—if there had been, that would be a pretest-posttest design, and it would look like O X O. In fact, it could be interesting to give the course final exam on the first day of class and again on the last day of class. A pretest-posttest design looks like this: Ofinal exam Xcourse Ofinal exam Not to get too far ahead, but we could add a control group to this design—give the pretest and posttest to a different group of students not enrolled in the course. This control group is the comparison group—the group that does not receive the independent variable manipulation or treatment, which would be taking the course. The control group provides a meaningful baseline to which the effects of the treatment, intervention, or the independent variable can be evaluated. That design would look like this: Ofinal exam Xcourse Ofinal exam Ofinal exam Ofinal exam For more on these designs, see Meltzoff (1998). Factorial Design, or Not? A second basic component of knowing about research designs is knowing the number of independent variables being manipulated, controlled, or arranged. One independent variable is simply referred to as one independent variable, but more than one independent Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 115 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.2 The Basic Components of Research Designs CHAPTER 7 variable is called a factorial design. There are some distinct advantages of factorial designs, namely, the ability to understand interactions between multiple independent variables. For example, a researcher may be interested in a person’s susceptibility to colds and flu. Working with just one variable, like parental status, might lead to a conclusion that parents are more susceptible to the flu than non-parents. One independent variable (parental status) can yield information about the dependent variable (flu susceptibility). But making this a factorial design by adding a second variable might lead to some interesting expectations and patterns of outcomes. For instance, now consider gender and parental status as independent variables. Might there be a combination of these two variables that yields an interesting finding? Given our complex world, factorial designs allow for multiple variables to be included in research studies. Between-, Within-, or Mixed-Groups Design? Another major component of the basic building blocks of experimental design is whether the research design is a between-groups design, a within-groups design, or the design includes a mixture of both—in that case, a mixed design. Between-Groups Design Briefly, the between-groups design is intended to measure differences between separate groups of participants in a study. For example, the researcher might expect males and females to behave differently; Republicans, Democrats, and Independents to vote differently; sociology and nursing majors to have different expectations and career paths; and so on. If a college offers a course to help students prepare for the Graduate Record Exam (or GRE, a test often required for admittance to many different types of graduate programs), and the college was interested in whether freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors would benefit most from the GRE course, this would be a between-groups design. Four different, separate groups of individuals (freshThe between-groups design measures differences between men, sophomores, juniors, and participants in a study. For example, researchers will assess seniors) were utilized to see if behavior patterns in males and females. the GRE course was successful in helping students improve their GRE scores. In this case, the focus is on the difference between groups. Of course, there could be more than one between-groups independent variable. Researchers could add gender as a variable— would men or women benefit most from the GRE course? Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 116 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.2 The Basic Components of Research Designs CHAPTER 7 A between-groups independent variable must result in two or more groups, and participants can be “claimed” in only one level of the variable for it to be between groups. Using the preceding examples, between groups is appropriate if a participant can be placed only in the male OR female group, the Republican, Democrat, OR Independent Party group, or in the sociology major OR nursing major group. If a student is double majoring in sociology and nursing, then a between-groups design would not be the appropriate design; the student’s membership spans more than one group. Within-Groups Design While the goal of a between-groups design is typically to examine how groups of people may differ from one another, the goal of a within-groups design is typically to examine how a person may change over time. The earlier pretest-posttest design (without the control group) is a good example. If a student were to take a “cumulative” final exam at the beginning of the course, take the course, then take the cumulative final exam again, this would be a within-groups design—specifically, a repeated-measures design. The goal of that research design is to see if the student changed over time; that is, if taking the course led to increased scores. Of course, there are all kinds of reasons why the scores could have changed over time, and such design issues are addressed later in the next chapter. Mixed Design Often the research question dictates the type of design used. For example, if a researcher wanted to test whether right-handed individuals have more legible handwriting than lefthanded individuals, this research question dictates a between-groups design (MacKenzie, 2008) because it will take two different groups of people to make the comparison. But let’s say the researcher wanted to know if practicing a new skill improves an individual’s skill level. In this case, the researcher is looking for a change in the participant over time. For example, the researcher might want to find out whether using a typing program causes an individual to become more proficient at keyboarding skills. To detect skill development over time, within-groups designs are used. But if a researcher wanted to look at skill development over time (within groups) depending on three different types of typing training programs (between groups), one could include both between-groups and withingroups design features into the research. This is called a mixed design. To better understand mixed design, let’s consider a type of mixed design called split-plot design. The easiest example of a split-plot design is one with two independent variables. One of the variables, variable “A,” has at least two levels, and each level has a group of randomly assigned participants. This is the between-groups aspect of the split-plot design, as there are two levels, or groups. The other variable, variable “B,” contains the same participants at every level of A. This is the within-groups aspect of the design. During 2008–2009, I worked with research assistants to design a booklet that helps students become more test-wise—that is, knowing the tips and tricks for test taking that will help students score better, even when students don’t know the answer. The research team developed a test-wiseness booklet as well as a “control” booklet that was about college in general but did not contain test-wiseness tips. Essentially, the experimental group, or treatment group, received the test-wiseness booklet, while the control group received the other. This is our “A” variable. Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 117 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 7 Section 7.2 The Basic Components of Research Designs The dependent variable measurement involved the difficulty level of answers to general trivia questions, but within a set of 60 trivia questions, a third were easy, a third were medium, and a third were hard. The “B” variable here was item difficulty, and every participant was exposed to all three levels of difficulty (easy, medium, hard) no matter what condition of “A” they were in. See Figure 7.1. The experiment would then not only demonstrate whether test-wise tips helped a student’s overall test score but also whether it affected a student when the questions were more or less difficult. The split-plot factor is where a variable is divided in multiple subplots; in our example, that is the B variable, or the difficulty levels of the trivia items. Figure 7.1: Test-wiseness split-plot design A1 A2 Test-wiseness booklet Control booklet Easy Medium Hard Easy Medium Hard B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 Between groups independent variable— random assignment Within groups independent variable— fixed assignment Randomization, Matching, or Blocking? A final key component of experimental designs concerns how participants are assigned to certain conditions or variations of the experiment. To use randomization (or a randomized approach) means that study participants are placed into different groups within a study without bias. In a drug study, for example, if the researcher needed an experimental group and a control group, the researcher could flip a coin for each participant and assign to groups based on the outcome of the coin flip. Randomization is typically considered the strongest or most powerful approach because it can allow for causal (cause-and-effect) conclusions. Take the case of the pretest-posttest design that includes a control group (here it is again as a reminder): Ofinal exam Xcourse Ofinal exam (Experimental Group) Ofinal exam (Control Group) Ofinal exam The issue of random assignment comes into play when researchers have to determine which group of students comprises the experimental group and which group of students comprises the control group. That process of how students are assigned to groups is very important because if true random assignment can be used, that helps to strengthen the conclusions drawn from our data. However, the preceding example is also a good example of a case where random assignment is not typically used. Researchers do not typically have the power to randomly assign students to course sections—students usually pick their own courses. Thus, Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 118 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches CHAPTER 7 in cases where random assignment may not be possible (Gribbons & Herman, 1997), researchers turn to other methods, such as matching in between-groups designs and blocking in within-groups designs. Matching occurs when individuals are paired on a variable of interest, and then the pair is randomly assigned. For instance, if age were a key variable, one could pair individuals with the same or approximate ages, and then randomly assign. Blocking is when one finds groups of individuals who are similar on a key variable, and then the group members can be randomly assigned to study conditions. There are also situations where random assignment may not be an ethical choice, such as in testing the effectiveness of a child welfare program and including a control group where benefits are withheld (Bawden & Sonenstein, n.d.). Even if complete randomization is not possible, researchers always want to know how participants were assigned to groups or conditions. This is important to know because if bias were present, individuals might behave differently due to preexisting conditions rather than because of the independent variable manipulation. 