Inside the LaunchPad for Technical Communication Missing something? Instructors may assign the online materials that accompany this text. For access to them, visit launchpadworks.com. LaunchPad materials are identified throughout the text with the icon. CASES Document-based cases are presented online, where you can familiarize yourself with each scenario, download and work with related documents, and access assignment questions in a single space. CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a Plagiarism-Detection Service CASE 3: Understanding Why Revision Software Cannot Revise and Edit Your Document CASE 4: Accommodating a Team Member’s Scheduling Problems CASE 5: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and Interests CASE 6: Revising a Questionnaire CASE 7: Organizing a Document for Clarity — and Diplomacy CASE 8: Analyzing the Persuasiveness of a Poster CASE 9: Emphasizing Important Information in a Technical Description CASE 10: Revising a Document for Nonnative Speakers and for Translation CASE 11: Designing a Flyer CASE 12: Creating Appropriate Graphics To Accompany a Report CASE 13: Evaluating a Technical Document CASE 14: Setting Up and Maintaining a Professional Microblog Account CASE 15: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-Search Sites CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal CASE 17: Writing a Directive CASE 18: Analyzing Decision Matrices CASE 19: Introducing the Scientific Method Through a Lab Report CASE 20: Choosing a Medium for Presenting Instructions CASE 21: Understanding the Claim-and-Support Structure for Presentation Graphics LEARNINGCURVE Master the material covered in the first ten chapters of the text as well as key grammar skills with LearningCurve, a fun adaptive quizzing program that meets you where you are and gives you the extra support you need when you need it. Understanding the Technical Communication Environment (Covering Chapters 1– 4) Planning the Document (Covering Chapters 5–7) Persuasion, Emphasis, and Effective Sentences (Covering Chapters 8–10) Additional LearningCurve activities on grammar, style, persuasion, and concerns of multilingual writers DOWNLOADABLE FORMS Download and work with a variety of helpful forms discussed throughout the text. Work-Schedule Form (Chapter 4) Team-Member Evaluation Form (Chapter 4) Self-Evaluation Form (Chapter 4) Audience Profile Sheet (Chapter 5) Oral Presentation Evaluation Form (Chapter 21) MULTIMEDIA DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITIES Explore real multimedia documents that harness digital technologies in exciting new ways, and respond to prompts that will help you analyze them. Mechanism Description Using Interactive Graphics: Hybridcenter.org and Union of Concerned Scientists, Hybrids Under the Hood (Part 2) (Chapter 12) Online Portfolio: Blane C. Holden’s Online Portfolio (Chapter 15) Proposal Delivered as a Prezi Presentation: Andrew Washuta, Marketing Proposal Presentation (Chapter 16) Report Presented as a Website: United States Geological Survey, High Plains Water-Level Monitoring Study (Chapter 17) Informational Report Presented Through an Interactive Graphic: Matthew C. Hansen et al., University of Maryland, Google, USGS, and NASA, “Global Forest Change” Interactive Map (Chapter 17) Recommendations Presented in a Video: One & Only Campaign, Check Your Steps! Make Every Injection Safe (Chapter 18) Process Description Using Video Animation: North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT), Diverging Diamond Interchange Visualization (Chapter 20) Instructions Using Video Demonstration: PartSelect, Dryer Repair — Replacing the High Limit Thermostat (Chapter 20) Instructions Using a Combination of Video Demonstration and Screen Capture: Texas Tech University Multiple Literacy Lab (MuLL), Recording Audio in the Field Using an iTalk (Chapter 20) Definition Using Video Animation: ABC News, What Is the Cloud? (Chapter 20) SUPPLEMENTAL E-BOOKS Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger, features seven realistic scenarios in which you can practice workplace writing skills. Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe, focuses on the role of written communication in teamwork. Built around five short videos of real team interactions, Team Writing teaches you how to use written documentation to manage a team and provides models for working on large collaborative documents. TEST BANK Test your knowledge with multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer questions for every chapter in the textbook. TUTORIALS Engaging tutorials show you helpful tools and tips for creating your projects along with guidance on how to best use the tools, as well as the documentation process for citing the sources you use in MLA and APA style. DIGITAL WRITING TUTORIALS Cross-Platform Word Processing with CloudOn, Quip, and More (Chapter 3) Tracking Sources with Evernote and Zotero (Chapter 6) Photo Editing Basics with GIMP (Chapter 12) Building Your Professional Brand with LinkedIn, Twitter, and More (Chapter 15) Creating Presentations with PowerPoint and Prezi (Chapter 21) Audio Recording and Editing with Audacity (Chapter 21) DIGITAL TIPS TUTORIALS Creating Outlines (Chapter 3) Creating Styles and Templates (Chapter 3) Scheduling Meetings Online (Chapter 4) Reviewing Collaborative Documents (Chapter 4) Incorporating Tracked Changes (Chapter 4) Conducting Online Meetings (Chapter 4) Using Wikis for Collaborative Work (Chapter 4) Using Collaborative Software (Chapter 4) Proofreading for Format Consistency (Chapter 11) DOCUMENTATION TUTORIALS How To Cite a Database in APA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources) How To Cite a Website in APA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources) How To Cite a Book in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources) How To Cite an Article in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources) How To Cite a Website in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources) How To Cite a Database in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources) Technical COMMUNICATION TWELFTH EDITION Mike Markel Boise State University Stuart A. Selber Penn State University For Bedford/St. Martin’s Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities: Edwin Hill Senior Program Director for English: Leasa Burton Program Manager: Molly Parke Marketing Manager: Sophia Latorre-Zengierski Director of Content Development: Jane Knetzger Senior Developmental Editor: Carrie Thompson Developmental Editor: Michelle McSweeney Associate Editor: Cara Kaufman Senior Workflow Manager: Jennifer Wetzel Production Supervisor: Brianna Lester Media Project Manager: Melissa Skepko-Masi Manager of Publishing Services: Andrea Cava Project Management: Lifland et al., Bookmakers Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Photo Researcher: Krystyna Borgen Permissions Editor: Elaine Kosta Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik Text Design: Maureen McCutcheon Design Cover Design: William Boardman Cover and Title Page Image: Andy Roberts/Getty Images Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012, 2010 by Bedford/St. Martin’s All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher. 210987 fedcba For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 ISBN-13: 978-1-319-10788-8 (EPUB) Acknowledgments Text acknowledgments and copyrights appear at the back of the book on page 706, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page. Art acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the art selections they cover. In-text excerpt, p. 94: Mike Markley. Excerpt from LinkedIn profile summary. Used with permission. Figure 5.5, p. 102: Advancing Kyocera Philosophy Education. © 2016 by KYOCERA Corporation. Used by permission of Kyocera Corporation. Figure 5.8, p. 109: Solomon et al., Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, p. ix (Table of contents). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Used with permission. Figure 5.9, pp. 111–12: From “Introducing Project Loon,” Googleblog, June 14, 2013. Reprinted by permission of Alphabet. Figure 5.10, p. 113: From Brian Handwerk, “Google’s Loon Project Puts Balloon Technology in Spotlight,” National Geographic Daily News, June 18, 2013. Reprinted by permission of National Geographic. Figure 6.1, p. 124: Abstract from Maureen O’Dougherty, “Plot and Irony in Childbirth Narratives of Middle-Class Brazilian Women,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly, Volume 27, Issue 1, pages 43–62, March 2013. © 2013 by the American Anthropological Association. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Document Analysis Activity, p. 132: Excerpt from “About High Fructose Corn Syrup,” http://corn.org/products/sweeteners/high-fructose-cornsyrup/. Copyright © 2016 by The Corn Refiners Association. Used with permission. Figure 8.5, p. 182: Threat Research, McAfee, “Revealed: Operation Shady RAT” white paper. Copyright © 2011 McAfee, Inc. Reprinted by permission. Document Analysis Activity, p. 185: From Emily Bennington, “Social Media Strategy: Is It Time to Hire a Social Media Officer?” from Monster.com. Reprinted by permission. Copyright 2014 - Monster Worldwide, Inc. All Rights Reserved. You may not copy, reproduce or distribute this article without the prior written permission of Monster Worldwide. This article first appeared on Monster, the leading online global network for careers. To see other career-related articles visit http://career-advice.monster.com. Guidelines, p. 283: Principles of Accessible Design for Websites, adapted from WebAIM: http://webaim.org/intro/. Used with permission. Exercise 3, p. 289: Excerpt from Micron CSN33: Customer Service Note from Micron User Guide Introduction. © 2011 Micron Technology, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission. Figure 13.6, p. 345: Appendix B: Heuristic Evaluation Evaluator’s Form, p. 20 from Oracle’s “User Experience Direct, FAQ: How to Conduct Heuristic Evaluation,” http://www.oracle.com/webfolder/ux/applications/uxd/assets/faq/how-toconduct-heuristic-evaluation.pdf. Used with permission. Figure 13.10, p. 351: WAI Site Usability Testing Questions. Copyright © 1994–2003 World Wide Web Consortium (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All Rights Reserved. http://www.w3.org/WAI/EO/Drafts/UCD/questions.html Figure 13.15, p. 357: From “Usability Testing: Election Systems and Software ExpressVote Universal Voting System.” University of Baltimore for the Maryland State Board of Elections. http://www.elections.state.md.us/voting_system/procurement.html. Case 13, p. 359: The Complete How To Guide to Xeriscaping, from http://www.ose.state.nm.us/Pub/Brochures/htx_lo_res.pdf. Used with permission. Document Analysis Activity, p. 435: Andrew Washuta, “Marketing Proposal Presentation,” May 21, 2013. Copyright © 2013 by Andrew Washuta. Used with permission. Figure 17.5, p. 465: Employee’s Accident Report Form from University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill. Used with permission. Figure 19.2, p. 528: Excerpt from IEEE, “Information for IEEE Transactions, Journals, and Letters Author,” p. 4. Used with permission. In-text excerpt, pp. 542–43: From High-Tech Vehicle Safety Systems. Used with permission from Canadian Association of Road Safety Professionals. Figure 20.5, p. 553: “How Solar Works” from Vanguard Energy Partners. Used with permission. Figure 20.6, p. 554: “Hybrids Under the Hood (Part 2): Drivetrains” from Union of Concerned Scientists. www.ucsusa.org. Reprinted by Permission. Figure 20.13, p. 570: “Prepare to Install the Range” from General Electric, Installation Instructions: Free-Standing Electric Ranges (Manual 229C4053P545-1 31-10556-1 04-03 JR). Used with permission. Figure 20.16, p. 572: Excerpts from a thread in a customer-support forum from http://forum.support.xerox.com/t5/Printing/TIFF-files/td-p/21986. Used with permission. Preface for Instructors AS A LONG-TIME USER and admirer of Mike Markel’s Technical Communication, I’m excited to take on the role of coauthor in this new edition. I’ve known Mike for over two decades and have used his textbook with hundreds of technical-communication students and with instructors training to teach the course. Students have always appreciated the rhetorically informed approaches to producing workplace documents; the framing discussions for those approaches, which elaborate organizational and cultural contexts; the instructive examples and activities; and the attention to changes in the field, with updates that are not merely trendy or limited to the immediate moment. From edition to edition, Technical Communication has helped my students learn to solve problems in ways that are useful over the long run. Instructors, in addition, have always appreciated how the