Inside the LaunchPad for Technical
Communication
Missing something? Instructors may assign the
online materials that accompany this text. For access
to them, visit launchpadworks.com. LaunchPad
materials are identified throughout the text with the
icon.
CASES
Document-based cases are presented online, where you can familiarize yourself
with each scenario, download and work with related documents, and access
assignment questions in a single space.
CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé
CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a Plagiarism-Detection
Service
CASE 3: Understanding Why Revision Software Cannot Revise and Edit Your
Document
CASE 4: Accommodating a Team Member’s Scheduling Problems
CASE 5: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and Interests
CASE 6: Revising a Questionnaire
CASE 7: Organizing a Document for Clarity — and Diplomacy
CASE 8: Analyzing the Persuasiveness of a Poster
CASE 9: Emphasizing Important Information in a Technical Description
CASE 10: Revising a Document for Nonnative Speakers and for Translation
CASE 11: Designing a Flyer
CASE 12: Creating Appropriate Graphics To Accompany a Report
CASE 13: Evaluating a Technical Document
CASE 14: Setting Up and Maintaining a Professional Microblog Account
CASE 15: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-Search Sites
CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal
CASE 17: Writing a Directive
CASE 18: Analyzing Decision Matrices
CASE 19: Introducing the Scientific Method Through a Lab Report
CASE 20: Choosing a Medium for Presenting Instructions
CASE 21: Understanding the Claim-and-Support Structure for Presentation
Graphics
LEARNINGCURVE
Master the material covered in the first ten chapters of the text as well as key
grammar skills with LearningCurve, a fun adaptive quizzing program that meets
you where you are and gives you the extra support you need when you need it.
Understanding the Technical Communication Environment (Covering Chapters 1–
4)
Planning the Document (Covering Chapters 5–7)
Persuasion, Emphasis, and Effective Sentences (Covering Chapters 8–10)
Additional LearningCurve activities on grammar, style, persuasion, and concerns
of multilingual writers
DOWNLOADABLE FORMS
Download and work with a variety of helpful forms discussed throughout the text.
Work-Schedule Form (Chapter 4)
Team-Member Evaluation Form (Chapter 4)
Self-Evaluation Form (Chapter 4)
Audience Profile Sheet (Chapter 5)
Oral Presentation Evaluation Form (Chapter 21)
MULTIMEDIA DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITIES
Explore real multimedia documents that harness digital technologies in exciting
new ways, and respond to prompts that will help you analyze them.
Mechanism Description Using Interactive Graphics: Hybridcenter.org and Union of
Concerned Scientists, Hybrids Under the Hood (Part 2) (Chapter 12)
Online Portfolio: Blane C. Holden’s Online Portfolio (Chapter 15)
Proposal Delivered as a Prezi Presentation: Andrew Washuta, Marketing Proposal
Presentation (Chapter 16)
Report Presented as a Website: United States Geological Survey, High Plains
Water-Level Monitoring Study (Chapter 17)
Informational Report Presented Through an Interactive Graphic: Matthew C.
Hansen et al., University of Maryland, Google, USGS, and NASA, “Global Forest
Change” Interactive Map (Chapter 17)
Recommendations Presented in a Video: One & Only Campaign, Check Your
Steps! Make Every Injection Safe (Chapter 18)
Process Description Using Video Animation: North Carolina Department of
Transportation (NCDOT), Diverging Diamond Interchange Visualization (Chapter
20)
Instructions Using Video Demonstration: PartSelect, Dryer Repair — Replacing the
High Limit Thermostat (Chapter 20)
Instructions Using a Combination of Video Demonstration and Screen Capture:
Texas Tech University Multiple Literacy Lab (MuLL), Recording Audio in the
Field Using an iTalk (Chapter 20)
Definition Using Video Animation: ABC News, What Is the Cloud? (Chapter 20)
SUPPLEMENTAL E-BOOKS
Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger
Munger, features seven realistic scenarios in which you can practice workplace
writing skills.
Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe, focuses on the role of written communication in
teamwork. Built around five short videos of real team interactions, Team Writing
teaches you how to use written documentation to manage a team and provides
models for working on large collaborative documents.
TEST BANK
Test your knowledge with multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer questions
for every chapter in the textbook.
TUTORIALS
Engaging tutorials show you helpful tools and tips for creating your projects along
with guidance on how to best use the tools, as well as the documentation process
for citing the sources you use in MLA and APA style.
DIGITAL WRITING TUTORIALS
Cross-Platform Word Processing with CloudOn, Quip, and More (Chapter 3)
Tracking Sources with Evernote and Zotero (Chapter 6)
Photo Editing Basics with GIMP (Chapter 12)
Building Your Professional Brand with LinkedIn, Twitter, and More (Chapter 15)
Creating Presentations with PowerPoint and Prezi (Chapter 21)
Audio Recording and Editing with Audacity (Chapter 21)
DIGITAL TIPS TUTORIALS
Creating Outlines (Chapter 3)
Creating Styles and Templates (Chapter 3)
Scheduling Meetings Online (Chapter 4)
Reviewing Collaborative Documents (Chapter 4)
Incorporating Tracked Changes (Chapter 4)
Conducting Online Meetings (Chapter 4)
Using Wikis for Collaborative Work (Chapter 4)
Using Collaborative Software (Chapter 4)
Proofreading for Format Consistency (Chapter 11)
DOCUMENTATION TUTORIALS
How To Cite a Database in APA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources)
How To Cite a Website in APA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources)
How To Cite a Book in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources)
How To Cite an Article in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources)
How To Cite a Website in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources)
How To Cite a Database in MLA Style (Appendix B: Documenting Sources)
Technical COMMUNICATION
TWELFTH EDITION
Mike Markel
Boise State University
Stuart A. Selber
Penn State University
For Bedford/St. Martin’s
Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities: Edwin Hill
Senior Program Director for English: Leasa Burton
Program Manager: Molly Parke
Marketing Manager: Sophia Latorre-Zengierski
Director of Content Development: Jane Knetzger
Senior Developmental Editor: Carrie Thompson
Developmental Editor: Michelle McSweeney
Associate Editor: Cara Kaufman
Senior Workflow Manager: Jennifer Wetzel
Production Supervisor: Brianna Lester
Media Project Manager: Melissa Skepko-Masi
Manager of Publishing Services: Andrea Cava
Project Management: Lifland et al., Bookmakers
Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc.
Photo Researcher: Krystyna Borgen
Permissions Editor: Elaine Kosta
Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik
Text Design: Maureen McCutcheon Design
Cover Design: William Boardman
Cover and Title Page Image: Andy Roberts/Getty Images
Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012, 2010 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or
in writing by the Publisher.
210987
fedcba
For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116
ISBN-13: 978-1-319-10788-8 (EPUB)
Acknowledgments
Text acknowledgments and copyrights appear at the back of the book on page 706, which
constitutes an extension of the copyright page. Art acknowledgments and copyrights
appear on the same page as the art selections they cover.
In-text excerpt, p. 94: Mike Markley. Excerpt from LinkedIn profile
summary. Used with permission.
Figure 5.5, p. 102: Advancing Kyocera Philosophy Education. © 2016 by
KYOCERA Corporation. Used by permission of Kyocera Corporation.
Figure 5.8, p. 109: Solomon et al., Climate Change 2007: The Physical
Science Basis. Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, p. ix (Table of
contents). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA. Used with permission.
Figure 5.9, pp. 111–12: From “Introducing Project Loon,” Googleblog, June
14, 2013. Reprinted by permission of Alphabet.
Figure 5.10, p. 113: From Brian Handwerk, “Google’s Loon Project Puts
Balloon Technology in Spotlight,” National Geographic Daily News, June
18, 2013. Reprinted by permission of National Geographic.
Figure 6.1, p. 124: Abstract from Maureen O’Dougherty, “Plot and Irony in
Childbirth Narratives of Middle-Class Brazilian Women,” Medical
Anthropology Quarterly, Volume 27, Issue 1, pages 43–62, March 2013. ©
2013 by the American Anthropological Association. Reprinted by
permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Document Analysis Activity, p. 132: Excerpt from “About High Fructose
Corn Syrup,” http://corn.org/products/sweeteners/high-fructose-cornsyrup/. Copyright © 2016 by The Corn Refiners Association. Used with
permission.
Figure 8.5, p. 182: Threat Research, McAfee, “Revealed: Operation Shady
RAT” white paper. Copyright © 2011 McAfee, Inc. Reprinted by
permission.
Document Analysis Activity, p. 185: From Emily Bennington, “Social Media
Strategy: Is It Time to Hire a Social Media Officer?” from Monster.com.
Reprinted by permission. Copyright 2014 - Monster Worldwide, Inc. All
Rights Reserved. You may not copy, reproduce or distribute this article
without the prior written permission of Monster Worldwide. This article
first appeared on Monster, the leading online global network for careers.
To see other career-related articles visit http://career-advice.monster.com.
Guidelines, p. 283: Principles of Accessible Design for Websites, adapted
from WebAIM: http://webaim.org/intro/. Used with permission.
Exercise 3, p. 289: Excerpt from Micron CSN33: Customer Service Note
from Micron User Guide Introduction. © 2011 Micron Technology, Inc.
All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Figure 13.6, p. 345: Appendix B: Heuristic Evaluation Evaluator’s Form, p.
20 from Oracle’s “User Experience Direct, FAQ: How to Conduct
Heuristic Evaluation,”
http://www.oracle.com/webfolder/ux/applications/uxd/assets/faq/how-toconduct-heuristic-evaluation.pdf. Used with permission.
Figure 13.10, p. 351: WAI Site Usability Testing Questions. Copyright ©
1994–2003 World Wide Web Consortium (MIT, ERCIM, Keio), All
Rights Reserved. http://www.w3.org/WAI/EO/Drafts/UCD/questions.html
Figure 13.15, p. 357: From “Usability Testing: Election Systems and
Software ExpressVote Universal Voting System.” University of Baltimore
for the Maryland State Board of Elections.
http://www.elections.state.md.us/voting_system/procurement.html.
Case 13, p. 359: The Complete How To Guide to Xeriscaping, from
http://www.ose.state.nm.us/Pub/Brochures/htx_lo_res.pdf. Used with
permission.
Document Analysis Activity, p. 435: Andrew Washuta, “Marketing Proposal
Presentation,” May 21, 2013. Copyright © 2013 by Andrew Washuta.
Used with permission.
Figure 17.5, p. 465: Employee’s Accident Report Form from University of
North Carolina–Chapel Hill. Used with permission.