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches O nce the basic processes of independent and dependent variables are mastered, researchers build on these concepts to conduct research. When thinking about the measurement of the dependent variable, the measurement process yields either quantitative or qualitative results. Depending on the research situations and questions of interest, social scientists rely on quantitative (e.g., numerical) data and qualitative (e.g., verbal and nonverbal) data. As discussed in prior chapters, social science researchers’ interest in measurement is universal, but researchers vary on the kind or type of data collected. It may seem natural to describe qualitative research methods in contrast to quantitative research methods, but many social scientists make optimal use of both methodological approaches to answer complex questions about social forces as well as individual behavior. Qualitative researchers do not rely on statistical approaches to draw conclusions, but they use complex descriptions of behavior or events; these descriptions often center on feelings about an experience (Beins, 2009). A qualitative research approach emphasizes that the researcher is part of the observation and not a separate and objective observer as is strived for in quantitative research. Qualitative researchers select a topic When conducting research, the results are described as quantitative and qualitative data. Here, this researcher at of interest and then attempt to the Langley Research Center evaluates information from an explore, elaborate, systematize, experiment. and illuminate the collective Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 119 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches CHAPTER 7 understanding of social scientists about the topic of study (Banister, Burman, Parker, Taylor, & Tindall, 1994). Said another way, the qualitative researcher studies individuals in their natural environment and attempts to gain understanding through descriptive means (Beins, 2009). Sometimes researchers discuss quantitative and qualitative approaches as an “either-or” proposition with clear preferences for one approach or another. Often this preference (or perhaps bias) is related to the method in which the researcher received his or her academic training. It is more constructive to think of these approaches as complementary rather than competitive. For instance, a quantitative approach might focus on measurement, explanation, and prediction, whereas a qualitative approach might focus on meaning, understanding, and interpretation (Larkin, n.d.). But both techniques can be used for insight concerning behaviors, attitudes, and opinions. For more on the so-called qualitative/quantitative debate, see Palmquist (2005). Remember that an appropriate dependent variable is the result of careful, systematic observation, which is translated into a clear measure of attitudes, perceptions, or behaviors—no matter if the measurement approach is qualitative or quantitative. Writing in Action: Practicing Variable Identification For each of the following scenarios, practice identifying the independent variable and the dependent variable: 1. A researcher was interested in the effects of reward on intrinsic motivation. Some children were told that they would be given a special award for drawing with magic markers (an activity they already enjoyed). Other children were simply asked to draw with the magic markers. One week later, the children were unobtrusively observed for how much time they spent drawing with the markers. The children who expected and received a reward for drawing with the markers were less likely to draw with them later. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: 2. In an investigation of the fundamental attribution error, participants were given a speech to read that either favored or opposed Fidel Castro, the communist leader of Cuba. Participants were told that the speech was written by a student who had been assigned to the position taken in the paper (that is, the student writing the speech had no choice on which position to take). Nevertheless, participants believed that the student who wrote the pro-Castro speech had positive attitudes toward Castro, whereas participants who read the anti-Castro paper believed the writer had negative attitudes toward Castro. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: 3. Within a classroom setting, participants were asked to listen to a guest instructor. All participants were given a description of the instructor. Some participants read a description containing the phrase “People who know him consider him to be a rather cold person . . .” while other people read a description where the word warm was substituted for the word cold (otherwise, the descriptions were identical). After the lecture, participants were asked to rate the (continued) Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 120 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches CHAPTER 7 Writing in Action: Practicing Variable Identification (continued) instructor. Participants who were told the instructor was warm gave him more favorable ratings compared to subjects who were told that the instructor was cold. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: 4. Participants watched a videotape of a woman taking an SAT-like test. In all cases, she correctly answered 15 out of 30 questions. But participants who observed a pattern of initial success followed by failure perceived the woman as more intelligent than did those who observed the opposite pattern of failure followed by success. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: 5. Participants read about a woman who used a particular title and then rated her on a number of traits. When the woman used the title Ms. rather than Miss or Mrs., she was assumed to be more assertive, achievement oriented, and dynamic, but also cold, unpopular, and unlikely to have a happy marriage. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: 6. A stranger randomly approached people on the street and asked them to use his camera to take a picture of him for a school project. For half of the participants, the camera didn’t work—the stranger looked concerned, said that the camera was rather delicate, asked the participants if they touched any of the dials, and announced that it would have to be fixed. For the other half of the participants, the camera worked fine. Farther down the street, a woman dropped a file folder of papers. Forty percent of the participants who had no broken-camera experience helped the woman pick up her papers, whereas 80% of the participants who were led to believe that they broke the man’s camera helped. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: Source: Anderson (n.d.) Answer Key: 1. Instructions given with markers (special award vs. none); time spent drawing 2. Opinion about Castro in the speech (favor or oppose); attitudes toward Castro 3. Phrase in description (warm vs. cold); instructor ratings 4. Response pattern (success-failure vs. failure-success); perceptions about intelligence 5. Title (Ms. or Miss, or Mrs.); ratings on traits 6. Camera status (work vs. didn’t work); likelihood of helping down the street Let’s say research was being done on the optimum learning conditions for students. For this example, learning is defined as a score on a test. In this research design, one betweengroups independent variable is where tests are administered: online or in a traditional classroom setting. A second independent variable is how the course is delivered: online or through a classroom setting. Both of these variables are between-groups variables because each results in two groups, and four different groups are needed to complete this research as described. Table 7.2 illustrates how this design would look: Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 121 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 7 Section 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Table 7.2: Example of between-groups design Course Delivery Online Test Administration Classroom Online Classroom In this example, a researcher will look to see if there is a significant difference between scores for students tested online and those tested in a classroom. Essentially, the researcher looks to see if the scores in the Table 7.2’s rows are different from one another. The second effect a researcher will look for is whether teaching the course online versus in the classroom led to a difference in test scores. In this case, the researcher examines if the scores in Table 7.2’s columns are different from one another. However, what is more fascinating about this design is whether there is an interaction effect that is statistically significant—so unlikely to be a result of random chance that it may be due to the influence of the independent variable. In other words, is there a combination of rows and columns (a particular cell) that stands out and leads to superior student performance on tests? One can imagine how this information would be valuable. If the best combination of student learning occurs when online instruction is followed by online testing, that would be vital information for educators to have. However, it would also be important to know if there is no better combination than any other combination because then educators would know that students could benefit equally from different types of learning experiences. Researchers could experience a situation where just the test administration effect was significant, just the course delivery effect was significant, or different combinations, including a significant interaction. Figures 7.2–7.4 depict these different types of outcomes. Figure 7.2: Test administration main effect Classroom testing Scores on test Online testing Online delivery Classroom delivery In this example, regardless of how the course is delivered, classroom testing is superior, leading to higher test scores. In this case, there is not a significant interaction; a significant interaction would be evidenced by a different pattern of bars. Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 122 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 7 Section 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Figure 7.3: Course delivery main effect Classroom testing Scores on test Online testing Online delivery Classroom delivery This is an example of data where there is a main effect of course delivery but no interaction. Scores on the test are higher no matter what type of testing is given, so long as the course is being delivered in a classroom. Although there are numerous examples of what an interaction might look like, this is an example of what the data would look like with an interaction taking place. Figure 7.4: Combination of test administration and course delivery main effects Classroom testing Scores on test Online testing Online delivery Classroom delivery In Figure 7.4, here is the place where an interaction is the most meaningfully interpreted. There is one combination of test administration and course delivery that leads to the best combination of tests scores—as the graph shows, that best combination is when the course is taught in the classroom but the test is administered online. This information would be highly valuable to educators and students alike. Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 123 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches CHAPTER 7 Pivotal Moments in Research: Cognitive Dissonance In 1957, Leon Festinger published an influential theory in social psychology called cognitive dissonance theory. As Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) originally characterized the theory, when a person privately holds an opinion but is pressured publicly to argue against it, a form of discomfort or dissonance will occur. As this theory was further studied and refined, cognitive dissonance was also thought of as a situation where a person’s attitudes and behaviors are in conflict. The amount of dissonance would help predict the degree of motivation to resolve the dissonance by changing either the attitudes or the behaviors (Aronson, 1992). What is so interesting about cognitive dissonance theory is that it makes specific predictions about changes in attitudes and behaviors, and sometimes counterintuitive results occur in determining what changes attitudes (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). Cognitive dissonance theory provided a wealth of opportunities for future research. In the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study, the actual participants were students who were asked to lie to other students who were about to perform a series of truly boring tasks. The participants were assigned to one of three conditions, which means a between-groups design—one of the basic building blocks. In the control/baseline condition, the participant was not asked to lie about the upcoming tasks. In the “$1 condition,” the participant was paid $1 to lie and tell the waiting participant that her upcoming tasks were interesting, enjoyable, and fun. In the “$20 condition,” the participant told the same lie but was paid $20 instead. In the $1 and $20 conditions, dissonance was present—the participants knew that the tasks were dull and boring, but lied about it. The participants were asked a number of questions about the study, and their responses were the dependent variables that Festinger and Carlsmith were most interested in. A key dependent variable question for Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) was “how enjoyable tasks were.” Participants (control, $1, $20) answered this on a −5 to +5 scale, with a +5 score indicating that they thought the tasks were very enjoyable. On average, both the control group and the $20 group still perceived the tasks as being quite boring, scoring an average −0.45 and −0.05, respectively. The $1 group, however, averaged a score of +1.35 in their responses. According to Festinger and Carlsmith, the participants in the $1 condition felt the most dissonance because they were lying for such a small amount of money, hence they changed their own perception of the experiment to match the lie they were telling. Participants who told the lie for a much larger amount were able to remember it was a lie and take the $20 without changing their own attitudes. “The greater the reward offered (beyond what is necessary to elicit the behavior) the smaller was the effect,” Festinger and Carlsmith wrote (1959, p. 208). To put it another way (Aronson, 1992), “People believe lies they tell only if they are under-rewarded for telling them” (p. 304). As Aronson (1992) and others have suggested, the theory of cognitive dissonance may be one of the most importance contributions of social psychology (see also Jones, 1976) and has inspired thousands of studies. Cognitive dissonance theory provided welcome relief for those who thought behavior was either not linked to cognition or was simply shaped by positive or negative reinforcement. It also offered alternative methods for changing behaviors. Prior to this research, it was generally considered that in order to change behavior, a person’s attitude had to change first—that is, our attitudes drive our behaviors (Aronson, 1992). Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that when attitudes and behaviors are in enough dissonance, behaviors may indeed change to match attitudes, but attitudes can also change to match behaviors. Aronson (1992) pointed to the desegregation of schools in the South in the 1950s. Some had suggested that the attitude of racism and prejudice needed to change first before the behavior of segregation could change. Cognitive dissonance theory allowed for the prediction that first changing the behavior can set in motion a change (continued) Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 124 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs CHAPTER 7 Pivotal Moments in Research (continued) in attitudes—which in fact did occur (Aronson, 1992). Cognitive dissonance theory is still powerful today and has been used to analyze citizen responses to the events of September 11, 2001 (Masters, 2005). When attitudes and behaviors conflict (or simultaneously held cognitions conflict), we are motivated to resolve the dissonance. Questions for Critical Thinking and Reflection • Can you think of situations in your own life where an attitude you publicly held was not in sync with your private behavior? According to Festinger and Carlsmith (1959), one of those two conditions must be resolved in order for the dissonance to fade. In your personal situation, which won out—did you change your attitude or change your behavior? • Think about how cognitive dissonance might be purposely used to help attitude or behavior change. Would