textbook anchors learning to genuine tasks in realistic situations, how it foregrounds the richness and complexity of human communication, and how it helps them to keep up with the field. Instructors are also students of technical communication. What encouraged me to want to work on this textbook? Technical communication, the practice, continues to be vital to workplace success, and Technical Communication, the textbook, addresses success in all of its manifestations. It’s one thing to learn to be effective in basic transactional situations — for example, situations that call for a simple website or memo — and quite another to be effective in more complex circumstances in which the stakes are high for organizations, audiences, and communities. Successful technical communicators are well-rounded communicators who produce documents that are both useful and professionally responsible. They deliver on their obligations to employers but also are vocal advocates for those who use documents and for the communities affected by those documents. Furthermore, successful technical communicators abide by the ethical guidelines of professional societies and feel an obligation to share knowledge and expertise. Technical Communication accounts for the full range of considerations in a communication situation and presents their complexities in understandable and actionable terms. My hope as a coauthor is to continue to advance this fundamental goal as the landscape for technical communication, the practice, continues to evolve and expand. We have revised this new edition of Technical Communication to give students even more support for navigating that changing landscape. The practice of technical communication, in fact, has never been more dynamic or complex. Today’s professionals face an ever-increasing set of challenges in the development of documents, from analyzing global audiences to selecting media for document delivery. This book will help prepare students to address such challenges — in their courses and in their careers. New to This Edition The Twelfth Edition revisits many of the book’s core features in the context of today’s work environment. Chapter 1 sets the stage for the text’s focus by expanding the discussion of the context of technical communication, including factors such as audience, purpose, setting, and process. The chapter on writing technical documents also addresses issues related to setting and process and asks students to analyze those factors during planning activities, to help clarify a writing situation. We’ve revised the Tech Tips throughout the book to explicitly connect the why and the how of using technology to create technical communication. Previous editions focused on how to do things with technology, such as how to use style sheets in a word-processing program or how to create screen shots and then insert them in a document. We’ve updated the how-to procedures where necessary and added rationale, to bridge research and practice at the level of document production. The goal is to encourage students to think a bit more conceptually about software features, which should ease the transition to updates and to new writing and communication platforms. The chapters on ethical and legal considerations, designing print and online documents, and making oral presentations all include new discussions of accessibility. Accessibility can no longer be considered an optional feature of technical communication — a feature that’s good to have if there’s time in the development schedule. We want students to think about accessibility as an important aspect of technical communication and to adopt the working principle that documents that are accessible to readers with disabilities are easier for everyone to use. The chapter on communicating persuasively includes a new discussion of the persuasive dimensions of visuals and explains the role of visuals as evidence in technical communication and as document elements that can make information easier for audiences to understand. We have also revised the chapter on usability to help students think through the challenges of evaluating and testing documents. The approaches to usability, in fact, are organized from the least to the most involved, helping students to see how contexts change as technical communication moves from controlled to natural settings. Updated examples, both in the print text and in LaunchPad, provide opportunities for students to analyze the types of documents they’ll need to produce or contribute to, such as a video-based tutorial about safe-injection practices in health-care contexts and a graphic image of the layers of roof components in an architectural guide for builders and homeowners. And updated activities provide opportunities for students to practice the types of tasks they’ll need to engage in and accomplish, such as evaluating information from Internet sources and designing document pages. The following table describes the updates made to each chapter in the Twelfth Edition. In addition, each chapter contains updated examples and sample documents not noted here. The icon indicates new resources in LaunchPad (see p. i). CHAPTER Chapter 1 Introduction to Technical Communication WHAT’S NEW New visual examples of how technical communication addresses purpose Updated information about the importance of communication skills to employers New discussion of setting and process in the context of producing technical communication Guidelines: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents Guidelines: Communicating Professionally Document Analysis Activity: Analyzing a Technical Document (“Physical Activity Builds a Healthy and Strong America”) Chapter 2 New discussion of accessibility standards Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations Chapter 3 Writing Technical Documents New advice for analyzing setting and process as part of planning Tech Tip: Why and How To Modify Templates Tech Tip: Why and How To Use the Styles Group Guidelines: Revising the Draft Guidelines: Editing the Draft Chapter 4 Writing Collaboratively Tech Tip: Why and How To Use Reviewing Tools Chapter 6 Researching Your Subject Streamlined and updated coverage of the research process, research tools, and types of sources Guidelines: Planning for the Research Process Guidelines: Researching a Topic Tech Tip: Why and How To Use Social Media in Research Document Analysis Activity: Evaluating Information from Internet Sources (“High Fructose Corn Syrup: Myths vs. Facts”) Chapter 7 Organizing Your Information Chapter 8 Communicating Persuasively Combined LearningCurve activity for Chapters 5–7 New discussion of using visuals to supply technical information as evidence New advice on using visuals as persuasive elements Ethics Note: Using Digital Enhancement Tools Responsibly Case: Analyzing the Persuasiveness of a Poster Chapter 10 Writing Correct and Effective Tech Tip: Why and How To Customize Grammar-Checker Features Sentences Chapter 11 Designing Print and Online Documents Combined LearningCurve activity for Chapters 8–10 Tech Tip: Why and How To Set Up Pages Tech Tip: Why and How To Format Columns Tech Tip: Why and How To Create Borders and Screens Tech Tip: Why and How To Create Text Boxes Document Analysis Activity: Analyzing Page Designs New discussion of accessibility as it relates to online documents Guidelines: Designing Accessible Websites Chapter 12 Creating Graphics Tech Tip: Why and How To Insert and Modify Graphics Tech Tip: Why and How To Create Tables, Charts, and Other Graphics Tech Tip: Why and How To Create and Insert Screen Shots Chapter 13 Evaluating and Testing Technical Documents New chapter includes advice for planning usability studies, conducting guided evaluations, testing documents in a controlled setting, testing documents in context, monitoring documents remotely, and interpreting and reporting findings Guidelines: Preparing for a Usability Test Case: Evaluating a Technical Document Chapter 14 Corresponding in Print and Online Updated advice about sending letters and memos as email attachments Tech Tip: Why and How To Use Email for Business Correspondence Chapter 16 Writing Proposals Tech Tip: Why and How To Create a Gantt Chart Case: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal Chapter 17 Writing Informational Case: Writing a Directive Reports Chapter 18 Writing Recommendation Reports Chapter 20 Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions Chapter 21 Making Oral Presentations Tech Tip: Why and How To Make a Long Report Navigable Document Analysis Activity: Recommendations Presented in a Video (“Check Your Steps! Make Every Injection Safe”) Focus on Process: Definitions Focus on Process: Descriptions Focus on Process: Instructions Focus on Process: Oral Presentations New advice about considering setting as part of the speaking situation Tech Tip: Why and How To Create a Presentation Template Tech Tip: Why and How To Set List Items To Appear and Dim During a Presentation New advice about considering matters of accessibility for presentations Appendix Reference Handbook New advice on using the 2016 MLA guidelines for documenting sources Acknowledgments The Twelfth Edition of Technical Communication has benefited greatly from the perceptive observations and helpful suggestions of our fellow instructors throughout the country. We thank Osen Bowser, Central Piedmont Community College; Pennie Boyett, Tarrant County College; Patricia Cady, Washington State University; Elijah Coleman, Washington State University; Tracy Dalton, Missouri State University; Joe Davis, North Iowa Area Community College; Paul Dombrowski, University of Central Florida; Rebekah Fitzsimmons, Georgia Institute of Technology; Meghan Griffin, Daytona State College; J Paul Johnson, Winona State University; Jennifer Laufenberg, Bossier Parish Community College; Cedar Lowe, Macomb Community College; David McMurrey, Austin Community College; Amanda Olson, University of Maryland, College Park; Candace Orsetti, University of Maryland, College Park; Leslie Patching, Everett Community College; Kirk Perry, Portland Community College; Sally Schutz, Texas A&M University; Julia Smith, Georgia Institute of Technology; Karen Solliday, Gateway Technical College; Robert Taber, University of Florida; Michael Thompson, North Iowa Area Community College; Valerie Turner, Missouri State University; and several anonymous reviewers. We also wish to thank Emma J. Rose, University of Washington–Tacoma, for reviewing our coverage of usability testing and providing helpful suggestions. We have been fortunate, too, to work with a terrific team at Bedford/St. Martin’s. Leasa Burton and Molly Parke assembled the first-class team that has worked so hard on this edition, including Andrea Cava, Michelle McSweeney, Carrie Thompson, Cara Kaufman, Quica Ostrander, and Sally Lifland. For us, Bedford/St. Martin’s continues to exemplify the highest standards of professionalism in publishing. The people there have been endlessly encouraging and helpful. We hope they realize the value of their contributions to this book. Mike’s greatest debt is, as always, to his wife, Rita, who, over the course of many years and twelve editions, has helped him say what he means. Stuart would like to thank his family, Kate Latterell and Avery and Griffin Selber, for their ongoing support and encouragement. A Final Word We are more aware than ever before of how much we learn from our students, our fellow instructors, and our colleagues in industry and academia. If you have comments or suggestions for making this a better book, please contact us through the publisher. We hope to hear from you. Mike Markel and Stuart A. Selber We’re all in. As always. Bedford/St. Martin’s is as passionately committed to the discipline of English as ever, working hard to provide support and services that make it easier for you to teach your course your way. Find community support at the Bedford/St. Martin’s English Community (community.macmillan.com), where you can follow our Bits blog for new teaching ideas, download titles from our professional resource series, and review projects in the pipeline. Choose curriculum solutions that offer flexible custom options, combining our carefully developed print and digital resources, acclaimed works from Macmillan’s trade imprints, and your own course or program materials to provide the exact resources your students need. Rely on outstanding service from your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative and editorial team. Contact us or visit macmillanlearning.com to learn more about any of the options below. LaunchPad for Technical Communication: Where Students Learn LaunchPad provides engaging content and new ways to get the most out of your book. Get an interactive e-Book combined with assessment tools in a fully