Figure 19.2, p. 528: Excerpt from IEEE, “Information for IEEE Transactions,
Journals, and Letters Author,” p. 4. Used with permission.
In-text excerpt, pp. 542–43: From High-Tech Vehicle Safety Systems. Used
with permission from Canadian Association of Road Safety Professionals.
Figure 20.5, p. 553: “How Solar Works” from Vanguard Energy Partners.
Used with permission.
Figure 20.6, p. 554: “Hybrids Under the Hood (Part 2): Drivetrains” from
Union of Concerned Scientists. www.ucsusa.org. Reprinted by Permission.
Figure 20.13, p. 570: “Prepare to Install the Range” from General Electric,
Installation Instructions: Free-Standing Electric Ranges (Manual
229C4053P545-1 31-10556-1 04-03 JR). Used with permission.
Figure 20.16, p. 572: Excerpts from a thread in a customer-support forum
from http://forum.support.xerox.com/t5/Printing/TIFF-files/td-p/21986.
Used with permission.
Preface for Instructors
AS A LONG-TIME USER and admirer of Mike Markel’s Technical
Communication, I’m excited to take on the role of coauthor in this new
edition. I’ve known Mike for over two decades and have used his textbook
with hundreds of technical-communication students and with instructors
training to teach the course. Students have always appreciated the rhetorically
informed approaches to producing workplace documents; the framing
discussions for those approaches, which elaborate organizational and cultural
contexts; the instructive examples and activities; and the attention to changes
in the field, with updates that are not merely trendy or limited to the
immediate moment. From edition to edition, Technical Communication has
helped my students learn to solve problems in ways that are useful over the
long run. Instructors, in addition, have always appreciated how the textbook
anchors learning to genuine tasks in realistic situations, how it foregrounds
the richness and complexity of human communication, and how it helps them
to keep up with the field. Instructors are also students of technical
communication.
What encouraged me to want to work on this textbook? Technical
communication, the practice, continues to be vital to workplace success, and
Technical Communication, the textbook, addresses success in all of its
manifestations. It’s one thing to learn to be effective in basic transactional
situations — for example, situations that call for a simple website or memo
— and quite another to be effective in more complex circumstances in which
the stakes are high for organizations, audiences, and communities. Successful
technical communicators are well-rounded communicators who produce
documents that are both useful and professionally responsible. They deliver
on their obligations to employers but also are vocal advocates for those who
use documents and for the communities affected by those documents.
Furthermore, successful technical communicators abide by the ethical
guidelines of professional societies and feel an obligation to share knowledge
and expertise. Technical Communication accounts for the full range of
considerations in a communication situation and presents their complexities
in understandable and actionable terms. My hope as a coauthor is to continue
to advance this fundamental goal as the landscape for technical
communication, the practice, continues to evolve and expand.
We have revised this new edition of Technical Communication to give
students even more support for navigating that changing landscape. The
practice of technical communication, in fact, has never been more dynamic or
complex. Today’s professionals face an ever-increasing set of challenges in
the development of documents, from analyzing global audiences to selecting
media for document delivery. This book will help prepare students to address
such challenges — in their courses and in their careers.
New to This Edition
The Twelfth Edition revisits many of the book’s core features in the context
of today’s work environment. Chapter 1 sets the stage for the text’s focus by
expanding the discussion of the context of technical communication,
including factors such as audience, purpose, setting, and process. The chapter
on writing technical documents also addresses issues related to setting and
process and asks students to analyze those factors during planning activities,
to help clarify a writing situation.
We’ve revised the Tech Tips throughout the book to explicitly connect the
why and the how of using technology to create technical communication.
Previous editions focused on how to do things with technology, such as how
to use style sheets in a word-processing program or how to create screen
shots and then insert them in a document. We’ve updated the how-to
procedures where necessary and added rationale, to bridge research and
practice at the level of document production. The goal is to encourage
students to think a bit more conceptually about software features, which
should ease the transition to updates and to new writing and communication
platforms.
The chapters on ethical and legal considerations, designing print and
online documents, and making oral presentations all include new discussions
of accessibility. Accessibility can no longer be considered an optional feature
of technical communication — a feature that’s good to have if there’s time in
the development schedule. We want students to think about accessibility as
an important aspect of technical communication and to adopt the working
principle that documents that are accessible to readers with disabilities are
easier for everyone to use. The chapter on communicating persuasively
includes a new discussion of the persuasive dimensions of visuals and
explains the role of visuals as evidence in technical communication and as
document elements that can make information easier for audiences to
understand.
We have also revised the chapter on usability to help students think
through the challenges of evaluating and testing documents. The approaches
to usability, in fact, are organized from the least to the most involved, helping
students to see how contexts change as technical communication moves from
controlled to natural settings.
Updated examples, both in the print text and in LaunchPad, provide
opportunities for students to analyze the types of documents they’ll need to
produce or contribute to, such as a video-based tutorial about safe-injection
practices in health-care contexts and a graphic image of the layers of roof
components in an architectural guide for builders and homeowners. And
updated activities provide opportunities for students to practice the types of
tasks they’ll need to engage in and accomplish, such as evaluating
information from Internet sources and designing document pages.
The following table describes the updates made to each chapter in the
Twelfth Edition. In addition, each chapter contains updated examples and
sample documents not noted here. The icon indicates new resources in
LaunchPad (see p. i).
CHAPTER
Chapter 1
Introduction to
Technical
Communication
WHAT’S NEW
New visual examples of how technical communication
addresses purpose
Updated information about the importance of
communication skills to employers
New discussion of setting and process in the context of
producing technical communication
Guidelines: Measures of Excellence in Technical
Documents
Guidelines: Communicating Professionally
Document Analysis Activity: Analyzing a Technical
Document (“Physical Activity Builds a Healthy and Strong
America”)
Chapter 2
New discussion of accessibility standards
Understanding
Ethical and Legal
Considerations
Chapter 3
Writing Technical
Documents
New advice for analyzing setting and process as part of
planning
Tech Tip: Why and How To Modify Templates
Tech Tip: Why and How To Use the Styles Group
Guidelines: Revising the Draft
Guidelines: Editing the Draft
Chapter 4
Writing
Collaboratively
Tech Tip: Why and How To Use Reviewing Tools
Chapter 6
Researching
Your Subject
Streamlined and updated coverage of the research
process, research tools, and types of sources
Guidelines: Planning for the Research Process
Guidelines: Researching a Topic
Tech Tip: Why and How To Use Social Media in Research
Document Analysis Activity: Evaluating Information from
Internet Sources (“High Fructose Corn Syrup: Myths vs.
Facts”)
Chapter 7
Organizing Your
Information
Chapter 8
Communicating
Persuasively
Combined LearningCurve activity for Chapters 5–7
New discussion of using visuals to supply technical
information as evidence
New advice on using visuals as persuasive elements
Ethics Note: Using Digital Enhancement Tools
Responsibly
Case: Analyzing the Persuasiveness of a Poster
Chapter 10
Writing Correct
and Effective
Tech Tip: Why and How To Customize Grammar-Checker
Features
Sentences
Chapter 11
Designing Print
and Online
Documents
Combined LearningCurve activity for Chapters 8–10
Tech Tip: Why and How To Set Up Pages
Tech Tip: Why and How To Format Columns
Tech Tip: Why and How To Create Borders and Screens
Tech Tip: Why and How To Create Text Boxes
Document Analysis Activity: Analyzing Page Designs
New discussion of accessibility as it relates to online
documents
Guidelines: Designing Accessible Websites
Chapter 12
Creating
Graphics
Tech Tip: Why and How To Insert and Modify Graphics
Tech Tip: Why and How To Create Tables, Charts, and
Other Graphics
Tech Tip: Why and How To Create and Insert Screen
Shots
Chapter 13
Evaluating and
Testing Technical
Documents
New chapter includes advice for planning usability studies,
conducting guided evaluations, testing documents in a
controlled setting, testing documents in context,
monitoring documents remotely, and interpreting and
reporting findings
Guidelines: Preparing for a Usability Test
Case: Evaluating a Technical Document
Chapter 14
Corresponding in
Print and Online
Updated advice about sending letters and memos as
email attachments
Tech Tip: Why and How To Use Email for Business
Correspondence
Chapter 16
Writing Proposals
Tech Tip: Why and How To Create a Gantt Chart
Case: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal
Chapter 17
Writing
Informational
Case: Writing a Directive
Reports
Chapter 18
Writing
Recommendation
Reports
Chapter 20
Writing
Definitions,
Descriptions, and
Instructions
Chapter 21
Making Oral
Presentations
Tech Tip: Why and How To Make a Long Report
Navigable
Document Analysis Activity: Recommendations Presented
in a Video (“Check Your Steps! Make Every Injection
Safe”)
Focus on Process: Definitions
Focus on Process: Descriptions
Focus on Process: Instructions
Focus on Process: Oral Presentations
New advice about considering setting as part of the
speaking situation
Tech Tip: Why and How To Create a Presentation
Template
Tech Tip: Why and How To Set List Items To Appear and
Dim During a Presentation
New advice about considering matters of accessibility for
presentations
Appendix
Reference
Handbook
New advice on using the 2016 MLA guidelines for
documenting sources
Acknowledgments
The Twelfth Edition of Technical Communication has benefited greatly from
the perceptive observations and helpful suggestions of our fellow instructors
throughout the country. We thank Osen Bowser, Central Piedmont
Community College; Pennie Boyett, Tarrant County College; Patricia Cady,
Washington State University; Elijah Coleman, Washington State University;
Tracy Dalton, Missouri State University; Joe Davis, North Iowa Area
Community College; Paul Dombrowski, University of Central Florida;
Rebekah Fitzsimmons, Georgia Institute of Technology; Meghan Griffin,
Daytona State College; J Paul Johnson, Winona State University; Jennifer
Laufenberg, Bossier Parish Community College; Cedar Lowe, Macomb
Community College; David McMurrey, Austin Community College; Amanda
Olson, University of Maryland, College Park; Candace Orsetti, University of
Maryland, College Park; Leslie Patching, Everett Community College; Kirk
Perry, Portland Community College; Sally Schutz, Texas A&M University;
Julia Smith, Georgia Institute of Technology; Karen Solliday, Gateway
Technical College; Robert Taber, University of Florida; Michael Thompson,
North Iowa Area Community College; Valerie Turner, Missouri State
University; and several anonymous reviewers.
We also wish to thank Emma J. Rose, University of Washington–Tacoma,
for reviewing our coverage of usability testing and providing helpful
suggestions.