it be useful to point out to individuals how their attitudes and behaviors are not in sync? Thinking about your knowledge of psychology from this and other courses, what principles and theories would be useful to apply to achieve an intended attitude change? An intended behavior change? • Think about how the idea of cognitive dissonance applies to major problems that society faces. There is a heightened awareness about global warming and environmental concerns, but look around your local parking lot and check out the types of cars being driven? Is public transportation well utilized where you live? • We know about the negative effects of poverty and homelessness, but think about the efforts in your community (e.g., fund-raising, shelters). We hold certain attitudes, and we possess knowledge, but what facilitates behavior change? Why do so many people see the problems and fail to act? How might cognitive dissonance theory explain (a) a level of relative inaction, and (b) how dissonance might be leveraged for society-level changes? 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs T o be a bit more formal, a quasi-experiment is “a design that manipulates the presumed case and measures the presumed outcome but does not randomly assign participants to conditions” (Shadish & Cook, 2009, p. 619). For an overall comparison of the different types of nonexperimental designs, see Table 7.3. Although many tools are available for social scientists in the design of research studies, only a handful of those approaches are highlighted and reviewed here. These approaches may be particularly helpful to consider when designing a research project to answer hypotheses of interest. Nonequivalent Control Groups Nonequivalent control group designs are quite common throughout the social sciences, so the following is just a sampling of practical applications of these designs. For example, to measure the impact of a computer-based training program for nurses, Hart et al. (2008) administered a pretest questionnaire, delivered information about evidence-based Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 125 4/24/12 9:35 AM CHAPTER 7 Section 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs practice, and then administered a posttest questionnaire. This is the classic pretest-posttest design, and here is what it would look like graphically: Oevidence-based practice pretest Xcomputer-based education program Oevidence-based practice posttest This type of design lets the researchers know if the participants changed over time. However, it is hard to gauge the effectiveness of the intervention (X) without a control group. Sometimes the constraints of the situation make random assignment impractical. For example, a medical school decided to implement a new form of ethics training for its students based on small groups teaching (Goldie, Schwartz, McConnachie, & Morrison, 2001) but wanted to compare this new approach with the previous lecture-style large groups instruction. Rather than randomly assign students to different instructional conditions, new incoming medical students received the new curriculum, and students from the previous year were utilized as the control condition. The experimental design would look like this: Osurvey score Xnew curriculum Osurvey score (Experimental Group) Osurvey score Xold curriculum Osurvey score (Control Group) Luckily, under the old curriculum, an ethics and health care survey had been administered both pretest and posttest. These same instruments were utilized with the new small group ethics discussion sections. Goldie et al. (2001) found that the new curriculum led to greater consensus in considering ethical situations and concluded that small-group ethics teaching, in an integrated medical curriculum, had a positive impact on first-year students’ potential ethical behavior. It was more effective than a lecture and a large-group seminar-based course in developing students’ normative identification with the profession of medicine. (p. 295) Even though a true experiment was not conducted here, the benefit of the outcomes of the quasi-experimental design are obvious—researchers can learn much from these types of designs, even if unable to draw a cause-and-effect conclusion. Time Series Design In its simplest form, quasi-experimental research using a time series design “is simply a set of repeated observations of a variable on some entity or unit, where the number of repetitions is relatively large” (Mark, Reichardt, & Sanna, 2000, p. 353). For example (Garson, 2008a), the monthly calculation of the national unemployment index by the Bureau of Labor Statistics would be considered a simple time series design. In essence, one can think of this as an extended sequence of dependent variable measurements (O). A simple time series would look like this O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O  O Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 126 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs CHAPTER 7 The preceding 12 observations could be the monthly reporting of the unemployment index, for example. As one can imagine, the time series design allows for the assessment of change over time—that is, looking for trends—but it can do much more than that (Mark et al., 2000). A time series design can also be used for forecasting. For example, if an economist is tracking unemployment rates, the economist may use this data to try to predict what will happen six months from now, based on the data accumulated leading up to this point in time. Time series designs can become more complex as independent variables (X) are introduced, such as a particular treatment or