customizable course space; then assign and mix our resources with yours. Cases for every chapter give students the opportunity to practice their skills in context. Students can familiarize themselves with the case scenario, then download and work with related documents to complete their assignment. Multimedia Document Analysis Activities help students analyze multimedia documents such as an online portfolio, interactive graphics, a report presented as a website, and instructions presented through video and screen capture. LearningCurve is an adaptive, game-like quizzing program that helps students master comprehension and application of the course material. Three LearningCurve activities cover technical communication topics from the first three parts of the book, and 40 additional LearningCurve activities cover general writing topics of persuasion, grammar, and style, including key topics for multilingual writers. Pre-built units are easy to adapt and assign by adding your own materials and mixing them with our high-quality multimedia content and ready-made assessment options, such as LearningCurve adaptive quizzing, Test Bank quizzes, Tutorials, Additional Exercises and Cases, and more. Two supplemental e-Books are included in LaunchPad: Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger, and Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe. Use LaunchPad on its own or integrate it with your school’s learning management system so that your class is always on the same page. For a complete listing of LaunchPad content, see the first two pages of this book. LaunchPad for Technical Communication can be purchased on its own or packaged with the print book at a significant discount. An activation code is required. To order LaunchPad for Technical Communication with the print book, use ISBN 978-1-319-15338-0. For more information, go to launchpadworks.com. Choose from Alternative Formats of Technical Communication Bedford/St. Martin’s offers a range of formats. Choose what works best for you and your students: Paperback To order the paperback edition, use ISBN 978-1-319-05861-6. Popular e-Book formats For details of our e-Book partners, visit macmillanlearning.com/ebooks. Select Value Packages Add value to your text by packaging one of the following resources with Technical Communication. Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger (Boise State University), offers realistic writing tasks based on seven context-rich scenarios, with more than 50 examples of documents that students are likely to encounter in the workplace. To order the print book packaged with Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, contact your sales representative. Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe (Carnegie Mellon University), is a print supplement with online videos that provides guidelines and examples of collaborating to manage written projects by documenting tasks, deadlines, and team goals. Two- to five-minute videos corresponding with the chapters in Team Writing give students the opportunity to analyze team interactions and learn about communication styles. Practical troubleshooting tips show students how best to handle various types of conflicts within peer groups. To order the print book packaged with Team Writing, contact your sales representative. Instructor Resources You have a lot to do in your course. We want to make it easy for you to find the support you need — and to get it quickly. Instructor’s Resource Manual for Technical Communication, Twelfth Edition, is available as a PDF that can be downloaded from macmillanlearning.com. Visit the instructor resources tab for Technical Communication. In addition to chapter overviews and teaching tips, the instructor’s manual includes sample syllabi, essays on teaching the techcomm course, and suggested responses to all of the Document Analysis Activities, Exercises, and Cases. Computerized Test Bank for Technical Communication, Twelfth Edition, offers a convenient way to provide additional assessment to students and is available for download from macmillanlearning.com. Instructors using LaunchPad will find the test bank material there, where they can add pre-built quizzes to any unit or build their own tests from the test bank questions. Lecture slides are available to download and adapt for each chapter. Introduction for Writers THE TWELFTH EDITION of Technical Communication offers a wealth of support to help you complete your technical communication projects. For quick reference, many of these features are indexed on the last book page and inside back cover of this book. Annotated Examples make it easier for you to learn from the many model documents, illustrations, and screen shots throughout the text. Tech Tips explain why and how to use widely available digital tools for common writing tasks such as collaborating on documents, inserting graphics, and formatting documents. Document Analysis Activities in every chapter prompt you to apply what you have just read as you analyze a real business or technical document. Cases for every chapter present real-world writing scenarios built around common workplace documents that you can download, critique, and revise. Guidelines boxes throughout the book summarize crucial information and provide strategies related to key topics. Focus on Process boxes point out key steps in the process of writing different kinds of technical documents. Ethics Notes in every chapter remind you to think about the ethical implications of your writing and communication choices, encouraging the highest standards of professionalism. Writer’s Checklists at the end of most chapters summarize important concepts and act as handy reminders as you draft and revise your work. Brief Contents Preface for Instructors Introduction for Writers Part 1 Understanding the Technical Communication Environment 1 2 3 4 Introduction to Technical Communication Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations Writing Technical Documents Writing Collaboratively Part 2 Planning the Document 5 Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose 6 Researching Your Subject 7 Organizing Your Information Part 3 Developing and Testing the Verbal and Visual Information 8 9 10 11 12 13 Communicating Persuasively Emphasizing Important Information Writing Correct and Effective Sentences Designing Print and Online Documents Creating Graphics Evaluating and Testing Technical Documents Part 4 Learning Important Applications 14 Corresponding in Print and Online 15 Applying for a Job 16 17 18 19 20 21 Writing Proposals Writing Informational Reports Writing Recommendation Reports Writing Lab Reports Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions Making Oral Presentations APPENDIX Reference Handbook A B C D Skimming Your Sources and Taking Notes Documenting Your Sources Editing and Proofreading Your Documents Guidelines for Multilingual Writers (ESL) Selected Bibliography References Index Index of Selected Features Contents Preface for Instructors Introduction for Writers Part 1 Understanding the Technical Communication Environment 1 Introduction to Technical Communication What Is Technical Communication? UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE Why Technical Communication Skills Are Important in Your Career The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS SETTING-RELATED FACTORS DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS Characteristics of a Technical Document ■ GUIDELINES: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing a Technical Document Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators ■ GUIDELINES: Communicating Professionally EXERCISES CASE 1: USING THE MEASURES OF EXCELLENCE IN EVALUATING A RÉSUMÉ 2 Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations A Brief Introduction to Ethics Your Ethical Obligations OBLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER OBLIGATIONS TO THE PUBLIC OBLIGATIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Your Legal Obligations COPYRIGHT LAW ■ GUIDELINES: Determining Fair Use ■ GUIDELINES: Dealing with Copyright Questions ■ ETHICS NOTE: Distinguishing Plagiarism from Acceptable Reuse of Information TRADEMARK LAW ■ GUIDELINES: Protecting Trademarks CONTRACT LAW LIABILITY LAW ■ GUIDELINES: Abiding by Liability Laws The Role of Corporate Culture in Ethical and Legal Conduct Understanding Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Social Media ■ GUIDELINES: Using Social Media Ethically and Legally ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Presenting Guidelines for Using Social Media Communicating Ethically Across Cultures COMMUNICATING WITH CULTURES WITH DIFFERENT ETHICAL BELIEFS COMMUNICATING IN COUNTRIES WITH DIFFERENT LAWS Principles for Ethical Communication ABIDE BY RELEVANT LAWS COMPLY WITH ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS ABIDE BY THE APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL CODE OF CONDUCT ABIDE BY YOUR ORGANIZATION’S POLICY ON SOCIAL MEDIA TAKE ADVANTAGE OF YOUR EMPLOYER’S ETHICS RESOURCES TELL THE TRUTH DON’T MISLEAD YOUR READERS USE DESIGN TO HIGHLIGHT IMPORTANT ETHICAL AND LEGAL INFORMATION BE CLEAR AVOID DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE ACKNOWLEDGE ASSISTANCE FROM OTHERS WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a PlagiarismDetection Service 3 Writing Technical Documents Planning CONSIDERING YOUR WRITING SITUATION TUTORIAL: Cross-Platform Word Processing with CloudOn, Quip, and More GENERATING IDEAS ABOUT YOUR SUBJECT RESEARCHING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION DEVISING A SCHEDULE AND A BUDGET Drafting ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING YOUR DOCUMENT TUTORIAL: Creating Outlines USING TEMPLATES ■ GUIDELINES: Drafting Effectively ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Modify Templates ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Identifying the Strengths and Weaknesses of a Commercial Template USING STYLES ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use the Styles Group TUTORIAL: Creating Styles and Templates Revising STUDYING THE DRAFT BY YOURSELF ■ GUIDELINES: Revising the Draft SEEKING HELP FROM OTHERS ■ ETHICS NOTE: Acknowledging Reviewers Responsibly Editing ■ GUIDELINES: Editing the Draft Proofreading WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 3: Understanding Why Revision Software Cannot Revise and Edit Your Document 4 Writing Collaboratively Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration ADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATION DISADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATION Managing Projects ■ GUIDELINES: Managing Your Project Conducting Meetings TUTORIAL: Scheduling Meetings Online LISTENING EFFECTIVELY ■ GUIDELINES: Listening Effectively SETTING YOUR TEAM’S AGENDA ■ GUIDELINES: Setting Your Team’s Agenda DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Work-Schedule Form DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Team-Member Evaluation Form DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Self-Evaluation Form ■ ETHICS NOTE: Pulling Your Weight on Collaborative Projects CONDUCTING EFFICIENT MEETINGS COMMUNICATING DIPLOMATICALLY CRITIQUING A TEAM MEMBER’S WORK ■ GUIDELINES: Communicating Diplomatically ■ GUIDELINES: Critiquing a Colleague’s Work ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Critiquing a Draft Clearly and Diplomatically ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use Reviewing Tools Using Social Media and Other Electronic Tools in Collaboration WORD-PROCESSING TOOLS TUTORIAL: Reviewing Collaborative Documents TUTORIAL: Incorporating Tracked Changes MESSAGING TECHNOLOGIES VIDEOCONFERENCING TUTORIAL: Conducting Online Meetings ■ GUIDELINES: Participating in a Videoconference WIKIS AND SHARED DOCUMENT WORKSPACES TUTORIAL: Using Wikis for Collaborative Work TUTORIAL: Using Collaborative Software VIRTUAL WORLDS ■ ETHICS NOTE: Maintaining a Professional Presence Online Gender and Collaboration Culture and Collaboration WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES LEARNINGCURVE: Understanding the Technical Communication Environment (Chs. 1–4) CASE 4: Accommodating a Team Member’s Scheduling Problems Part 2 Planning the Document 5 Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose Understanding Audience and Purpose Using an Audience Profile Sheet DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Audience Profile Sheet Determining the Important Characteristics of Your Audience WHO ARE YOUR READERS? WHY IS YOUR AUDIENCE READING YOUR DOCUMENT? WHAT ARE YOUR READERS’ ATTITUDES AND EXPECTATIONS? HOW WILL YOUR READERS USE YOUR DOCUMENT? Techniques for Learning About Your Audience DETERMINING WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW ABOUT YOUR AUDIENCE INTERVIEWING