We have been fortunate, too, to work with a terrific team at Bedford/St.
Martin’s. Leasa Burton and Molly Parke assembled the first-class team that
has worked so hard on this edition, including Andrea Cava, Michelle
McSweeney, Carrie Thompson, Cara Kaufman, Quica Ostrander, and Sally
Lifland. For us, Bedford/St. Martin’s continues to exemplify the highest
standards of professionalism in publishing. The people there have been
endlessly encouraging and helpful. We hope they realize the value of their
contributions to this book.
Mike’s greatest debt is, as always, to his wife, Rita, who, over the course
of many years and twelve editions, has helped him say what he means. Stuart
would like to thank his family, Kate Latterell and Avery and Griffin Selber,
for their ongoing support and encouragement.
A Final Word
We are more aware than ever before of how much we learn from our
students, our fellow instructors, and our colleagues in industry and academia.
If you have comments or suggestions for making this a better book, please
contact us through the publisher. We hope to hear from you.
Mike Markel and Stuart A. Selber
We’re all in. As always.
Bedford/St. Martin’s is as passionately committed to the discipline of English
as ever, working hard to provide support and services that make it easier for
you to teach your course your way.
Find community support at the Bedford/St. Martin’s English Community
(community.macmillan.com), where you can follow our Bits blog for new
teaching ideas, download titles from our professional resource series, and
review projects in the pipeline.
Choose curriculum solutions that offer flexible custom options,
combining our carefully developed print and digital resources, acclaimed
works from Macmillan’s trade imprints, and your own course or program
materials to provide the exact resources your students need.
Rely on outstanding service from your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales
representative and editorial team. Contact us or visit macmillanlearning.com
to learn more about any of the options below.
LaunchPad for Technical Communication: Where Students Learn
LaunchPad provides engaging content and new ways to get the most out of
your book. Get an interactive e-Book combined with assessment tools in a
fully customizable course space; then assign and mix our resources with
yours.
Cases for every chapter give students the opportunity to practice their
skills in context. Students can familiarize themselves with the case
scenario, then download and work with related documents to complete
their assignment.
Multimedia Document Analysis Activities help students analyze
multimedia documents such as an online portfolio, interactive graphics, a
report presented as a website, and instructions presented through video and
screen capture.
LearningCurve is an adaptive, game-like quizzing program that helps
students master comprehension and application of the course material.
Three LearningCurve activities cover technical communication topics from
the first three parts of the book, and 40 additional LearningCurve activities
cover general writing topics of persuasion, grammar, and style, including
key topics for multilingual writers.
Pre-built units are easy to adapt and assign by adding your own materials
and mixing them with our high-quality multimedia content and ready-made
assessment options, such as LearningCurve adaptive quizzing, Test Bank
quizzes, Tutorials, Additional Exercises and Cases, and more.
Two supplemental e-Books are included in LaunchPad: Document-Based
Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition, by Roger Munger,
and Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe.
Use LaunchPad on its own or integrate it with your school’s learning
management system so that your class is always on the same page.
For a complete listing of LaunchPad content, see the first two pages of
this book.
LaunchPad for Technical Communication can be purchased on its own or
packaged with the print book at a significant discount. An activation code is
required. To order LaunchPad for Technical Communication with the print
book, use ISBN 978-1-319-15338-0. For more information, go to
launchpadworks.com.
Choose from Alternative Formats of Technical Communication
Bedford/St. Martin’s offers a range of formats. Choose what works best for
you and your students:
Paperback To order the paperback edition, use ISBN 978-1-319-05861-6.
Popular e-Book formats For details of our e-Book partners, visit
macmillanlearning.com/ebooks.
Select Value Packages
Add value to your text by packaging one of the following resources with
Technical Communication.
Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication, Second Edition,
by Roger Munger (Boise State University), offers realistic writing tasks based
on seven context-rich scenarios, with more than 50 examples of documents
that students are likely to encounter in the workplace. To order the print book
packaged with Document-Based Cases for Technical Communication,
contact your sales representative.
Team Writing, by Joanna Wolfe (Carnegie Mellon University), is a print
supplement with online videos that provides guidelines and examples of
collaborating to manage written projects by documenting tasks, deadlines,
and team goals. Two- to five-minute videos corresponding with the chapters
in Team Writing give students the opportunity to analyze team interactions
and learn about communication styles. Practical troubleshooting tips show
students how best to handle various types of conflicts within peer groups. To
order the print book packaged with Team Writing, contact your sales
representative.
Instructor Resources
You have a lot to do in your course. We want to make it easy for you to find
the support you need — and to get it quickly.
Instructor’s Resource Manual for Technical Communication, Twelfth
Edition, is available as a PDF that can be downloaded from
macmillanlearning.com. Visit the instructor resources tab for Technical
Communication. In addition to chapter overviews and teaching tips, the
instructor’s manual includes sample syllabi, essays on teaching the techcomm course, and suggested responses to all of the Document Analysis
Activities, Exercises, and Cases.
Computerized Test Bank for Technical Communication, Twelfth
Edition, offers a convenient way to provide additional assessment to students
and is available for download from macmillanlearning.com. Instructors using
LaunchPad will find the test bank material there, where they can add pre-built
quizzes to any unit or build their own tests from the test bank questions.
Lecture slides are available to download and adapt for each chapter.
Introduction for Writers
THE TWELFTH EDITION of Technical Communication offers a wealth of
support to help you complete your technical communication projects. For
quick reference, many of these features are indexed on the last book page and
inside back cover of this book.
Annotated Examples make it easier for you to learn from the many model
documents, illustrations, and screen shots throughout the text.
Tech Tips explain why and how to use widely available digital tools for
common writing tasks such as collaborating on documents, inserting
graphics, and formatting documents.
Document Analysis Activities in every chapter prompt you to apply
what you have just read as you analyze a real business or technical document.
Cases for every chapter present real-world writing scenarios built around
common workplace documents that you can download, critique, and revise.
Guidelines boxes throughout the book summarize crucial information and
provide strategies related to key topics.
Focus on Process boxes point out key steps in the process of writing
different kinds of technical documents.
Ethics Notes in every chapter remind you to think about the ethical
implications of your writing and communication choices, encouraging the
highest standards of professionalism.
Writer’s Checklists at the end of most chapters summarize important
concepts and act as handy reminders as you draft and revise your work.
Brief Contents
Preface for Instructors
Introduction for Writers
Part 1 Understanding the Technical
Communication Environment
1
2
3
4
Introduction to Technical Communication
Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations
Writing Technical Documents
Writing Collaboratively
Part 2 Planning the Document
5 Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose
6 Researching Your Subject
7 Organizing Your Information
Part 3 Developing and Testing the Verbal and
Visual Information
8
9
10
11
12
13
Communicating Persuasively
Emphasizing Important Information
Writing Correct and Effective Sentences
Designing Print and Online Documents
Creating Graphics
Evaluating and Testing Technical Documents
Part 4 Learning Important Applications
14 Corresponding in Print and Online
15 Applying for a Job
16
17
18
19
20
21
Writing Proposals
Writing Informational Reports
Writing Recommendation Reports
Writing Lab Reports
Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions
Making Oral Presentations
APPENDIX Reference Handbook
A
B
C
D
Skimming Your Sources and Taking Notes
Documenting Your Sources
Editing and Proofreading Your Documents
Guidelines for Multilingual Writers (ESL)
Selected Bibliography
References
Index
Index of Selected Features
Contents
Preface for Instructors
Introduction for Writers
Part 1 Understanding the Technical
Communication Environment
1 Introduction to Technical Communication
What Is Technical Communication?
UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE
UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE
Why Technical Communication Skills Are Important in Your
Career
The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication
AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS
PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS
SETTING-RELATED FACTORS
DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS
PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS
Characteristics of a Technical Document
■ GUIDELINES: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing a Technical Document
Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace
Communicators
■ GUIDELINES: Communicating Professionally
EXERCISES
CASE 1: USING THE MEASURES OF EXCELLENCE IN
EVALUATING A RÉSUMÉ
2 Understanding Ethical and Legal
Considerations
A Brief Introduction to Ethics
Your Ethical Obligations
OBLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER
OBLIGATIONS TO THE PUBLIC
OBLIGATIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Your Legal Obligations
COPYRIGHT LAW
■ GUIDELINES: Determining Fair Use
■ GUIDELINES: Dealing with Copyright Questions
■ ETHICS NOTE: Distinguishing Plagiarism from Acceptable Reuse of
Information
TRADEMARK LAW
■ GUIDELINES: Protecting Trademarks
CONTRACT LAW
LIABILITY LAW
■ GUIDELINES: Abiding by Liability Laws
The Role of Corporate Culture in Ethical and Legal Conduct
Understanding Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Social
Media
■ GUIDELINES: Using Social Media Ethically and Legally
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Presenting Guidelines for Using
Social Media
Communicating Ethically Across Cultures
COMMUNICATING WITH CULTURES WITH DIFFERENT ETHICAL
BELIEFS
COMMUNICATING IN COUNTRIES WITH DIFFERENT LAWS
Principles for Ethical Communication
ABIDE BY RELEVANT LAWS
COMPLY WITH ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS
ABIDE BY THE APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL CODE OF CONDUCT
ABIDE BY YOUR ORGANIZATION’S POLICY ON SOCIAL MEDIA
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF YOUR EMPLOYER’S ETHICS RESOURCES
TELL THE TRUTH
DON’T MISLEAD YOUR READERS
USE DESIGN TO HIGHLIGHT IMPORTANT ETHICAL AND LEGAL
INFORMATION
BE CLEAR
AVOID DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE
ACKNOWLEDGE ASSISTANCE FROM OTHERS
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a PlagiarismDetection Service
3 Writing Technical Documents
Planning
CONSIDERING YOUR WRITING SITUATION
TUTORIAL: Cross-Platform Word Processing with CloudOn, Quip, and
More
GENERATING IDEAS ABOUT YOUR SUBJECT
RESEARCHING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
DEVISING A SCHEDULE AND A BUDGET
Drafting
ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING YOUR DOCUMENT
TUTORIAL: Creating Outlines
USING TEMPLATES
■ GUIDELINES: Drafting Effectively
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Modify Templates
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Identifying the Strengths and
Weaknesses of a Commercial Template
USING STYLES
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use the Styles Group
TUTORIAL: Creating Styles and Templates
Revising
STUDYING THE DRAFT BY YOURSELF
■ GUIDELINES: Revising the Draft
SEEKING HELP FROM OTHERS
■ ETHICS NOTE: Acknowledging Reviewers Responsibly
Editing
■ GUIDELINES: Editing the Draft
Proofreading
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 3: Understanding Why Revision Software Cannot Revise and
Edit Your Document
4 Writing Collaboratively
Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaboration
ADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATION
DISADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATION
Managing Projects
■ GUIDELINES: Managing Your Project
Conducting Meetings
TUTORIAL: Scheduling Meetings Online
LISTENING EFFECTIVELY
■ GUIDELINES: Listening Effectively
SETTING YOUR TEAM’S AGENDA
■ GUIDELINES: Setting Your Team’s Agenda
DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Work-Schedule Form
DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Team-Member Evaluation Form
DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Self-Evaluation Form
■ ETHICS NOTE: Pulling Your Weight on Collaborative Projects
CONDUCTING EFFICIENT MEETINGS
COMMUNICATING DIPLOMATICALLY
CRITIQUING A TEAM MEMBER’S WORK
■ GUIDELINES: Communicating Diplomatically
■ GUIDELINES: Critiquing a Colleague’s Work
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Critiquing a Draft Clearly and
Diplomatically
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use Reviewing Tools
Using Social Media and Other Electronic Tools in
Collaboration
WORD-PROCESSING TOOLS
TUTORIAL: Reviewing Collaborative Documents
TUTORIAL: Incorporating Tracked Changes
MESSAGING TECHNOLOGIES
VIDEOCONFERENCING
TUTORIAL: Conducting Online Meetings
■ GUIDELINES: Participating in a Videoconference
WIKIS AND SHARED DOCUMENT WORKSPACES
TUTORIAL: Using Wikis for Collaborative Work
TUTORIAL: Using Collaborative Software
VIRTUAL WORLDS
■ ETHICS NOTE: Maintaining a Professional Presence Online
Gender and Collaboration
Culture and Collaboration
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
LEARNINGCURVE: Understanding the Technical Communication
Environment (Chs. 1–4)
CASE 4: Accommodating a Team Member’s Scheduling Problems
Part 2 Planning the Document
5 Analyzing Your Audience and Purpose
Understanding Audience and Purpose
Using an Audience Profile Sheet
DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Audience Profile Sheet
Determining the Important Characteristics of Your Audience
WHO ARE YOUR READERS?