intervention. These types of designs are sometimes called interrupted time series designs (Cook & Campbell, 1979; Mark et al., 2000) because of the interruption (X) over the series of observations (Os). This type of design might look like this: O  O  O  O  O  O  X  O  O  O  O  O  O Note the independent variable manipulation in the middle of the sequence of observations. This interrupted time series design is often used to measure the impact of legislation and public policy, such as the implementation of a mandatory seat belt law or a ban on cigarette smoking on a college campus. So one can see the benefit of the interrupted time series design: to assess the impact of an intervention. But the drawback of the quasi-experimental design is that researchers cannot be overly confident about causality—a decrease in observed smokers could mean many things—some stopped smoking, some hid their smoking better, some switched to chewing tobacco, and so on. Observational Designs Within the scope of this chapter, a thorough and comprehensive review of observational research is just not possible. An observational design is one in which potential independent variables are not directly manipulated or controlled; dependent variable measures are collected, and depending on the research scenario, potential independent variables may or may not be inferred. This chapter focuses on key approaches—case studies, naturalistic observation, and archival research—with a brief overview of the terminology (Brown, n.d.; Garson, 2008b; Pope & Mays, 2006). Much of the research in the social sciences involves observational designs because of the inability to control or manipulate (or unethical) situations researchers could be placed in by attempting randomized control experiments. For instance, researchers do not purposely expose school children to possibly negative events, but observational designs allow researchers to study natural events as they occur. Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 127 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs CHAPTER 7 Table 7.3: Summary of different observational designs Type Brief Description Field experiments A field experiment involves a research study where the actual data collection occurs in natural settings, that is, in the field. Case study An extensive observation of an individual or a single group is the hallmark of the case study approach. Case studies tend to look at a limited set of behaviors rather than the totality of the person or group. Naturalistic observation Using naturalistic observation, the researcher is involved in the direct observation of behavior as it occurs in its natural setting. In principle, the researcher does not interact within the environment being observed, but only observes. Participant observation In participant observation, the researcher inserts himself/herself into the environment being studied, which can be especially useful when studying group processes. Researchers using this technique must be careful to remain objective and avoid observer effects (those who know they are being observed may change their own behavior due to the observation). Action research Action research is a subset of participant observation in which the researcher in the natural environment works to change some aspect of behavior or the organization. These actions are designed to improve conditions for the participants or the organization. Rather than test a hypothesis, action research attempts to overtly change behavior. Archival research Archival researchers study the already existing records that were originally recorded in natural settings. Surveys Surveys are a versatile methodological approach because they can be administered to individuals in natural settings as part of a fieldwork approach. Program evaluation Program evaluation involves the evaluation of systematic programs in applied settings. That is, program effectiveness is determined by how patients or clients are served in the field. Ethnography Ethnography involves the direct observation of people during daily life. Sometimes used interchangeably with case study, ethnography refers to both a research process and the type of report written as a product of that research. Case Studies The case study approach focuses on a particular case of interest, and this case may be a person, a group, or perhaps an organization. Case studies can utilize qualitative and quantitative methods. In fact, a research strategy called triangulation encourages researchers to study the variable of interest from multiple perspectives and not over-rely on any one research approach. Researchers using a case study approach can be forward-looking (prospective) or look back in time (retrospective), they can approach theories inductively or deductively, and they can strive to describe, evaluate, or explain behavior (Garson, 2008b; Walshe, Caress, Chew-Graham, & Todd, 2004). Case studies can be very influential in helping to understand the historical background of the topic under study, explore unexpected outcomes, delve into the complexity of interrelationships among people and entities, explore gaps between what is intended and what happens, and in general, obtain a comprehensive look at the big picture. Although there are limitations to the case study Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 128 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs CHAPTER 7 approach, such as the inability to broadly generalize (more on limitations at the end of this section), case studies can be particularly useful in generating hypotheses and theories in newer fields (Garson, 2008b). In other words, when little is known about a topic, the case