PEOPLE READING ABOUT YOUR AUDIENCE ONLINE SEARCHING SOCIAL MEDIA FOR DOCUMENTS YOUR AUDIENCE HAS WRITTEN ANALYZING SOCIAL-MEDIA DATA Communicating Across Cultures UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURAL VARIABLES “ON THE SURFACE” UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURAL VARIABLES “BENEATH THE SURFACE” CONSIDERING CULTURAL VARIABLES AS YOU WRITE ■ GUIDELINES: Writing for Readers from Other Cultures ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Examining Cultural Variables in a Business Letter USING GRAPHICS AND DESIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL READERS Applying What You Have Learned About Your Audience ■ ETHICS NOTE: Meeting Your Readers’ Needs Responsibly Writing for Multiple Audiences Determining Your Purpose Gaining Management’s Approval Revising Information for a New Audience and Purpose WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 5: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and Interests 6 Researching Your Subject Understanding the Research Process ■ GUIDELINES: Planning for the Research Process ■ GUIDELINES: Researching a Topic Choosing Appropriate Research Methods Conducting Secondary Research UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH TOOLS TYPES OF SECONDARY Research SOURCES USING SOCIAL MEDIA AND OTHER INTERACTIVE RESOURCES TUTORIAL: Tracking Sources with Evernote and Zotero ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use Social Media in Research EVALUATING THE INFORMATION ■ GUIDELINES: Evaluating Print and Online Sources Conducting Primary Research ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL-MEDIA DATA ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Evaluating Information from Internet Sources OBSERVATIONS AND DEMONSTRATIONS INSPECTIONS EXPERIMENTS FIELD RESEARCH INTERVIEWS ■ GUIDELINES: Conducting an Interview INQUIRIES QUESTIONNAIRES ■ ETHICS NOTE: Reporting and Analyzing Data Honestly WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 6: Revising a Questionnaire 7 Organizing Your Information Understanding Three Principles for Organizing Technical Information ANALYZING YOUR AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE USING CONVENTIONAL PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION DISPLAYING YOUR ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN PROMINENTLY Understanding Conventional Organizational Patterns CHRONOLOGICAL ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information Chronologically SPATIAL ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information Spatially GENERAL TO SPECIFIC ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information from General to Specific MORE IMPORTANT TO LESS IMPORTANT ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information from More Important to Less Important COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Comparison and Contrast ■ ETHICS NOTE: Comparing and Contrasting Fairly CLASSIFICATION OR PARTITION ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Classification or Partition PROBLEM-METHODS-SOLUTION ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Problem-Methods-Solution CAUSE AND EFFECT ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Cause and Effect ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Using Multiple Organizational Patterns in an Infographic WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES LEARNINGCURVE: Planning the Document (Chs. 5–7) CASE 7: Organizing a Document for Clarity — and Diplomacy Part 3 Developing and Testing the Verbal and Visual Information 8 Communicating Persuasively Considering the Context of Your Argument UNDERSTANDING YOUR AUDIENCE’S BROADER GOALS WORKING WITHIN CONSTRAINTS Crafting a Persuasive Argument IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS OF YOUR ARGUMENT CONSIDERING OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS USING THE RIGHT KINDS OF EVIDENCE USING VISUALS AS PERSUASIVE ELEMENTS ■ ETHICS NOTE: Using Digital Enhancement Tools Responsibly APPEALING TO EMOTIONS RESPONSIBLY DECIDING WHERE TO PRESENT THE CLAIM ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing Evidence in an Argument UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN PERSUASION Avoiding Logical Fallacies Presenting Yourself Effectively ■ GUIDELINES: Creating a Professional Persona ■ ETHICS NOTE: Seeming Honest Versus Being Honest in Persuasive Writing WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 8: Analyzing the Persuasiveness of a Poster 9 Emphasizing Important Information Writing Clear, Informative Titles Writing Clear, Informative Headings ■ GUIDELINES: Revising Headings Writing Clear, Informative Lists WRITE EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH LISTS WRITE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE LISTS ■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Lists Writing Clear, Informative Paragraphs STRUCTURE PARAGRAPHS CLEARLY ■ ETHICS NOTE: Avoiding Burying Bad News in Paragraphs ■ GUIDELINES: Dividing Long Paragraphs USE COHERENCE DEVICES WITHIN AND BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Identifying the Elements of a Coherent Paragraph WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 9: Emphasizing Important Information in a Technical Description 10 Writing Correct and Effective Sentences Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences AVOID SENTENCE FRAGMENTS AVOID COMMA SPLICES AVOID RUN-ON SENTENCES AVOID AMBIGUOUS PRONOUN REFERENCES COMPARE ITEMS CLEARLY USE ADJECTIVES CLEARLY MAINTAIN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT MAINTAIN PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT USE TENSES CORRECTLY Structuring Effective Sentences EMPHASIZE NEW AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE SENTENCE LENGTH FOCUS ON THE “REAL” SUBJECT FOCUS ON THE “REAL” VERB USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE USE MODIFIERS EFFECTIVELY Choosing the Right Words and Phrases SELECT AN APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF FORMALITY BE CLEAR ■ ETHICS NOTE: Euphemisms and Truth Telling BE CONCISE ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Revising for Conciseness and Simplicity USE INOFFENSIVE LANGUAGE ■ GUIDELINES: Avoiding Sexist Language ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Customize Grammar-Checker Features ■ GUIDELINES: Using the People-First Approach Understanding Simplified English for Nonnative Speakers Preparing Text for Translation WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES LEARNINGCURVE: Persuasion, Emphasis, and Effective Sentences (Chs. 8–10) CASE 10: Revising a Document for Nonnative Speakers and for Translation 11 Designing Print and Online Documents Goals of Document Design Understanding Design Principles TUTORIAL: Proofreading for Format Consistency Planning Your Design ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE DETERMINE YOUR RESOURCES Designing Print Documents SIZE PAPER BINDINGS NAVIGATIONAL AIDS ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Set Up Pages Designing Print Pages PAGE LAYOUT ■ GUIDELINES: Understanding Learning Theory and Page Design ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Format Columns TYPOGRAPHY ■ ETHICS NOTE: Using Type Sizes Responsibly TITLES AND HEADINGS OTHER DESIGN FEATURES ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create Borders and Screens ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create Text Boxes Designing Online Documents USE DESIGN TO EMPHASIZE IMPORTANT INFORMATION ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing Page Designs CREATE INFORMATIVE HEADERS AND FOOTERS HELP READERS NAVIGATE THE DOCUMENT ■ GUIDELINES: Making Your Document Easy To Navigate INCLUDE EXTRA FEATURES YOUR READERS MIGHT NEED HELP READERS CONNECT WITH OTHERS CONSIDER MATTERS OF ACCESSIBILITY ■ GUIDELINES: Designing Accessible Websites DESIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL AUDIENCES ■ ETHICS NOTE: Designing Legal and Honest Online Documents Designing Online Pages AIM FOR SIMPLICITY ■ GUIDELINES: Designing a Simple Site MAKE THE TEXT EASY TO READ AND UNDERSTAND ■ GUIDELINES: Designing Easy-To-Read Text CREATE CLEAR, INFORMATIVE LINKS ■ GUIDELINES: Writing Clear, Informative Links WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 11: Designing a Flyer 12 Creating Graphics The Functions of Graphics The Characteristics of an Effective Graphic ■ ETHICS NOTE: Creating Honest Graphics ■ GUIDELINES: Integrating Graphics and Text Understanding the Process of Creating Graphics PLANNING GRAPHICS PRODUCING GRAPHICS ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Insert and Modify Graphics REVISING GRAPHICS CITING SOURCES OF GRAPHICS Using Color Effectively Choosing the Appropriate Kind of Graphic ILLUSTRATING NUMERICAL INFORMATION ■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Tables ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create Tables, Charts, and Other Graphics ■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Bar Graphs ■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Infographics ■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Line Graphs ■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Pie Charts ILLUSTRATING LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing a Graphic ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Mechanism Description Using Interactive Graphics ILLUSTRATING PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS ILLUSTRATING VISUAL AND SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS TUTORIAL: Photo Editing Basics with GIMP ■ GUIDELINES: Presenting Photographs Effectively ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create and Insert Screen Shots Creating Effective Graphics for Multicultural Readers WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 12: Creating Appropriate Graphics To Accompany a Report 13 Evaluating and Testing Technical Documents Understanding Usability Studies ASSESSING THE NEED FOR A USABILITY STUDY DETERMINING THE GOALS OF THE STUDY STUDYING EXISTING DOCUMENTS VERSUS PROTOTYPES CONSIDERING STUDY SETTINGS Conducting Guided Evaluations of Technical Documents CHOOSING DOCUMENT EVALUATORS ESTABLISHING EVALUATION GUIDELINES PREPARING MATERIALS FOR THE EVALUATION Testing Documents in a Controlled Setting PREPARING FOR THE TEST CONDUCTING THE TEST ■ GUIDELINES: Preparing for a Usability Test ■ ETHICS NOTE: Understanding the Ethics of Informed Consent ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Obtaining Informed Consent Testing Documents in Context PREPARING FOR A SITE VISIT CONDUCTING A TEST IN CONTEXT Monitoring Documents Remotely Interpreting and Reporting Your Findings WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 13: Evaluating a Technical Document Part 4 Learning Important Applications 14 Corresponding in Print and Online Understanding the Process of Writing Correspondence ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Correspondence Selecting a Type of Correspondence Presenting Yourself Effectively in Correspondence USE THE APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF FORMALITY COMMUNICATE CORRECTLY PROJECT THE “YOU ATTITUDE” AVOID CORRESPONDENCE CLICHéS COMMUNICATE HONESTLY ■ ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Business Correspondence Writing Letters ELEMENTS OF A LETTER COMMON TYPES OF LETTERS Writing Memos ■ GUIDELINES: Organizing a Memo Writing Emails ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use Email for Business Correspondence ■ GUIDELINES: Following Netiquette ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Following Netiquette in an Email Message Writing Microblogs ■ GUIDELINES: Representing Your Organization on a Microblog Writing Correspondence to Multicultural Readers WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 14: Setting Up and Maintaining a Professional Microblog Account 15 Applying for a Job Understanding the Job-Application Process Establishing Your Professional Brand ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Job-Application Materials UNDERSTANDING WHAT EMPLOYERS WANT ■ GUIDELINES: Building the Foundation of Your Professional Brand CRAFTING YOUR PROFESSIONAL BRAND ■ GUIDELINES: Presenting Your Professional Brand TUTORIAL: Building Your Professional Brand with LinkedIn, Twitter, and More ■ ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Job-Application Materials Finding the Right Position PLANNING THE JOB SEARCH UNDERSTANDING JOB-SEARCH STRATEGIES ■ GUIDELINES: Using LinkedIn’s Employment Features Writing Résumés ELEMENTS OF THE CHRONOLOGICAL RÉSUMÉ ■ GUIDELINES: Elaborating on Your Education ELEMENTS OF THE SKILLS RÉSUMÉ PREPARING A PLAIN-TEXT RÉSUMÉ ■ GUIDELINES: Formatting a Plain-Text Résumé ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Preparing