WHY IS YOUR AUDIENCE READING YOUR DOCUMENT?
WHAT ARE YOUR READERS’ ATTITUDES AND EXPECTATIONS?
HOW WILL YOUR READERS USE YOUR DOCUMENT?
Techniques for Learning About Your Audience
DETERMINING WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW ABOUT YOUR
AUDIENCE
INTERVIEWING PEOPLE
READING ABOUT YOUR AUDIENCE ONLINE
SEARCHING SOCIAL MEDIA FOR DOCUMENTS YOUR AUDIENCE
HAS WRITTEN
ANALYZING SOCIAL-MEDIA DATA
Communicating Across Cultures
UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURAL VARIABLES “ON THE SURFACE”
UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURAL VARIABLES “BENEATH THE
SURFACE”
CONSIDERING CULTURAL VARIABLES AS YOU WRITE
■ GUIDELINES: Writing for Readers from Other Cultures
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Examining Cultural Variables in a
Business Letter
USING GRAPHICS AND DESIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL READERS
Applying What You Have Learned About Your Audience
■ ETHICS NOTE: Meeting Your Readers’ Needs Responsibly
Writing for Multiple Audiences
Determining Your Purpose
Gaining Management’s Approval
Revising Information for a New Audience and Purpose
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 5: Focusing on an Audience’s Needs and Interests
6 Researching Your Subject
Understanding the Research Process
■ GUIDELINES: Planning for the Research Process
■ GUIDELINES: Researching a Topic
Choosing Appropriate Research Methods
Conducting Secondary Research
UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH TOOLS
TYPES OF SECONDARY Research SOURCES
USING SOCIAL MEDIA AND OTHER INTERACTIVE RESOURCES
TUTORIAL: Tracking Sources with Evernote and Zotero
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use Social Media in Research
EVALUATING THE INFORMATION
■ GUIDELINES: Evaluating Print and Online Sources
Conducting Primary Research
ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL-MEDIA DATA
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Evaluating Information from Internet
Sources
OBSERVATIONS AND DEMONSTRATIONS
INSPECTIONS
EXPERIMENTS
FIELD RESEARCH
INTERVIEWS
■ GUIDELINES: Conducting an Interview
INQUIRIES
QUESTIONNAIRES
■ ETHICS NOTE: Reporting and Analyzing Data Honestly
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 6: Revising a Questionnaire
7 Organizing Your Information
Understanding Three Principles for Organizing Technical
Information
ANALYZING YOUR AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE
USING CONVENTIONAL PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION
DISPLAYING YOUR ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN PROMINENTLY
Understanding Conventional Organizational Patterns
CHRONOLOGICAL
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information Chronologically
SPATIAL
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information Spatially
GENERAL TO SPECIFIC
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information from General to Specific
MORE IMPORTANT TO LESS IMPORTANT
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information from More Important to Less
Important
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Comparison and Contrast
■ ETHICS NOTE: Comparing and Contrasting Fairly
CLASSIFICATION OR PARTITION
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Classification or Partition
PROBLEM-METHODS-SOLUTION
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Problem-Methods-Solution
CAUSE AND EFFECT
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing Information by Cause and Effect
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Using Multiple Organizational
Patterns in an Infographic
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
LEARNINGCURVE: Planning the Document (Chs. 5–7)
CASE 7: Organizing a Document for Clarity — and Diplomacy
Part 3 Developing and Testing the Verbal and
Visual Information
8 Communicating Persuasively
Considering the Context of Your Argument
UNDERSTANDING YOUR AUDIENCE’S BROADER GOALS
WORKING WITHIN CONSTRAINTS
Crafting a Persuasive Argument
IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS OF YOUR ARGUMENT
CONSIDERING OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
USING THE RIGHT KINDS OF EVIDENCE
USING VISUALS AS PERSUASIVE ELEMENTS
■ ETHICS NOTE: Using Digital Enhancement Tools Responsibly
APPEALING TO EMOTIONS RESPONSIBLY
DECIDING WHERE TO PRESENT THE CLAIM
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing Evidence in an Argument
UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN PERSUASION
Avoiding Logical Fallacies
Presenting Yourself Effectively
■ GUIDELINES: Creating a Professional Persona
■ ETHICS NOTE: Seeming Honest Versus Being Honest in Persuasive
Writing
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 8: Analyzing the Persuasiveness of a Poster
9 Emphasizing Important Information
Writing Clear, Informative Titles
Writing Clear, Informative Headings
■ GUIDELINES: Revising Headings
Writing Clear, Informative Lists
WRITE EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH LISTS
WRITE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE LISTS
■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Lists
Writing Clear, Informative Paragraphs
STRUCTURE PARAGRAPHS CLEARLY
■ ETHICS NOTE: Avoiding Burying Bad News in Paragraphs
■ GUIDELINES: Dividing Long Paragraphs
USE COHERENCE DEVICES WITHIN AND BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Identifying the Elements of a
Coherent Paragraph
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 9: Emphasizing Important Information in a Technical
Description
10 Writing Correct and Effective Sentences
Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences
AVOID SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
AVOID COMMA SPLICES
AVOID RUN-ON SENTENCES
AVOID AMBIGUOUS PRONOUN REFERENCES
COMPARE ITEMS CLEARLY
USE ADJECTIVES CLEARLY
MAINTAIN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
MAINTAIN PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
USE TENSES CORRECTLY
Structuring Effective Sentences
EMPHASIZE NEW AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION
CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE SENTENCE LENGTH
FOCUS ON THE “REAL” SUBJECT
FOCUS ON THE “REAL” VERB
USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE
USE MODIFIERS EFFECTIVELY
Choosing the Right Words and Phrases
SELECT AN APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF FORMALITY
BE CLEAR
■ ETHICS NOTE: Euphemisms and Truth Telling
BE CONCISE
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Revising for Conciseness and
Simplicity
USE INOFFENSIVE LANGUAGE
■ GUIDELINES: Avoiding Sexist Language
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Customize Grammar-Checker Features
■ GUIDELINES: Using the People-First Approach
Understanding Simplified English for Nonnative Speakers
Preparing Text for Translation
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
LEARNINGCURVE: Persuasion, Emphasis, and Effective Sentences
(Chs. 8–10)
CASE 10: Revising a Document for Nonnative Speakers and for
Translation
11
Designing Print and Online Documents
Goals of Document Design
Understanding Design Principles
TUTORIAL: Proofreading for Format Consistency
Planning Your Design
ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE
DETERMINE YOUR RESOURCES
Designing Print Documents
SIZE
PAPER
BINDINGS
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Set Up Pages
Designing Print Pages
PAGE LAYOUT
■ GUIDELINES: Understanding Learning Theory and Page Design
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Format Columns
TYPOGRAPHY
■ ETHICS NOTE: Using Type Sizes Responsibly
TITLES AND HEADINGS
OTHER DESIGN FEATURES
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create Borders and Screens
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create Text Boxes
Designing Online Documents
USE DESIGN TO EMPHASIZE IMPORTANT INFORMATION
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing Page Designs
CREATE INFORMATIVE HEADERS AND FOOTERS
HELP READERS NAVIGATE THE DOCUMENT
■ GUIDELINES: Making Your Document Easy To Navigate
INCLUDE EXTRA FEATURES YOUR READERS MIGHT NEED
HELP READERS CONNECT WITH OTHERS
CONSIDER MATTERS OF ACCESSIBILITY
■ GUIDELINES: Designing Accessible Websites
DESIGN FOR MULTICULTURAL AUDIENCES
■ ETHICS NOTE: Designing Legal and Honest Online Documents
Designing Online Pages
AIM FOR SIMPLICITY
■ GUIDELINES: Designing a Simple Site
MAKE THE TEXT EASY TO READ AND UNDERSTAND
■ GUIDELINES: Designing Easy-To-Read Text
CREATE CLEAR, INFORMATIVE LINKS
■ GUIDELINES: Writing Clear, Informative Links
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 11: Designing a Flyer
12 Creating Graphics
The Functions of Graphics
The Characteristics of an Effective Graphic
■ ETHICS NOTE: Creating Honest Graphics
■ GUIDELINES: Integrating Graphics and Text
Understanding the Process of Creating Graphics
PLANNING GRAPHICS
PRODUCING GRAPHICS
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Insert and Modify Graphics
REVISING GRAPHICS
CITING SOURCES OF GRAPHICS
Using Color Effectively
Choosing the Appropriate Kind of Graphic
ILLUSTRATING NUMERICAL INFORMATION
■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Tables
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create Tables, Charts, and Other
Graphics
■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Bar Graphs
■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Infographics
■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Line Graphs
■ GUIDELINES: Creating Effective Pie Charts
ILLUSTRATING LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing a Graphic
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Mechanism Description Using
Interactive Graphics
ILLUSTRATING PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS
ILLUSTRATING VISUAL AND SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS
TUTORIAL: Photo Editing Basics with GIMP
■ GUIDELINES: Presenting Photographs Effectively
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create and Insert Screen Shots
Creating Effective Graphics for Multicultural Readers
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 12: Creating Appropriate Graphics To Accompany a Report
13 Evaluating and Testing Technical
Documents
Understanding Usability Studies
ASSESSING THE NEED FOR A USABILITY STUDY
DETERMINING THE GOALS OF THE STUDY
STUDYING EXISTING DOCUMENTS VERSUS PROTOTYPES
CONSIDERING STUDY SETTINGS
Conducting Guided Evaluations of Technical Documents
CHOOSING DOCUMENT EVALUATORS
ESTABLISHING EVALUATION GUIDELINES
PREPARING MATERIALS FOR THE EVALUATION
Testing Documents in a Controlled Setting
PREPARING FOR THE TEST
CONDUCTING THE TEST
■ GUIDELINES: Preparing for a Usability Test
■ ETHICS NOTE: Understanding the Ethics of Informed Consent
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Obtaining Informed Consent
Testing Documents in Context
PREPARING FOR A SITE VISIT
CONDUCTING A TEST IN CONTEXT
Monitoring Documents Remotely
Interpreting and Reporting Your Findings