study can be extremely useful in providing context about a new idea and about how variables may affect the measure of interest (the dependent variable). Naturalistic Observation The term naturalistic observation typically implies an observational situation where the researcher does not interact in the environment, but merely observes it. However, observation-based research is much more complicated. Naturalistic observation tends to fall into the category of qualitative research, and the goal of qualitative research is to understand human behavior holistically (rather than analytically) and consider the social and cultural context in which we behave (Angrosino, 2007). The development of systematic observational protocols is a key component in naturalistic observation research, and these studies tend to fall into one of three broad categories: (a) nonreactive (unobtrusive) research, where the researcher does not participate in the events under observation; (b) reactive research, in which the researcher is immersed and clearly present in the environment but strives for the role of outside observer; and (c) participant research, where the researcher embeds himself or herself into the environment and participates as an active member of the group being studied (Angrosino, 2007). Naturalistic observation enables researchers to study subjects in their natural habitat without any manipulation from the researcher. For example, researchers could collect data using naturalistic observation for a study of prison inmates. • • Lan66821_07_c07_p111-134.indd 129 So what would a naturalistic observation look like, or, in other words, what basic steps are followed? Angrosino (2007) described a typical sequence of events followed in naturalistic observation research: In the descriptive phase, the researcher is interested in reporting initial observations related to the general research questions under study, as well as providing descriptions of the environment being studied, including the people and the place. At this point, observations should be as value-free as possible, without interpretation—the goal would be statements of fact based on direct observation. Once a broad base is established, the focusing phase begins as researchers strive to sort out relevant observations from irrelevant observations, especially in how these observations relate to the hypotheses and key questions under study. These observations would be more focused on well-defined activities (e.g., traditions, rituals, events) rather than one-time random occurrences. The goal here is to identify patterns, especially how the observed patterns relate to the research question of interest. 4/24/12 9:35 AM Section 7.4 Quasi-Experimental and Observational Designs • • CHAPTER 7 The selective phase might be analogous to a “highway merge” in a large city, where six lanes of traffic are funneled into two lanes. There are still observations to be recorded, but now the key behaviors have been focused on and are under careful scrutiny. Although the entire field of the environment is still under observation, selected observations are used to help provide possible explanations for behaviors. Finally, by the time the saturation point is reached, no new findings are being discovered. The major patterns of behavior are well established and rarely change. Further observation after reaching the saturation point has a relatively low probability of discovering anything new. At this point, the data analysis and interpretation phase is about to begin. Success during this phase of the observational research will very much depend on the coding scheme used and the researcher’s attention to detail in following the protocols established prior to beginning the naturalistic observation. Naturalistic observations can be great sources of new ideas. Take, for example, the study by Chiang (2008) where children with autism were studied using naturalistic observation. Autistic children often can be taught communication skills, but these children often lack the ability to spontaneously utilize verbal and nonverbal skills. The goal of Chiang’s research was to document and categorize the levels of communicative spontaneity in autistic children. Thirty-two diagnosed autistic children, ranging in age from 3 to 16, were videotaped in their natural settings, which included special schools for autistic children, special education classrooms, and general education classrooms. One of the key findings from this research was that autistic students exhibited higher levels of communicative spontaneity in nonsymbolic forms (e.g., keeping an item, pushing) than symbolic forms (i.e., writing, speech). These types of results, while interesting on their own merit, can provide fertile grounds for additional researchers to formulate ideas about how to better understand autistic children and their communication patterns. As with every methodological approach to studying human behavior, case studies and naturalistic observations have drawbacks as well. Because the participants studied may not be representative of the population, these types of studies lack external validity— the ability to be generalized beyond the participants studied. Case studies and naturalistic observations are typically difficult to replicate unless extreme care has been taken to explicitly record the procedures used. Since these approaches do not follow a true experimental protocol (including random assignment), causal inferences are not possible. Finally, these types of studies rely on highly skilled researchers because the potential for influencing the outcome of the study is great...
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