a Résumé ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Blane C. Holden’s Online Portfolio Writing Job-Application Letters Preparing for a Job Interview ■ GUIDELINES: Preparing for a Job Interview Following Up After an Interview WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 15: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-Search Sites 16 Writing Proposals Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Proposals The Logistics of Proposals INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS The “Deliverables” of Proposals RESEARCH PROPOSALS GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS Persuasion and Proposals UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTS DESCRIBING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM ■ GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal ■ ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Proposals Writing a Proposal The Structure of the Proposal SUMMARY INTRODUCTION ■ GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal PROPOSED PROGRAM QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Writing the Proposed Program ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Marketing Proposal Presentation BUDGET APPENDIXES TASK SCHEDULE ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create a Gantt Chart DESCRIPTION OF EVALUATION TECHNIQUES Sample Internal Proposal WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal 17 Writing Informational Reports Understanding the Process of Writing Informational Reports ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Informational Reports Writing Directives ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Report Presented as a Website ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Report Presented Through an Interactive Graphic ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Writing a Persuasive Directive Writing Field Reports ■ GUIDELINES: Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report Writing Progress and Status Reports ■ ETHICS NOTE: Reporting Your Progress Honestly ORGANIZING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS CONCLUDING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS ■ GUIDELINES: Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status Report Sample Progress Report Writing Incident Reports Writing Meeting Minutes WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 17: Writing a Directive 18 Writing Recommendation Reports Understanding the Role of Recommendation Reports Using a Problem-Solving Model for Preparing Recommendation Reports ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Recommendation Reports IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM OR OPPORTUNITY ESTABLISH CRITERIA FOR RESPONDING TO THE PROBLEM OR OPPORTUNITY DETERMINE THE OPTIONS STUDY EACH OPTION ACCORDING TO THE CRITERIA DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT EACH OPTION FORMULATE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON THE CONCLUSIONS ■ ETHICS NOTE: Presenting Honest Recommendations Writing Recommendation Reports WRITING THE BODY OF THE REPORT ■ GUIDELINES: Writing Recommendations WRITING THE FRONT MATTER ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Make a Long Report Navigable ■ GUIDELINES: Writing an Executive Summary ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing an Executive Summary WRITING THE BACK MATTER ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Recommendations Presented in a Video Sample Recommendation Report WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 18: Analyzing Decision Matrices 19 Writing Lab Reports Persuasion and Lab Reports Understanding the Process of Writing Lab Reports Understanding the Structure of the Lab Report TITLE ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION ■ GUIDELINES: Writing Equations MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS ■ ETHICS NOTE: Presenting Data Honestly DISCUSSION CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES APPENDIXES Understanding the Role of Science and Engineering Articles ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Evaluating Lab Reports Sample Lab Report WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 19: Introducing the Scientific Method Through a Lab Report 20 Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions Writing Definitions ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Definitions ANALYZING THE WRITING SITUATION FOR DEFINITIONS DETERMINING THE KIND OF DEFINITION TO WRITE ■ GUIDELINES: Writing Effective Sentence Definitions DECIDING WHERE TO PLACE THE DEFINITION Writing Descriptions ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Descriptions ANALYZING THE WRITING SITUATION FOR DESCRIPTIONS INDICATING CLEARLY THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE DESCRIPTION INTRODUCING THE DESCRIPTION CLEARLY PROVIDING APPROPRIATE DETAIL ■ GUIDELINES: Providing Appropriate Detail in Descriptions ENDING THE DESCRIPTION WITH A BRIEF CONCLUSION A LOOK AT SEVERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS Writing Instructions ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Instructions UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEOS DESIGNING A SET OF WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS ■ GUIDELINES: Designing Clear, Attractive Pages PLANNING FOR SAFETY ■ ETHICS NOTE: Ensuring Your Readers’ Safety DRAFTING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONS ■ GUIDELINES: Drafting Introductions for Instructions ■ GUIDELINES: Drafting Steps in Instructions REVISING, EDITING, AND PROOFREADING INSTRUCTIONS A LOOK AT SEVERAL SAMPLE SETS OF INSTRUCTIONS ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Presenting Clear Instructions ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Process Description Using Video Animation ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Instructions Using Video Demonstration ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Instructions Using a Combination of Video Demonstration and Screen Capture ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Definition Using Video Animation Writing Manuals WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 20: Choosing a Medium for Presenting Instructions 21 Making Oral Presentations Understanding the Role of Oral Presentations Understanding the Process of Preparing and Delivering an Oral Presentation Preparing the Presentation ■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Oral Presentations ANALYZING THE SPEAKING SITUATION ORGANIZING AND DEVELOPING THE PRESENTATION ■ GUIDELINES: Introducing the Presentation ■ GUIDELINES: Concluding the Presentation PREPARING PRESENTATION GRAPHICS TUTORIAL: Creating Presentations with PowerPoint and Prezi TUTORIAL: Audio Recording and Editing with Audacity ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create a Presentation Template ■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Set List Items To Appear and Dim During a Presentation CHOOSING EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE ■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Integrating Graphics and Text on a Presentation Slide ■ GUIDELINES: Using Memorable Language in Oral Presentations REHEARSING THE PRESENTATION Delivering the Presentation CALMING YOUR NERVES ■ GUIDELINES: Releasing Nervous Energy USING YOUR VOICE EFFECTIVELY USING YOUR BODY EFFECTIVELY ■ GUIDELINES: Facing an Audience PRESENTING TO ALL AUDIENCES Answering Questions After a Presentation ■ ETHICS NOTE: Answering Questions Honestly Sample Evaluation Form DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Oral Presentation Evaluation Form SPEAKER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 21: Understanding the Claim-and-Support Structure for Presentation Graphics Appendix: Reference Handbook A Skimming Your Sources and Taking Notes Paraphrasing Quoting Summarizing B Documenting Your Sources APA Style TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Database in APA Style TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Website in APA Style IEEE Style MLA Style TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Book in MLA Style TUTORIAL: How To Cite an Article in MLA Style TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Website in MLA Style TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Database in MLA Style C Editing and Proofreading Your Documents Punctuation Mechanics Proofreading Symbols and Their Meanings D Guidelines for Multilingual Writers (ESL) Cultural and Stylistic Communication Issues Sentence-Level Issues Selected Bibliography References Index Index of Selected Features LaunchPad for Technical Communication Part 1 Understanding the Technical Communication Environment CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Technical Communication Chapter Introduction What Is Technical Communication? UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE Why Technical Communication Skills Are Important in Your Career The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS SETTING-RELATED FACTORS DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS Characteristics of a Technical Document ◾ GUIDELINES: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents ◾ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing a Technical Document Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators ◾ GUIDELINES: Communicating Professionally EXERCISES CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé Chapter Introduction THIS TEXTBOOK EXPLORES how people in the working world find, create, and deliver technical information. Even if you do not plan on becoming a technical communicator (a person whose main job is to produce documents such as manuals, reports, and websites), you will often find yourself creating documents on your own, participating in teams that create them, and contributing technical information to others who use and create them. The purpose of Technical Communication is to help you learn the skills you need to communicate more effectively and more efficiently in your professional life. What Is Technical Communication? Technical information is frequently communicated through documents such as proposals, emails, reports, podcasts, computer help files, blogs, and wikis. Although these documents are a key component of technical communication, so too is the process: writing and reading tweets and text messages, for example, or participating in videoconference exchanges with colleagues. Technical communication encompasses a set of activities that people do to discover, shape, and transmit information. When you produce technical communication, you use the four basic communication modes — listening, speaking, reading, and writing — to analyze a problem, find and evaluate evidence, and draw conclusions. These are the same skills and processes you use when you write in college, and the principles you have studied in your earlier writing courses apply to technical communication. The biggest difference between technical communication and the other kinds of writing you have done is that technical communication has a somewhat different focus on purpose and audience. UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE Technical communication begins with identifying a problem and thinking about how to solve it. Because of the variety of problems and solutions in the working world, people communicate technical information for a number of purposes, many of which fall into one of two categories: Communication that helps others learn about a subject, carry out a task, or make a decision. For instance, administrators with the Department of Health and Human Services might hire a media production company to make a video that explains to citizens how to use a website to manage their Medicare benefits. The president of a manufacturing company might write an article in the company newsletter to explain to employees why management decided to phase out production of one of the company’s products. The board of directors of a community-service organization might produce a grant proposal to submit to a philanthropic organization in hopes of being awarded a grant. Figure 1.1 shows a screen capture from an online video that explains how to use the Medicare website. Communication that reinforces or changes attitudes and motivates readers to take action. A wind-energy company might create a website with videos and text intended to show that building wind turbines off the coast of a tourist destination would have many benefits and few risks. A property owners’ association might create a website to make the opposite argument: that the wind turbines would have few benefits but many risks. In each of these two cases, the purpose of communicating the information is to persuade people to accept a point of view and