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 13: Evaluating a Technical Document
Part 4 Learning Important Applications
14 Corresponding in Print and Online
Understanding the Process of Writing Correspondence
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Correspondence
Selecting a Type of Correspondence
Presenting Yourself Effectively in Correspondence
USE THE APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF FORMALITY
COMMUNICATE CORRECTLY
PROJECT THE “YOU ATTITUDE”
AVOID CORRESPONDENCE CLICHéS
COMMUNICATE HONESTLY
■ ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Business Correspondence
Writing Letters
ELEMENTS OF A LETTER
COMMON TYPES OF LETTERS
Writing Memos
■ GUIDELINES: Organizing a Memo
Writing Emails
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Use Email for Business Correspondence
■ GUIDELINES: Following Netiquette
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Following Netiquette in an Email
Message
Writing Microblogs
■ GUIDELINES: Representing Your Organization on a Microblog
Writing Correspondence to Multicultural Readers
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 14: Setting Up and Maintaining a Professional Microblog
Account
15 Applying for a Job
Understanding the Job-Application Process
Establishing Your Professional Brand
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Job-Application Materials
UNDERSTANDING WHAT EMPLOYERS WANT
■ GUIDELINES: Building the Foundation of Your Professional Brand
CRAFTING YOUR PROFESSIONAL BRAND
■ GUIDELINES: Presenting Your Professional Brand
TUTORIAL: Building Your Professional Brand with LinkedIn, Twitter, and
More
■ ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Job-Application Materials
Finding the Right Position
PLANNING THE JOB SEARCH
UNDERSTANDING JOB-SEARCH STRATEGIES
■ GUIDELINES: Using LinkedIn’s Employment Features
Writing Résumés
ELEMENTS OF THE CHRONOLOGICAL RÉSUMÉ
■ GUIDELINES: Elaborating on Your Education
ELEMENTS OF THE SKILLS RÉSUMÉ
PREPARING A PLAIN-TEXT RÉSUMÉ
■ GUIDELINES: Formatting a Plain-Text Résumé
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Preparing a Résumé
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Blane C. Holden’s Online Portfolio
Writing Job-Application Letters
Preparing for a Job Interview
■ GUIDELINES: Preparing for a Job Interview
Following Up After an Interview
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 15: Identifying the Best-of-the-Best Job-Search Sites
16 Writing Proposals
Understanding the Process of Writing Proposals
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Proposals
The Logistics of Proposals
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL PROPOSALS
SOLICITED AND UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS
The “Deliverables” of Proposals
RESEARCH PROPOSALS
GOODS AND SERVICES PROPOSALS
Persuasion and Proposals
UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTS
DESCRIBING WHAT YOU PLAN TO DO
DEMONSTRATING YOUR PROFESSIONALISM
■ GUIDELINES: Demonstrating Your Professionalism in a Proposal
■ ETHICS NOTE: Writing Honest Proposals
Writing a Proposal
The Structure of the Proposal
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
■ GUIDELINES: Introducing a Proposal
PROPOSED PROGRAM
QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Writing the Proposed Program
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Marketing Proposal Presentation
BUDGET
APPENDIXES
TASK SCHEDULE
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create a Gantt Chart
DESCRIPTION OF EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
Sample Internal Proposal
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 16: Writing an Introduction for a Proposal
17 Writing Informational Reports
Understanding the Process of Writing Informational Reports
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Informational Reports
Writing Directives
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Report Presented as a Website
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Report Presented Through an
Interactive Graphic
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Writing a Persuasive Directive
Writing Field Reports
■ GUIDELINES: Responding to Readers’ Questions in a Field Report
Writing Progress and Status Reports
■ ETHICS NOTE: Reporting Your Progress Honestly
ORGANIZING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS
CONCLUDING PROGRESS AND STATUS REPORTS
■ GUIDELINES: Projecting an Appropriate Tone in a Progress or Status
Report
Sample Progress Report
Writing Incident Reports
Writing Meeting Minutes
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 17: Writing a Directive
18 Writing Recommendation Reports
Understanding the Role of Recommendation Reports
Using a Problem-Solving Model for Preparing
Recommendation Reports
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Recommendation Reports
IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM OR OPPORTUNITY
ESTABLISH CRITERIA FOR RESPONDING TO THE PROBLEM OR
OPPORTUNITY
DETERMINE THE OPTIONS
STUDY EACH OPTION ACCORDING TO THE CRITERIA
DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT EACH OPTION
FORMULATE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON THE CONCLUSIONS
■ ETHICS NOTE: Presenting Honest Recommendations
Writing Recommendation Reports
WRITING THE BODY OF THE REPORT
■ GUIDELINES: Writing Recommendations
WRITING THE FRONT MATTER
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Make a Long Report Navigable
■ GUIDELINES: Writing an Executive Summary
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing an Executive Summary
WRITING THE BACK MATTER
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Recommendations Presented in a
Video
Sample Recommendation Report
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 18: Analyzing Decision Matrices
19 Writing Lab Reports
Persuasion and Lab Reports
Understanding the Process of Writing Lab Reports
Understanding the Structure of the Lab Report
TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
■ GUIDELINES: Writing Equations
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
■ ETHICS NOTE: Presenting Data Honestly
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIXES
Understanding the Role of Science and Engineering Articles
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Evaluating Lab Reports
Sample Lab Report
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 19: Introducing the Scientific Method Through a Lab Report
20 Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and
Instructions
Writing Definitions
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Definitions
ANALYZING THE WRITING SITUATION FOR DEFINITIONS
DETERMINING THE KIND OF DEFINITION TO WRITE
■ GUIDELINES: Writing Effective Sentence Definitions
DECIDING WHERE TO PLACE THE DEFINITION
Writing Descriptions
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Descriptions
ANALYZING THE WRITING SITUATION FOR DESCRIPTIONS
INDICATING CLEARLY THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE
DESCRIPTION
INTRODUCING THE DESCRIPTION CLEARLY
PROVIDING APPROPRIATE DETAIL
■ GUIDELINES: Providing Appropriate Detail in Descriptions
ENDING THE DESCRIPTION WITH A BRIEF CONCLUSION
A LOOK AT SEVERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS
Writing Instructions
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Instructions
UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEOS
DESIGNING A SET OF WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS
■ GUIDELINES: Designing Clear, Attractive Pages
PLANNING FOR SAFETY
■ ETHICS NOTE: Ensuring Your Readers’ Safety
DRAFTING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONS
■ GUIDELINES: Drafting Introductions for Instructions
■ GUIDELINES: Drafting Steps in Instructions
REVISING, EDITING, AND PROOFREADING INSTRUCTIONS
A LOOK AT SEVERAL SAMPLE SETS OF INSTRUCTIONS
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Presenting Clear Instructions
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Process Description Using Video
Animation
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Instructions Using Video
Demonstration
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Instructions Using a Combination of
Video Demonstration and Screen Capture
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Definition Using Video Animation
Writing Manuals
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 20: Choosing a Medium for Presenting Instructions
21 Making Oral Presentations
Understanding the Role of Oral Presentations
Understanding the Process of Preparing and Delivering an
Oral Presentation
Preparing the Presentation
■ FOCUS ON PROCESS: Oral Presentations
ANALYZING THE SPEAKING SITUATION
ORGANIZING AND DEVELOPING THE PRESENTATION
■ GUIDELINES: Introducing the Presentation
■ GUIDELINES: Concluding the Presentation
PREPARING PRESENTATION GRAPHICS
TUTORIAL: Creating Presentations with PowerPoint and Prezi
TUTORIAL: Audio Recording and Editing with Audacity
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Create a Presentation Template
■ TECH TIP: Why and How To Set List Items To Appear and Dim During
a Presentation
CHOOSING EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE
■ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Integrating Graphics and Text on a
Presentation Slide
■ GUIDELINES: Using Memorable Language in Oral Presentations
REHEARSING THE PRESENTATION
Delivering the Presentation
CALMING YOUR NERVES
■ GUIDELINES: Releasing Nervous Energy
USING YOUR VOICE EFFECTIVELY
USING YOUR BODY EFFECTIVELY
■ GUIDELINES: Facing an Audience
PRESENTING TO ALL AUDIENCES
Answering Questions After a Presentation
■ ETHICS NOTE: Answering Questions Honestly
Sample Evaluation Form
DOWNLOADABLE FORM: Oral Presentation Evaluation Form
SPEAKER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 21: Understanding the Claim-and-Support Structure for
Presentation Graphics
Appendix: Reference Handbook
A Skimming Your Sources and Taking Notes
Paraphrasing
Quoting
Summarizing
B Documenting Your Sources
APA Style
TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Database in APA Style
TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Website in APA Style
IEEE Style
MLA Style
TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Book in MLA Style
TUTORIAL: How To Cite an Article in MLA Style
TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Website in MLA Style
TUTORIAL: How To Cite a Database in MLA Style
C Editing and Proofreading Your Documents
Punctuation
Mechanics
Proofreading Symbols and Their Meanings
D Guidelines for Multilingual Writers (ESL)
Cultural and Stylistic Communication Issues
Sentence-Level Issues
Selected Bibliography
References
Index
Index of Selected Features
LaunchPad for Technical Communication
Part 1
Understanding the Technical Communication
Environment
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Technical
Communication
Chapter Introduction
What Is Technical Communication?
UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE
UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE
Why Technical Communication Skills Are Important in Your
Career
The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication
AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS
PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS
SETTING-RELATED FACTORS
DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS
PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS
Characteristics of a Technical Document
◾ GUIDELINES: Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents
◾ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Analyzing a Technical Document
Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful Workplace
Communicators
◾ GUIDELINES: Communicating Professionally
EXERCISES
CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence in Evaluating a Résumé
Chapter Introduction
THIS TEXTBOOK EXPLORES how people in the working world find, create, and
deliver technical information. Even if you do not plan on becoming a technical
communicator (a person whose main job is to produce documents such as
manuals, reports, and websites), you will often find yourself creating documents on
your own, participating in teams that create them, and contributing technical
information to others who use and create them. The purpose of Technical
Communication is to help you learn the skills you need to communicate more
effectively and more efficiently in your professional life.
What Is Technical Communication?
Technical information is frequently communicated through documents such
as proposals, emails, reports, podcasts, computer help files, blogs, and wikis.
Although these documents are a key component of technical communication,
so too is the process: writing and reading tweets and text messages, for
example, or participating in videoconference exchanges with colleagues.
Technical communication encompasses a set of activities that people do to
discover, shape, and transmit information.
When you produce technical communication, you use the four basic
communication modes — listening, speaking, reading, and writing — to
analyze a problem, find and evaluate evidence, and draw conclusions. These
are the same skills and processes you use when you write in college, and the
principles you have studied in your earlier writing courses apply to technical
communication. The biggest difference between technical communication
and the other kinds of writing you have done is that technical communication
has a somewhat different focus on purpose and audience.
UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE
Technical communication begins with identifying a problem and thinking
about how to solve it. Because of the variety of problems and solutions in the
working world, people communicate technical information for a number of
purposes, many of which fall into one of two categories:
Communication that helps others learn about a subject, carry out a task,
or make a decision. For instance, administrators with the Department of
Health and Human Services might hire a media production company to
make a video that explains to citizens how to use a website to manage
their Medicare benefits. The president of a manufacturing company might
write an article in the company newsletter to explain to employees why
management decided to phase out production of one of the company’s
products. The board of directors of a community-service organization
might produce a grant proposal to submit to a philanthropic organization
in hopes of being awarded a grant. Figure 1.1 shows a screen capture from
an online video that explains how to use the Medicare website.
Communication that reinforces or changes attitudes and motivates
readers to take action. A wind-energy company might create a website
with videos and text intended to show that building wind turbines off the
coast of a tourist destination would have many benefits and few risks. A
property owners’ association might create a website to make the opposite
argument: that the wind turbines would have few benefits but many risks.
In each of these two cases, the purpose of communicating the information
is to persuade people to accept a point of view and encourage them to act
— perhaps to contact their elected representatives and present their views
about this public-policy issue. Figure 1.2 shows an excerpt from a website
that promotes the building of wind turbines off the coast of Massachusetts.
FIGURE 1.1 A Communication That Helps Others Carry Out a Task
The purpose of this online video at Medicare.gov is to help members carry out the
task of using the website.
FIGURE 1.2 A Communication That Aims to Change Attitudes
The purpose of this website, created by an energy development company, is to
generate public support for an offshore wind park.
UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE
When you communicate in the workplace, you have not only a clear purpose
— what you want to achieve — but also a clearly defined audience — one or
more people who are going to read the document, attend the oral
presentation, visit the website, or view the video you produce. Sometimes
audience members share the same purpose, but not always. It’s possible, even
likely, that a piece of technical communication will have multiple audiences
with different purposes.
In most of your previous academic writing, your audience has been your
instructor, and your purpose has been to show your instructor that you have
mastered some body of information or skill. Typically, you have not tried to
create new knowledge or motivate the reader to take a particular action —
except to give you an “A” for that assignment.
By contrast, in technical communication, your audience will likely include
peers and supervisors in your company, as well as people outside your
company. For example, suppose you are a public-health scientist working for
a federal agency. You and your colleagues just completed a study showing
that, for most adults, moderate exercise provides as much health benefit as
strenuous exercise. After participating in numerous meetings with your
colleagues and after drafting, critiquing, and revising many drafts, you
produce four different documents:
a journal article for other scientists
a press release to distribute to popular print and online publications
an infographic for use in doctors’ offices
an animated blog post for your agency to share on social media
In each of these documents, you present the key information in a different
way to meet the needs of a particular audience.
Why Technical Communication Skills Are
Important in Your Career
Many college students believe that the most important courses they take are
those in their major. Some biology majors think, for example, that if they just
take that advanced course in genetic analysis, employers will conclude that
they are prepared to do more advanced projects and therefore will hire them.
But knowledge in a particular field is not the only thing employers are
looking for. It’s not even the most important skill or ability. Surveys over the
past three or four decades have shown consistently that employers want to
hire people who can communicate. Look at it this way: when employers hire
a biologist, they want a person who can communicate effectively about
biology. When they hire a civil engineer, they want a person who can
communicate about civil engineering.
A 2012 survey by Millennial Branding, a research and management
consulting firm that helps companies find and train Generation Y employees,
sifted through data from more than 100,000 U.S. companies. The results
showed that 98 percent of those companies named communication skills as
extremely important for new employees (Millennial Branding, 2012). The
next two most important characteristics? Having a positive attitude (97
percent) and teamwork skills (92 percent).
Job Outlook 2013, a report produced by the National Association of
Colleges and Employers, found that communication skills, teamwork skills,
and problem-solving skills top the list of skills and qualities that employers
seek. The report’s main conclusion: “the ideal candidate is a good
communicator who can make decisions and solve problems while working
effectively in a team” (National Association, 2012, p. 31). On a 5-point scale,
where 5 equals “extremely important,” here are the top ten skills and
qualities, according to employers, and the scores they earned:
SKILL OR ABILITY
SCORE
Ability to verbally communicate with persons inside and outside the
organization
4.63
Ability to work in a team structure
4.60
Ability to make decisions and solve problems
4.51
Ability to plan, organize, and prioritize work
4.46
Ability to obtain and process information
4.43
Ability to analyze quantitative data
4.30
Technical knowledge related to the job
3.99
Proficiency with computer software programs
3.95
Ability to create and/or edit written reports
3.56
Ability to sell or influence others
3.55
Most of these skills relate to the technical communication process introduced
in this chapter and described in greater detail throughout the book.
A study of more than 400 employers suggests that technical
communication is even more important for professionals now than it ever has
been in the past (Hart Research Associates, 2015, pp. 1–4). Over 80 percent
of the employers surveyed said that their top priority in hiring new employees
is finding people with excellent writing, speaking, and problem-solving
skills. They also emphasized the ability to work in groups and make ethical
decisions. Some reports estimate that, in the aggregate, companies spend over
three billion dollars annually to train employees to write (College Entrance
Examination Board, 2004, p. 29). Would companies rather not have to spend
that money? Yes.
You’re going to be producing and contributing to a lot of technical
documents. The facts of life in the working world are simple: the better you
communicate, the more valuable you are. This textbook can help you learn
and practice the skills that will make you a better communicator.
The Challenges of Producing Technical
Communication
One of the most challenging activities you will engage in as a professional is
communicating your ideas to audiences. Why? Because communication is a
higher-order skill that involves many complex factors.
The good news is that there are ways to think about these complex factors,
to think through them, that will help you communicate better. No matter what
document you produce or contribute to, you need to begin by considering five
sets of factors.
AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS
What problem or problems is your audience trying to solve? Does your
audience know enough about your subject to understand a detailed
discussion, or do you need to limit the scope, the amount of technical detail,
or the type of graphics you use? Does your audience already have certain
attitudes or expectations about your subject that you wish to reinforce or
change? Does your audience speak English well, or should you present the
information in more than one language? Does your audience share your
cultural assumptions about such matters as how to organize and interpret
documents, or do you need to adjust your writing approach to match a
different set of assumptions? Does your audience include people with
disabilities (of vision, hearing, movement, or cognitive ability) who have
requirements you need to meet?
PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS
Before you can write, you need to determine your purpose: what do you want
your audience to know or believe or do after having read your document? Do
you have multiple purposes? If so, is one more important than the others?
Although much technical communication is intended to help people perform
tasks, such as configuring privacy settings in a social-media environment,
many organizations large and small devote significant communication
resources to the increasingly vital purpose of branding: creating an image that
helps customers distinguish the company from competitors. Most companies
now employ community specialists as technical communicators to coordinate
the organization’s day-to-day online presence and its social-media
campaigns. These specialists publicize new products and initiatives and
respond to questions and new developments. They also manage all of the
organization’s documents — from tweets to blog posts to Facebook fan pages
and company-sponsored discussion forums.
SETTING-RELATED FACTORS
What is the situation surrounding the problem you are trying to solve? Is
there a lot at stake in the situation, such as the budget for a project, or is your
document a more routine communication, such as technical notes for a
software update? What is the context in which your audience will use your
document? Will the ways in which they use it — or the physical or digital
environment in which they use it — affect how you write? Will the document
be used in a socially or politically charged setting? Does the setting include
established norms of ethical behavior? Is the setting formal or informal?
Settings can have a great deal of influence over how audiences think about
and use technical communication.
DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS
What type of content will the document include? How will the content aid
problem solving? Does your subject dictate what kind of document (such as a
report or a blog post) you choose to write? Does your subject dictate what
medium (print or digital) you choose for your document? Do you need to
provide audiences with content in more than one medium? If you’re using a
document template, how should you modify it for your audiences and
purposes? Does the application call for a particular writing style or level of
formality? (For the sake of convenience, we will use the word document
throughout this book to refer to all forms of technical communication, from
written documents to oral presentations and online forms, such as podcasts
and wikis.)
PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS
What process will you use to produce the document? Is there an established
process to support the work, or do you need to create a new one? Do you
have sufficient time for planning tasks, such as analyzing your audience and
purpose, choosing writing tools, and researching and reading background
information? Does your budget limit the number of people you can enlist to
help you or limit the size or shape of the document? Does your schedule limit
how much information you can include in the document? Does your schedule
limit the type or amount of document testing you can do? Will the document
require updating or maintenance?