encourage them to act — perhaps to contact their elected representatives and present their views about this public-policy issue. Figure 1.2 shows an excerpt from a website that promotes the building of wind turbines off the coast of Massachusetts. FIGURE 1.1 A Communication That Helps Others Carry Out a Task The purpose of this online video at Medicare.gov is to help members carry out the task of using the website. FIGURE 1.2 A Communication That Aims to Change Attitudes The purpose of this website, created by an energy development company, is to generate public support for an offshore wind park. UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE When you communicate in the workplace, you have not only a clear purpose — what you want to achieve — but also a clearly defined audience — one or more people who are going to read the document, attend the oral presentation, visit the website, or view the video you produce. Sometimes audience members share the same purpose, but not always. It’s possible, even likely, that a piece of technical communication will have multiple audiences with different purposes. In most of your previous academic writing, your audience has been your instructor, and your purpose has been to show your instructor that you have mastered some body of information or skill. Typically, you have not tried to create new knowledge or motivate the reader to take a particular action — except to give you an “A” for that assignment. By contrast, in technical communication, your audience will likely include peers and supervisors in your company, as well as people outside your company. For example, suppose you are a public-health scientist working for a federal agency. You and your colleagues just completed a study showing that, for most adults, moderate exercise provides as much health benefit as strenuous exercise. After participating in numerous meetings with your colleagues and after drafting, critiquing, and revising many drafts, you produce four different documents: a journal article for other scientists a press release to distribute to popular print and online publications an infographic for use in doctors’ offices an animated blog post for your agency to share on social media In each of these documents, you present the key information in a different way to meet the needs of a particular audience. Why Technical Communication Skills Are Important in Your Career Many college students believe that the most important courses they take are those in their major. Some biology majors think, for example, that if they just take that advanced course in genetic analysis, employers will conclude that they are prepared to do more advanced projects and therefore will hire them. But knowledge in a particular field is not the only thing employers are looking for. It’s not even the most important skill or ability. Surveys over the past three or four decades have shown consistently that employers want to hire people who can communicate. Look at it this way: when employers hire a biologist, they want a person who can communicate effectively about biology. When they hire a civil engineer, they want a person who can communicate about civil engineering. A 2012 survey by Millennial Branding, a research and management consulting firm that helps companies find and train Generation Y employees, sifted through data from more than 100,000 U.S. companies. The results showed that 98 percent of those companies named communication skills as extremely important for new employees (Millennial Branding, 2012). The next two most important characteristics? Having a positive attitude (97 percent) and teamwork skills (92 percent). Job Outlook 2013, a report produced by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, found that communication skills, teamwork skills, and problem-solving skills top the list of skills and qualities that employers seek. The report’s main conclusion: “the ideal candidate is a good communicator who can make decisions and solve problems while working effectively in a team” (National Association, 2012, p. 31). On a 5-point scale, where 5 equals “extremely important,” here are the top ten skills and qualities, according to employers, and the scores they earned: SKILL OR ABILITY SCORE Ability to verbally communicate with persons inside and outside the organization 4.63 Ability to work in a team structure 4.60 Ability to make decisions and solve problems 4.51 Ability to plan, organize, and prioritize work 4.46 Ability to obtain and process information 4.43 Ability to analyze quantitative data 4.30 Technical knowledge related to the job 3.99 Proficiency with computer software programs 3.95 Ability to create and/or edit written reports 3.56 Ability to sell or influence others 3.55 Most of these skills relate to the technical communication process introduced in this chapter and described in greater detail throughout the book. A study of more than 400 employers suggests that technical communication is even more important for professionals now than it ever has been in the past (Hart Research Associates, 2015, pp. 1–4). Over 80 percent of the employers surveyed said that their top priority in hiring new employees is finding people with excellent writing, speaking, and problem-solving skills. They also emphasized the ability to work in groups and make ethical decisions. Some reports estimate that, in the aggregate, companies spend over three billion dollars annually to train employees to write (College Entrance Examination Board, 2004, p. 29). Would companies rather not have to spend that money? Yes. You’re going to be producing and contributing to a lot of technical documents. The facts of life in the working world are simple: the better you communicate, the more valuable you are. This textbook can help you learn and practice the skills that will make you a better communicator. The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication One of the most challenging activities you will engage in as a professional is communicating your ideas to audiences. Why? Because communication is a higher-order skill that involves many complex factors. The good news is that there are ways to think about these complex factors, to think through them, that will help you communicate better. No matter what document you produce or contribute to, you need to begin by considering five sets of factors. AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS What problem or problems is your audience trying to solve? Does your audience know enough about your subject to understand a detailed discussion, or do you need to limit the scope, the amount of technical detail, or the type of graphics you use? Does your audience already have certain attitudes or expectations about your subject that you wish to reinforce or change? Does your audience speak English well, or should you present the information in more than one language? Does your audience share your cultural assumptions about such matters as how to organize and interpret documents, or do you need to adjust your writing approach to match a different set of assumptions? Does your audience include people with disabilities (of vision, hearing, movement, or cognitive ability) who have requirements you need to meet? PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS Before you can write, you need to determine your purpose: what do you want your audience to know or believe or do after having read your document? Do you have multiple purposes? If so, is one more important than the others? Although much technical communication is intended to help people perform tasks, such as configuring privacy settings in a social-media environment, many organizations large and small devote significant communication resources to the increasingly vital purpose of branding: creating an image that helps customers distinguish the company from competitors. Most companies now employ community specialists as technical communicators to coordinate the organization’s day-to-day online presence and its social-media campaigns. These specialists publicize new products and initiatives and respond to questions and new developments. They also manage all of the organization’s documents — from tweets to blog posts to Facebook fan pages and company-sponsored discussion forums. SETTING-RELATED FACTORS What is the situation surrounding the problem you are trying to solve? Is there a lot at stake in the situation, such as the budget for a project, or is your document a more routine communication, such as technical notes for a software update? What is the context in which your audience will use your document? Will the ways in which they use it — or the physical or digital environment in which they use it — affect how you write? Will the document be used in a socially or politically charged setting? Does the setting include established norms of ethical behavior? Is the setting formal or informal? Settings can have a great deal of influence over how audiences think about and use technical communication. DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS What type of content will the document include? How will the content aid problem solving? Does your subject dictate what kind of document (such as a report or a blog post) you choose to write? Does your subject dictate what medium (print or digital) you choose for your document? Do you need to provide audiences with content in more than one medium? If you’re using a document template, how should you modify it for your audiences and purposes? Does the application call for a particular writing style or level of formality? (For the sake of convenience, we will use the word document throughout this book to refer to all forms of technical communication, from written documents to oral presentations and online forms, such as podcasts and wikis.) PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS What process will you use to produce the document? Is there an established process to support the work, or do you need to create a new one? Do you have sufficient time for planning tasks, such as analyzing your audience and purpose, choosing writing tools, and researching and reading background information? Does your budget limit the number of people you can enlist to help you or limit the size or shape of the document? Does your schedule limit how much information you can include in the document? Does your schedule limit the type or amount of document testing you can do? Will the document require updating or maintenance? Because all these factors interact in complicated ways, every technical document you create involves a compromise. If you are writing a set of instructions for installing a water heater and you want those instructions to be easily understood by people who speak only Spanish, you will need more time and a bigger budget to have the document translated, and it will be longer and thus a little bit harder to use, for both English and Spanish speakers. You might need to save money by using smaller type, smaller pages, and cheaper paper, and you might not be able to afford to print it in full color. In technical communication, you do the best you can with your resources of time, information, and money. The more carefully you think through your options, the better able you will be to use your resources wisely and make a document that will get the job done. Characteristics of a Technical Document Technical communication shares certain general characteristics with other types of communication. For example, both technical communication and journalism report data and information in an organized and efficient manner. Technical communication, however, isn’t journalism or investigative reporting. It’s communication produced in workplace settings to help people in both professional and personal contexts accomplish tasks. Almost every technical document that gets the job done has six major characteristics: It addresses particular readers. Knowing who the readers are, what they understand about the subject, how well they speak English, and how they will use the document will help you decide what kind of document to write, how to structure it, how much detail to include, and what sentence style and vocabulary to use. It helps readers solve problems. For instance, you might produce a video that explains to your company’s employees how to select their employee benefits, or you might write a document spelling out the company’s policy on using social media in the workplace. It reflects the organization’s goals and culture. For example, a state government department that oversees vocational-education programs submits an annual report to the state legislature in an effort to secure continued funding, as well as a lot of technical information to the public in an effort to educate its audience. Although the connection may not be obvious, technical documents also reflect the organization’s culture. For example, many organizations encourage their employees to blog about their areas of expertise to create a positive image of the organization. It is produced collaboratively. No one person has all the information, skills, or time needed to create a large document. You will work with subject-matter experts — the various technical professionals — to create a better document than you could have made working alone. You will routinely post questions to networks of friends and associates — both inside and outside your own organization — to get answers to technical questions. It uses design to increase readability. Technical communicators use design features — such as typography, spacing, and color — to make a document not only more attractive but also more usable, so that it creates a positive impression and is easy to navigate and understand. It consists of words or images or both. Images — both static and moving — can make a document more interesting and appealing to readers and can help the writer communicate and reinforce difficult concepts, communicate instructions and descriptions of objects and processes, communicate large amounts of quantifiable data, and communicate with nonnative speakers. Although most technical documents share the characteristics listed above, their quality can vary widely. How can you recognize a well-made document? Consider the characteristics described in the Guidelines box on page 11. GUIDELINES: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents Nine characteristics distinguish excellent technical documents: Honesty. The most important measure of excellence in a technical document is honesty. You need to tell the truth and not mislead the reader, not only because it is the right thing to do but also because readers can get hurt if you are dishonest. Finally, if you are dishonest, you and your organization could face serious legal charges. If a court finds that your document’s failure to provide honest, appropriate information caused a substantial injury or loss, your organization might have to pay millions of dollars. Clarity. Your goal is to produce a document that conveys a single meaning the reader can understand easily. An unclear technical document can be dangerous. A carelessly drafted building code, for example, could tempt contractors to use inferior materials or techniques. In addition, an unclear technical document is expensive. Handling a telephone call to a customersupport center costs $5–$10 for a simple question but about $20–$45 for a more complicated problem — and about a third of the calls are the more expensive kind (Carlaw, 2010). Clear technical communication in a product’s documentation (its user instructions) can greatly reduce the number and length of such calls. Accuracy. A slight inaccuracy can confuse and annoy your readers; a major inaccuracy can be dangerous and expensive. In another sense, accuracy is a question of ethics. Technical documents must be as objective and unbiased as you can make them. If readers suspect that you are slanting information — by overstating or omitting facts — they will doubt the validity of the entire document. Comprehensiveness. A good technical document provides all the information readers need. It describes the background so that readers unfamiliar with the subject can understand it. It contains sufficient detail so that readers can follow the discussion and carry out any required tasks. It refers to supporting materials clearly or includes them as attachments. A comprehensive document provides readers with a complete, selfcontained discussion that enables them to use the information safely, effectively, and efficiently. Accessibility. A good technical document can be accessed and used by people with varying physical abilities. Although accessibility is important in all documents, it is of particular concern with online materials. For example, instructional videos should include closed-captioning for the visually impaired. Documents designed with accessibility in mind tend to function better for everyone. For more about designing accessible documents, see Chapter 11, pages 281–84. Usability. In technical communication, usability measures how successfully a document achieves its purposes and meets its audience’s needs. For more about testing for usability, see Chapter 13. Conciseness. A document must be concise enough to be useful to a busy reader. You can shorten most writing by 10 to 20 percent simply by eliminating unnecessary phrases, choosing shorter words, and using economical grammatical forms. Your job is to figure out how to convey a lot of information economically. Professional appearance. You start to communicate before anyone reads the first word of the document. If the document looks neat and professional, readers will form a positive impression of it and of you. Your document should adhere to the format standards of your organization or your professional field, and it should be well designed. For example, a letter should follow one of the traditional letter formats and have generous margins. Correctness. A correct document is one that adheres to the conventions of grammar, punctuation, spelling, mechanics, and usage. Sometimes, incorrect writing can confuse readers or even make your writing inaccurate. The more typical problem, however, is that incorrect writing makes you look unprofessional. If your writing is full of errors, readers will wonder if you were also careless in gathering, analyzing, and presenting the technical information. If readers doubt your professionalism, they will be less likely to accept your conclusions or follow your recommendations. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY Analyzing a Technical Document This two-page publication was produced by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The following questions ask you to think about the various factors that contributed to the content and design of this document. 1. Who is the audience for this document? Where do you think the authors intended for the document to be displayed? 2. With which of the two general purposes does this document more closely align? Does it help others to learn about a subject, carry out a task, or make a decision, or does it reinforce or change attitudes and motivate readers to take action? If the document appears to have some combination of these purposes, which seems to be the most important? How can you tell? 3. What problem is the document addressing? Does the document provide clear solutions? 4. Has the document been designed to facilitate usability? How does it use words and images to communicate information? Does it create a positive impression? Is it easy to navigate and understand? Does it address readers with various physical abilities? 5. Is the document concise? How well does it communicate a lot of information in an economical manner? Can busy readers scan it and grasp the main point? 6. Does the document appear professional? Why or why not? Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace Communicators People who are good at communicating in the workplace share a number of skills. Three of them relate to the problem-solving skills you have been honing in school and will continue to develop in your career: Ability to perform research. Successful communicators know how to perform primary research (discovering new information through experiments, observations, interviews, surveys, and calculations) and secondary research (finding existing information by reading what others have written or said). Successful communicators seek out information from people who use the products and services, not just from the manufacturers. Therefore, although successful communicators would visit the Toyota website to learn about the technical specifications of a Prius if they wanted to find out what it was like to drive, own, or repair a Prius, they would be sure to search the Internet for information from experts not associated with Toyota, as well as user-generated content: information from owners, presented, for example, in discussion forums and blogs. Ability to analyze information. Successful communicators know how to identify the best information — most accurate, relevant, recent, and unbiased — and then figure out how it can help them in understanding a problem and ways to solve it. Successful communicators know how to sift through mountains of data, identifying relationships among apparently unrelated facts. They know how to evaluate a situation, look at it from other people’s perspectives, and zero in on the most important issues. Ability to speak and write clearly. Successful communicators know how to express themselves clearly and simply, both to audiences that know a lot about the subject and to audiences that do not. They take care to revise, edit, and proofread their documents so that the documents present accurate information, are easy to read, and make a professional impression. And they know how to produce different types of documents, from tweets to memos to presentations. In addition to the skills just described, successful workplace communicators have several qualities that relate to professional attitudes and work habits. These qualities are outlined in the Guidelines box below. GUIDELINES: Communicating Professionally When you communicate in the workplace, model the behavior of successful professionals. Be honest. Successful communicators tell the truth. They don’t promise what they know they can’t deliver, and they don’t bend facts. When they make mistakes, they admit them and work harder to solve the problem. Be willing to learn. Successful communicators know that they don’t know everything — not about what they studied in college, what their company does, or how to write and speak. Every professional is a lifelong learner. Display emotional intelligence. Successful communicators understand their own emotions and those of others. Because they can read people — through body language, facial expression, gestures, and words — they can work effectively in teams, helping to minimize interpersonal conflict and encouraging others to do their best work. Be generous. Successful communicators reply to requests for information, and they share information willingly. (Of course, they don’t share confidential information, such as trade secrets, information about new products being developed, or personal information about colleagues.) Monitor the best information. Successful communicators seek out opinions from others. They monitor the best online sources for new approaches that can spark their own ideas. They use searching and filtering tools to help them stay on top of the torrent of new information on the Internet. They know how to use social media and can represent their organization online. Be self-disciplined. Successful communicators are well organized and diligent. They finish what they start, and they always do their best on any document, from the least important text message to the most important report. Prioritize and respond quickly. Successful communicators know that the world doesn’t always conform to their own schedules. Because social media never sleep, communicators sometimes need to put their current projects aside in order to respond immediately to a problem or request. And even though speed is important, they know that quality is, too; therefore, they make sure every document is fully professional before it goes out. EXERCISES For more about memos, see Ch. 14, p. 376. 1. Form small groups and study the home page of your college or university’s website. Focus on three measures of excellence in technical communication: clarity, accessibility, and professional appearance. How effectively does the home page meet each of these measures of excellence? Be prepared to share your findings with the class. 