Because all these factors interact in complicated ways, every technical
document you create involves a compromise. If you are writing a set of
instructions for installing a water heater and you want those instructions to be
easily understood by people who speak only Spanish, you will need more
time and a bigger budget to have the document translated, and it will be
longer and thus a little bit harder to use, for both English and Spanish
speakers. You might need to save money by using smaller type, smaller
pages, and cheaper paper, and you might not be able to afford to print it in
full color. In technical communication, you do the best you can with your
resources of time, information, and money. The more carefully you think
through your options, the better able you will be to use your resources wisely
and make a document that will get the job done.
Characteristics of a Technical Document
Technical communication shares certain general characteristics with other
types of communication. For example, both technical communication and
journalism report data and information in an organized and efficient manner.
Technical communication, however, isn’t journalism or investigative
reporting. It’s communication produced in workplace settings to help people
in both professional and personal contexts accomplish tasks.
Almost every technical document that gets the job done has six major
characteristics:
It addresses particular readers. Knowing who the readers are, what they
understand about the subject, how well they speak English, and how they
will use the document will help you decide what kind of document to
write, how to structure it, how much detail to include, and what sentence
style and vocabulary to use.
It helps readers solve problems. For instance, you might produce a video
that explains to your company’s employees how to select their employee
benefits, or you might write a document spelling out the company’s policy
on using social media in the workplace.
It reflects the organization’s goals and culture. For example, a state
government department that oversees vocational-education programs
submits an annual report to the state legislature in an effort to secure
continued funding, as well as a lot of technical information to the public in
an effort to educate its audience. Although the connection may not be
obvious, technical documents also reflect the organization’s culture. For
example, many organizations encourage their employees to blog about
their areas of expertise to create a positive image of the organization.
It is produced collaboratively. No one person has all the information,
skills, or time needed to create a large document. You will work with
subject-matter experts — the various technical professionals — to create a
better document than you could have made working alone. You will
routinely post questions to networks of friends and associates — both
inside and outside your own organization — to get answers to technical
questions.
It uses design to increase readability. Technical communicators use
design features — such as typography, spacing, and color — to make a
document not only more attractive but also more usable, so that it creates a
positive impression and is easy to navigate and understand.
It consists of words or images or both. Images — both static and moving
— can make a document more interesting and appealing to readers and
can help the writer communicate and reinforce difficult concepts,
communicate instructions and descriptions of objects and processes,
communicate large amounts of quantifiable data, and communicate with
nonnative speakers.
Although most technical documents share the characteristics listed above,
their quality can vary widely. How can you recognize a well-made
document? Consider the characteristics described in the Guidelines box on
page 11.
GUIDELINES: Measures of Excellence in Technical
Documents
Nine characteristics distinguish excellent technical documents:
Honesty. The most important measure of excellence in a technical
document is honesty. You need to tell the truth and not mislead the reader,
not only because it is the right thing to do but also because readers can
get hurt if you are dishonest. Finally, if you are dishonest, you and your
organization could face serious legal charges. If a court finds that your
document’s failure to provide honest, appropriate information caused a
substantial injury or loss, your organization might have to pay millions of
dollars.
Clarity. Your goal is to produce a document that conveys a single meaning
the reader can understand easily. An unclear technical document can be
dangerous. A carelessly drafted building code, for example, could tempt
contractors to use inferior materials or techniques. In addition, an unclear
technical document is expensive. Handling a telephone call to a customersupport center costs $5–$10 for a simple question but about $20–$45 for a
more complicated problem — and about a third of the calls are the more
expensive kind (Carlaw, 2010). Clear technical communication in a
product’s documentation (its user instructions) can greatly reduce the
number and length of such calls.
Accuracy. A slight inaccuracy can confuse and annoy your readers; a major
inaccuracy can be dangerous and expensive. In another sense, accuracy
is a question of ethics. Technical documents must be as objective and
unbiased as you can make them. If readers suspect that you are slanting
information — by overstating or omitting facts — they will doubt the validity
of the entire document.
Comprehensiveness. A good technical document provides all the
information readers need. It describes the background so that readers
unfamiliar with the subject can understand it. It contains sufficient detail so
that readers can follow the discussion and carry out any required tasks. It
refers to supporting materials clearly or includes them as attachments. A
comprehensive document provides readers with a complete, selfcontained discussion that enables them to use the information safely,
effectively, and efficiently.
Accessibility. A good technical document can be accessed and used by
people with varying physical abilities. Although accessibility is important in
all documents, it is of particular concern with online materials. For
example, instructional videos should include closed-captioning for the
visually impaired. Documents designed with accessibility in mind tend to
function better for everyone. For more about designing accessible
documents, see Chapter 11, pages 281–84.
Usability. In technical communication, usability measures how successfully
a document achieves its purposes and meets its audience’s needs. For
more about testing for usability, see Chapter 13.
Conciseness. A document must be concise enough to be useful to a busy
reader. You can shorten most writing by 10 to 20 percent simply by
eliminating unnecessary phrases, choosing shorter words, and using
economical grammatical forms. Your job is to figure out how to convey a
lot of information economically.
Professional appearance. You start to communicate before anyone reads
the first word of the document. If the document looks neat and
professional, readers will form a positive impression of it and of you. Your
document should adhere to the format standards of your organization or
your professional field, and it should be well designed. For example, a
letter should follow one of the traditional letter formats and have generous
margins.
Correctness. A correct document is one that adheres to the conventions of
grammar, punctuation, spelling, mechanics, and usage. Sometimes,
incorrect writing can confuse readers or even make your writing
inaccurate. The more typical problem, however, is that incorrect writing
makes you look unprofessional. If your writing is full of errors, readers will
wonder if you were also careless in gathering, analyzing, and presenting
the technical information. If readers doubt your professionalism, they will
be less likely to accept your conclusions or follow your recommendations.
DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY
Analyzing a Technical Document
This two-page publication was produced by the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC). The following questions ask you to think about the
various factors that contributed to the content and design of this document.
1. Who is the audience for this document? Where do you think the
authors intended for the document to be displayed?
2. With which of the two general purposes does this document
more closely align? Does it help others to learn about a subject,
carry out a task, or make a decision, or does it reinforce or
change attitudes and motivate readers to take action? If the
document appears to have some combination of these
purposes, which seems to be the most important? How can you
tell?
3. What problem is the document addressing? Does the
document provide clear solutions?
4. Has the document been designed to facilitate usability? How
does it use words and images to communicate information?
Does it create a positive impression? Is it easy to navigate and
understand? Does it address readers with various physical
abilities?
5. Is the document concise? How well does it communicate a lot
of information in an economical manner? Can busy readers
scan it and grasp the main point?
6. Does the document appear professional? Why or why not?
Skills and Qualities Shared by Successful
Workplace Communicators
People who are good at communicating in the workplace share a number of
skills. Three of them relate to the problem-solving skills you have been
honing in school and will continue to develop in your career:
Ability to perform research. Successful communicators know how to
perform primary research (discovering new information through
experiments, observations, interviews, surveys, and calculations) and
secondary research (finding existing information by reading what others
have written or said). Successful communicators seek out information
from people who use the products and services, not just from the
manufacturers. Therefore, although successful communicators would visit
the Toyota website to learn about the technical specifications of a Prius if
they wanted to find out what it was like to drive, own, or repair a Prius,
they would be sure to search the Internet for information from experts not
associated with Toyota, as well as user-generated content: information
from owners, presented, for example, in discussion forums and blogs.
Ability to analyze information. Successful communicators know how to
identify the best information — most accurate, relevant, recent, and
unbiased — and then figure out how it can help them in understanding a
problem and ways to solve it. Successful communicators know how to sift
through mountains of data, identifying relationships among apparently
unrelated facts. They know how to evaluate a situation, look at it from
other people’s perspectives, and zero in on the most important issues.
Ability to speak and write clearly. Successful communicators know how to
express themselves clearly and simply, both to audiences that know a lot
about the subject and to audiences that do not. They take care to revise,
edit, and proofread their documents so that the documents present accurate
information, are easy to read, and make a professional impression. And
they know how to produce different types of documents, from tweets to
memos to presentations.
In addition to the skills just described, successful workplace
communicators have several qualities that relate to professional attitudes and
work habits. These qualities are outlined in the Guidelines box below.
GUIDELINES: Communicating Professionally
When you communicate in the workplace, model the behavior of successful
professionals.
Be honest. Successful communicators tell the truth. They don’t promise
what they know they can’t deliver, and they don’t bend facts. When they
make mistakes, they admit them and work harder to solve the problem.
Be willing to learn. Successful communicators know that they don’t know
everything — not about what they studied in college, what their company
does, or how to write and speak. Every professional is a lifelong learner.
Display emotional intelligence. Successful communicators understand
their own emotions and those of others. Because they can read people —
through body language, facial expression, gestures, and words — they can
work effectively in teams, helping to minimize interpersonal conflict and
encouraging others to do their best work.
Be generous. Successful communicators reply to requests for information,
and they share information willingly. (Of course, they don’t share
confidential information, such as trade secrets, information about new
products being developed, or personal information about colleagues.)
Monitor the best information. Successful communicators seek out
opinions from others. They monitor the best online sources for new
approaches that can spark their own ideas. They use searching and
filtering tools to help them stay on top of the torrent of new information on
the Internet. They know how to use social media and can represent their
organization online.
Be self-disciplined. Successful communicators are well organized and
diligent. They finish what they start, and they always do their best on any
document, from the least important text message to the most important
report.
Prioritize and respond quickly. Successful communicators know that the
world doesn’t always conform to their own schedules. Because social
media never sleep, communicators sometimes need to put their current
projects aside in order to respond immediately to a problem or request.
And even though speed is important, they know that quality is, too;
therefore, they make sure every document is fully professional before it
goes out.
EXERCISES
For more about memos, see Ch. 14, p. 376.
1. Form small groups and study the home page of your college or university’s
website. Focus on three measures of excellence in technical
communication: clarity, accessibility, and professional appearance. How
effectively does the home page meet each of these measures of
excellence? Be prepared to share your findings with the class.
2. Locate an owner’s manual for a consumer product, such as a coffee
maker, bicycle, or hair dryer. In a memo to your instructor, discuss at least
three decisions the writers and designers of the manual appear to have
made to address audience-related factors, purpose-related factors, settingrelated factors, document-related factors, or process-related factors. For
instance, if the manual is printed only in English, the writers and designers
presumably decided either that it was not necessary to create versions in
other languages or that they didn’t have the resources to do so.