2. Locate an owner’s manual for a consumer product, such as a coffee maker, bicycle, or hair dryer. In a memo to your instructor, discuss at least three decisions the writers and designers of the manual appear to have made to address audience-related factors, purpose-related factors, settingrelated factors, document-related factors, or process-related factors. For instance, if the manual is printed only in English, the writers and designers presumably decided either that it was not necessary to create versions in other languages or that they didn’t have the resources to do so. 3. Using a job site such as Indeed.com or Monster.com, locate three job ads for people in your academic major. In each ad, identify references to writing and communication skills, and then identify references to professional attitudes and work habits. Be prepared to share your findings with the class. CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé Your technical-communication instructor is planning to invite guest speakers to deliver presentations to the class on various topics throughout the semester, and she has asked you to work with one of them to tailor his jobapplication presentation to the “Measures of Excellence” discussed in this chapter. To access relevant documents and get started on your project, go to LaunchPad. CHAPTER 2 Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations Chapter Introduction A Brief Introduction to Ethics Your Ethical Obligations OBLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER OBLIGATIONS TO THE PUBLIC OBLIGATIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Your Legal Obligations COPYRIGHT LAW ◾ GUIDELINES: Determining Fair Use ◾ GUIDELINES: Dealing with Copyright Questions ◾ ETHICS NOTE: Distinguishing Plagiarism from Acceptable Reuse of Information TRADEMARK LAW ◾ GUIDELINES: Protecting Trademarks CONTRACT LAW LIABILITY LAW ◾ GUIDELINES: Abiding by Liability Laws The Role of Corporate Culture in Ethical and Legal Conduct Understanding Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Social Media ◾ GUIDELINES: Using Social Media Ethically and Legally ◾ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Presenting Guidelines for Using Social Media Communicating Ethically Across Cultures COMMUNICATING WITH CULTURES WITH DIFFERENT ETHICAL BELIEFS COMMUNICATING IN COUNTRIES WITH DIFFERENT LAWS Principles for Ethical Communication ABIDE BY RELEVANT LAWS COMPLY WITH ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS ABIDE BY THE APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL CODE OF CONDUCT ABIDE BY YOUR ORGANIZATION’S POLICY ON SOCIAL MEDIA TAKE ADVANTAGE OF YOUR EMPLOYER’S ETHICS RESOURCES TELL THE TRUTH DON’T MISLEAD YOUR READERS USE DESIGN TO HIGHLIGHT IMPORTANT ETHICAL AND LEGAL INFORMATION BE CLEAR AVOID DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE ACKNOWLEDGE ASSISTANCE FROM OTHERS WRITER’S CHECKLIST EXERCISES CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a Plagiarism-Detection Service Chapter Introduction ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES are all around you in your work life. If you look at the website of any bike manufacturer, for example, you will see that bicyclists are always shown wearing helmets. Is this because bike manufacturers care about safety? Certainly. But bike makers also care about product liability. If a company website showed cyclists without helmets, an injured cyclist might sue, claiming that the company was suggesting it is safe to ride without a helmet. Ethical and legal pitfalls lurk in the words and graphics of many kinds of formal documents. In producing a proposal, you might be tempted to exaggerate or lie about your organization’s past accomplishments, pad the résumés of the project personnel, list as project personnel some workers who will not be contributing to the project, or present an unrealistically short work schedule. In drafting product information, you might feel pressured to exaggerate the quality of the products shown in catalogs or manuals or to downplay the hazards of using those products. In creating graphics, you might be asked to hide an item’s weaknesses by manipulating a photo of a product. One thing is certain: there are many serious ethical and legal issues related to technical communication, and all professionals need a basic understanding of them. Keep in mind that decisions and actions can be legal but not ethical, or vice versa. You will need to think carefully about both aspects of any technical communication you create and address any conflicts that arise. A Brief Introduction to Ethics Ethics is the study of the principles of conduct that apply to an individual or a group. For some people, ethics is a matter of intuition — what their gut feelings tell them about the rightness or wrongness of an act. Others see ethics in terms of their own religion or the Golden Rule: treat others as you would like them to treat you. Ethicist Manuel G. Velasquez outlines four moral standards that are useful in thinking about ethical dilemmas (2011): Rights. This standard concerns individuals’ basic needs and welfare. Everyone agrees, for example, that people have a right to a reasonably safe workplace. When we buy a product, we have a right to expect that the information that accompanies it is honest and clear. However, not everything that is desirable is necessarily a right. For example, in some countries, high-quality health care is considered a right. That is, the government is required to provide it, regardless of whether a person can afford to pay for it. In other countries, health care is not considered a right. Justice. This standard concerns how the costs and benefits of an action or a policy are distributed among a group. For example, the cost of maintaining a high-speed broadband infrastructure should be borne, in part, by people who use it. However, because everyone benefits from the infrastructure, the standard of justice suggests that general funds can also be used to pay for it. Another example: justice requires that people doing the same job receive the same pay, regardless of whether they are male or female, black or white. Utility. This standard concerns the positive and negative effects that an action or a policy has, will have, or might have on others. For example, if a company is considering closing a plant, the company’s leaders should consider not only the money they would save but also the financial hardship of laid-off workers and the economic effects on the community. One tricky issue in thinking about utility is figuring out the time frame to examine. An action such as laying off employees can have one effect in the short run — improving the company’s quarterly balance sheet — and a very different effect in the long run — hurting the company’s productivity or the quality of its products. Care. This standard concerns the relationships we have with other individuals. We owe care and consideration to all people, but we have greater responsibilities to people in our families, our workplaces, and our communities. The closer a person is to us, the greater care we owe that person. Therefore, we have greater obligations to members of our family than we do to others in our community. Although these standards provide a vocabulary for thinking about how to resolve ethical conflicts, they are imprecise and often conflict with each other. Therefore, they cannot provide a systematic method of resolving ethical conflicts. Take the case of a job opportunity in your company. You are a member of the committee that will recommend which of six applicants to hire to redesign a customer portal that hosts tutorials and documentation. One of the six is a friend of yours who has been unable to secure a professional job since graduating from college two years ago. She therefore does not have as much website design experience as the other five candidates. However, she is enthusiastic about gaining experience in this particular field —and eager to start paying off her student loans. How can the four standards help you think through the situation? According to the rights standard, lobbying for your friend or against the other applicants would be wrong because all applicants have an ethical right to an evaluation process that considers only their qualifications to do the job. Looking at the situation from the perspective of justice yields the same conclusion: it would be wrong to favor your friend. From the perspective of utility, lobbying for your friend would probably not be in the best interests of the organization, although it might be in your friend’s best interests. Only according to the care standard does lobbying for your friend seem reasonable. As you think about this case, you have to consider a related question: should you tell the other people on the hiring committee that one of the applicants is your friend? Yes, because they have a right to know about your personal relationship so that they can better evaluate your contributions to the discussion. You might also offer to recuse yourself (that is, not participate in the discussion of this position), leaving it to the other committee members to decide whether your friendship with a candidate represents a conflict of interest. One more complication in thinking about this case: Let’s say your friend is one of the top two candidates for the job. In your committee, which is made up of seven members, three vote for your friend, but four vote for the other candidate, who already has a very good job. She is a young, highly skilled employee with a degree from a prestigious university. In other words, she is likely to be very successful in the working world, regardless of whether she is offered this particular job. Should the fact that your friend has yet to start her own career affect your thinking about this problem? Some people would say no: the job should be offered to the most qualified applicant. Others would say yes: society does not adequately provide for its less-fortunate members, and because your friend needs the job more and is almost as qualified as the other top applicant, she should get the offer. In other words, some people would focus on the narrow, technical question of determining the best candidate for the job, whereas others would see a much broader social question involving human rights. Most people do not explore the conflict among rights, justice, utility, and care when they confront a serious ethical dilemma; instead, they simply do what they think is right. Perhaps this is good news. However, the depth of ethical thinking varies dramatically from one person to another, and the consequences of superficial ethical thinking can be profound. For these reasons, ethicists have described a general set of principles that can help people organize their thinking about the role of ethics within an organizational context. These principles form a web of rights and obligations that connect an employee, an organization, and the world in which the organization is situated. For example, in exchange for their labor, employees enjoy three basic rights: fair wages, safe and healthy working conditions, and due process in the handling of such matters as promotions, salary increases, and firing. Although there is still serious debate about the details of employee rights, such as whether employees have the right to freedom from surreptitious surveillance and unreasonable searches in drug investigations, the debate almost always concerns the extent of employees’ rights, not the existence of the basic rights themselves. For instance, ethicists disagree about whether hiring undercover investigators to identify drug users at a job site is an unwarranted intrusion on employees’ rights, but there is no debate about employees’ right to freedom from unwarranted intrusion. Your Ethical Obligations In addition to enjoying rights, an employee assumes obligations, which can form a clear and reasonable framework for discussing the ethics of technical communication. The following discussion outlines three sets of obligations that you have as an employee: to your employer, to the public, and to the environment. OBLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER You are hired to further your employer’s legitimate aims and to refrain from any activities that run counter to those aims. Specifically, you have five obligations: Competence and diligence. Competence refers to your skills; you should have the training and experience to do the job adequately. Diligence simply means working hard. Unfortunately, a recent survey of over 1,000 workers revealed that more than half of employees waste up to one hour of their eight-hour day surfing the web, socializing with co-workers, and doing other tasks unrelated to their jobs (Salary.com, 2013). Generosity. Although generosity might sound like an unusual obligation, you are obligated to help your co-workers and stakeholders outside your organization by sharing your knowledge and expertise. What this means is that if you are asked to respond to appropriate questions or provide recommendations on some aspect of your organization’s work, you should do so. If a customer or supplier contacts you, make the time to respond helpfully. Generosity shows professionalism and furthers your organization’s goals. Honesty and candor. You should not steal from your employer. Stealing includes such practices as embezzlement, “borrowing” office supplies, and padding expense accounts. Candor means truthfulness; you should report to your employer problems that might threaten the quality or safety of the organization’s product or service. Issues of honesty and candor include what Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Society, calls trimming, cooking, and for...
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