3. Using a job site such as Indeed.com or Monster.com, locate three job ads
for people in your academic major. In each ad, identify references to writing
and communication skills, and then identify references to professional
attitudes and work habits. Be prepared to share your findings with the
class.
CASE 1: Using the Measures of Excellence
in Evaluating a Résumé
Your technical-communication instructor is planning to invite guest speakers
to deliver presentations to the class on various topics throughout the
semester, and she has asked you to work with one of them to tailor his jobapplication presentation to the “Measures of Excellence” discussed in this
chapter. To access relevant documents and get started on your project, go to
LaunchPad.
CHAPTER 2
Understanding Ethical and Legal
Considerations
Chapter Introduction
A Brief Introduction to Ethics
Your Ethical Obligations
OBLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER
OBLIGATIONS TO THE PUBLIC
OBLIGATIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Your Legal Obligations
COPYRIGHT LAW
◾ GUIDELINES: Determining Fair Use
◾ GUIDELINES: Dealing with Copyright Questions
◾ ETHICS NOTE: Distinguishing Plagiarism from Acceptable Reuse of
Information
TRADEMARK LAW
◾ GUIDELINES: Protecting Trademarks
CONTRACT LAW
LIABILITY LAW
◾ GUIDELINES: Abiding by Liability Laws
The Role of Corporate Culture in Ethical and Legal Conduct
Understanding Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Social Media
◾ GUIDELINES: Using Social Media Ethically and Legally
◾ DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ACTIVITY: Presenting Guidelines for Using Social
Media
Communicating Ethically Across Cultures
COMMUNICATING WITH CULTURES WITH DIFFERENT ETHICAL BELIEFS
COMMUNICATING IN COUNTRIES WITH DIFFERENT LAWS
Principles for Ethical Communication
ABIDE BY RELEVANT LAWS
COMPLY WITH ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS
ABIDE BY THE APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL CODE OF CONDUCT
ABIDE BY YOUR ORGANIZATION’S POLICY ON SOCIAL MEDIA
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF YOUR EMPLOYER’S ETHICS RESOURCES
TELL THE TRUTH
DON’T MISLEAD YOUR READERS
USE DESIGN TO HIGHLIGHT IMPORTANT ETHICAL AND LEGAL INFORMATION
BE CLEAR
AVOID DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE
ACKNOWLEDGE ASSISTANCE FROM OTHERS
WRITER’S CHECKLIST
EXERCISES
CASE 2: The Ethics of Requiring Students To Subsidize a Plagiarism-Detection
Service
Chapter Introduction
ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES are all around you in your work life. If you look at
the website of any bike manufacturer, for example, you will see that bicyclists are
always shown wearing helmets. Is this because bike manufacturers care about
safety? Certainly. But bike makers also care about product liability. If a company
website showed cyclists without helmets, an injured cyclist might sue, claiming that
the company was suggesting it is safe to ride without a helmet.
Ethical and legal pitfalls lurk in the words and graphics of many kinds of formal
documents. In producing a proposal, you might be tempted to exaggerate or lie
about your organization’s past accomplishments, pad the résumés of the project
personnel, list as project personnel some workers who will not be contributing to
the project, or present an unrealistically short work schedule. In drafting product
information, you might feel pressured to exaggerate the quality of the products
shown in catalogs or manuals or to downplay the hazards of using those products.
In creating graphics, you might be asked to hide an item’s weaknesses by
manipulating a photo of a product.
One thing is certain: there are many serious ethical and legal issues related to
technical communication, and all professionals need a basic understanding of
them. Keep in mind that decisions and actions can be legal but not ethical, or vice
versa. You will need to think carefully about both aspects of any technical
communication you create and address any conflicts that arise.
A Brief Introduction to Ethics
Ethics is the study of the principles of conduct that apply to an individual or a
group. For some people, ethics is a matter of intuition — what their gut
feelings tell them about the rightness or wrongness of an act. Others see
ethics in terms of their own religion or the Golden Rule: treat others as you
would like them to treat you. Ethicist Manuel G. Velasquez outlines four
moral standards that are useful in thinking about ethical dilemmas (2011):
Rights. This standard concerns individuals’ basic needs and welfare.
Everyone agrees, for example, that people have a right to a reasonably safe
workplace. When we buy a product, we have a right to expect that the
information that accompanies it is honest and clear. However, not
everything that is desirable is necessarily a right. For example, in some
countries, high-quality health care is considered a right. That is, the
government is required to provide it, regardless of whether a person can
afford to pay for it. In other countries, health care is not considered a right.
Justice. This standard concerns how the costs and benefits of an action or a
policy are distributed among a group. For example, the cost of maintaining
a high-speed broadband infrastructure should be borne, in part, by people
who use it. However, because everyone benefits from the infrastructure,
the standard of justice suggests that general funds can also be used to pay
for it. Another example: justice requires that people doing the same job
receive the same pay, regardless of whether they are male or female, black
or white.
Utility. This standard concerns the positive and negative effects that an
action or a policy has, will have, or might have on others. For example, if a
company is considering closing a plant, the company’s leaders should
consider not only the money they would save but also the financial
hardship of laid-off workers and the economic effects on the community.
One tricky issue in thinking about utility is figuring out the time frame to
examine. An action such as laying off employees can have one effect in the
short run — improving the company’s quarterly balance sheet — and a
very different effect in the long run — hurting the company’s productivity
or the quality of its products.
Care. This standard concerns the relationships we have with other
individuals. We owe care and consideration to all people, but we have
greater responsibilities to people in our families, our workplaces, and our
communities. The closer a person is to us, the greater care we owe that
person. Therefore, we have greater obligations to members of our family
than we do to others in our community.
Although these standards provide a vocabulary for thinking about how to
resolve ethical conflicts, they are imprecise and often conflict with each
other. Therefore, they cannot provide a systematic method of resolving
ethical conflicts. Take the case of a job opportunity in your company. You
are a member of the committee that will recommend which of six applicants
to hire to redesign a customer portal that hosts tutorials and documentation.
One of the six is a friend of yours who has been unable to secure a
professional job since graduating from college two years ago. She therefore
does not have as much website design experience as the other five candidates.
However, she is enthusiastic about gaining experience in this particular field
—and eager to start paying off her student loans.
How can the four standards help you think through the situation?
According to the rights standard, lobbying for your friend or against the other
applicants would be wrong because all applicants have an ethical right to an
evaluation process that considers only their qualifications to do the job.
Looking at the situation from the perspective of justice yields the same
conclusion: it would be wrong to favor your friend. From the perspective of
utility, lobbying for your friend would probably not be in the best interests of
the organization, although it might be in your friend’s best interests. Only
according to the care standard does lobbying for your friend seem
reasonable.
As you think about this case, you have to consider a related question:
should you tell the other people on the hiring committee that one of the
applicants is your friend? Yes, because they have a right to know about your
personal relationship so that they can better evaluate your contributions to the
discussion. You might also offer to recuse yourself (that is, not participate in
the discussion of this position), leaving it to the other committee members to
decide whether your friendship with a candidate represents a conflict of
interest.
One more complication in thinking about this case: Let’s say your friend is
one of the top two candidates for the job. In your committee, which is made
up of seven members, three vote for your friend, but four vote for the other
candidate, who already has a very good job. She is a young, highly skilled
employee with a degree from a prestigious university. In other words, she is
likely to be very successful in the working world, regardless of whether she is
offered this particular job. Should the fact that your friend has yet to start her
own career affect your thinking about this problem? Some people would say
no: the job should be offered to the most qualified applicant. Others would
say yes: society does not adequately provide for its less-fortunate members,
and because your friend needs the job more and is almost as qualified as the
other top applicant, she should get the offer. In other words, some people
would focus on the narrow, technical question of determining the best
candidate for the job, whereas others would see a much broader social
question involving human rights.
Most people do not explore the conflict among rights, justice, utility, and
care when they confront a serious ethical dilemma; instead, they simply do
what they think is right. Perhaps this is good news. However, the depth of
ethical thinking varies dramatically from one person to another, and the
consequences of superficial ethical thinking can be profound. For these
reasons, ethicists have described a general set of principles that can help
people organize their thinking about the role of ethics within an
organizational context. These principles form a web of rights and obligations
that connect an employee, an organization, and the world in which the
organization is situated.
For example, in exchange for their labor, employees enjoy three basic
rights: fair wages, safe and healthy working conditions, and due process in
the handling of such matters as promotions, salary increases, and firing.
Although there is still serious debate about the details of employee rights,
such as whether employees have the right to freedom from surreptitious
surveillance and unreasonable searches in drug investigations, the debate
almost always concerns the extent of employees’ rights, not the existence of
the basic rights themselves. For instance, ethicists disagree about whether
hiring undercover investigators to identify drug users at a job site is an
unwarranted intrusion on employees’ rights, but there is no debate about
employees’ right to freedom from unwarranted intrusion.
Your Ethical Obligations
In addition to enjoying rights, an employee assumes obligations, which can
form a clear and reasonable framework for discussing the ethics of technical
communication. The following discussion outlines three sets of obligations
that you have as an employee: to your employer, to the public, and to the
environment.
OBLIGATIONS TO YOUR EMPLOYER
You are hired to further your employer’s legitimate aims and to refrain from
any activities that run counter to those aims. Specifically, you have five
obligations:
Competence and diligence. Competence refers to your skills; you should
have the training and experience to do the job adequately. Diligence
simply means working hard. Unfortunately, a recent survey of over 1,000
workers revealed that more than half of employees waste up to one hour of
their eight-hour day surfing the web, socializing with co-workers, and
doing other tasks unrelated to their jobs (Salary.com, 2013).
Generosity. Although generosity might sound like an unusual obligation,
you are obligated to help your co-workers and stakeholders outside your
organization by sharing your knowledge and expertise. What this means is
that if you are asked to respond to appropriate questions or provide
recommendations on some aspect of your organization’s work, you should
do so. If a customer or supplier contacts you, make the time to respond
helpfully. Generosity shows professionalism and furthers your
organization’s goals.
Honesty and candor. You should not steal from your employer. Stealing
includes such practices as embezzlement, “borrowing” office supplies, and
padding expense accounts. Candor means truthfulness; you should report
to your employer problems that might threaten the quality or safety of the
organization’s product or service.
Issues of honesty and candor include what Sigma Xi, the Scientific
Research Society, calls trimming, cooking, and for...
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