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8
TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT*
G
A
O V E R V I E W
T
Throughout this book we have referred to
the empirical research linkingEparticular
human resource practices to corporate
S
financial performance. The last chapter
,
emphasized the critical role of
performance measurement and
management as characteristics of these
D
“high-performance work systems.”1 This
E to the
same body of research also points
importance of training and development as
A
contributors to the “bottom line” of
N has
corporate performance. Training
evolved substantially in recentDyears with
evidence indicating more organizational
R
investment in training and development.
The 2004–2005 workplace forecast
A
from the Society of Human Resource
Management ranked the growth of
computer-based, electronic learning
1 as one
of the top-10 most important trends in all
1 the intense
HRM (see Figure 8-1).2 Given
pressure to compete, improve2quality and
customer service, and lower costs, leading
3
American companies have come to view
T survival
training as a key to organizational
and success. One recent review found that
S
“many organizations are more likely to
include training solutions as part of a
systemwide change to gain competitive
advantage”3 Likewise, in countries
around the world, training has become
increasingly important to prepare workers
for new jobs. For example, in Japan with
the increasing numbers of women entering
traditionally male factory jobs, more
training is needed to help them learn the
necessary skills. At Toyota Motor Corp.
women have been given more training in
192
everything from sexual harassment
policies to skills for working on assembly
lines.4 Of course, some training is
required for legal or regulatory reasons.
For example, as of 2006, employers with
50 or more employees operating in
California must provide sexual harassment
training for all supervisors.5
Many employers view the skill level
of their workforce as the top priority for
planning. They worry that increasing
technology is “de-skilling” 75 percent of
the population. Their suggestion is
continual training for employees. As
Chuck Nielson, vice president of human
resources at Texas Instruments, notes, “our
challenge is creating an environment in
which people love to learn.” The company
mandates a minimum of 40 hours of
training per year. Peter Drucker, wellknown management author, says the
fastest-growing industry in the United
States will be the continuing education
and training of adults due to the
replacement of industrial workers with
knowledge workers.6 International
business scholars, Jeffrey Pfeffer and John
Veiga cite training as an “essential
component of high performance work
systems” and a “source of competitive
advantage.” As one example, they
described The Men’s Wearhouse, a
specialty retailer of men’s tailored
business attire, that attributes its success
(its stock value has increased by
400 percent) to the emphasis it has placed
on training. They built a 35,000-squarefoot training center at their headquarters
*Contributed by Joyce E. A. Russell.
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
in Fremont, California, and put their “clothing
consultants” through training and retraining at “Suits
University.”7
Organizations with exceptional training opportunities
and programs also often make Fortune magazine’s list of
the “Best Companies to Work for,” an honor that also
translates into financial success. A recent study found that
companies that made Fortune’s list had 50 percent less
turnover than their peers and returned about three times
more money for stockholders.
Miami-based Baptist Health South Florida made the
list in 2005 due mainly to the manner in which they
invested in their people.8 The hospital offers extensive
training and tuition reimbursement for taking outside
courses. Their “School at Work” programs prepares
lower-level workers for college-level courses and more
professional careers. They pay their employees to attend
the classes and graduates can then take advantage of the
hospital’s tuition reimbursement benefits to take
community college or university classes.
To become a leading-edge company, a firm will need
to be more concerned with the types of programs they
use to improve workplace learning and performance, not
simply how much money they spend on training. A
transformation of a firm’s training efforts and other
practices and systems that support training may be
needed. For example, successful firms align their training
with high-performance work practices (e.g., self-directed
work teams, access to business information), innovative
compensation practices (profit sharing, group-based pay),
and innovative training practices (e.g., mentoring or
coaching programs, training information systems).9
Not only must firms invest in the continual learning
of workers in order to be competitive, but many
companies are providing training to workers who are new
to the workforce. Many companies also include an
assessment of workforce trainability as part of their
analysis for expansion and plant openings. Unfortunately,
recent evidence indicates that many U.S. workers are not
competing well on the trainability criterion. In 2005,
Toyota selected Ontario, Canada, over the United States
as the place for a new plant for its mini-S.U.V.s. They
chose Canada over several U.S. states offering substantial
financial incentives based to some extent on the relative
trainability of Ontario’s workforce. The president of the
Automotive Parts Manufacturers’ Association stated that the
educational level in parts of the United States was so low
that trainers for Japanese plants have to use “pictorials”
to teach some illiterate workers how to use high-tech
equipment. Other reports support the contention that auto
companies with plants in parts of the United States are
disappointed in the trainability of the U.S. workforce.10
Many firms provide life training in addition to skills
training. When Marriott Hotels hires new workers, it
enrolls them in a six-week training course, with classes
on hotel duties and self-esteem and stress. At Burger
193
King, basic training for starting restaurant jobs also
includes Life 101 (e.g., teaching employees how to
balance a checkbook, the importance of getting to work
on time). Ecolab established partnerships with welfare-towork community groups and started a training program at
a Wisconsin plant to teach entry-level employees math,
basic physics, and blueprint-reading skills.11
This chapter provides an overview of employee
training. We will discuss the importance of training in the
context of the organization’s competitive strategy and the
need to link training needs with the mission and goals of
the organization. You will learn how to design and
evaluate a training program and to tailor the training to
particular situations.
G
A O B J E C T I V E S
T After reading this chapter, you should be able to
E
what is meant by training, and describe why it
S 1. Define
is a critical function for corporations today.
, 2. Explain how to conduct a needs assessment, including
D
E
A
N
D
R
A
3.
4.
5.
6.
performing organizational, task, and person analyses
and deriving instructional objectives for a training
program.
Know how to design a training program to facilitate
learning.
Identify the critical elements related to transfer of
training.
Compare and contrast the various techniques
available for training, including their relative
advantages and disadvantages, with particular
emphasis on e-learning.
Identify criteria to use to evaluate training
effectiveness.
Understand different experimental designs that can be
used for evaluating training programs.
Understand the components of training programs for
employee orientation, teamwork, information
technology, diversity awareness, sexual harassment,
creativity, and international assignments.
1 7.
1 8.
2
3
T
S D EFINING T RAINING AND D EVELOPMENT
Training is defined as any attempt to improve employee
performance on a currently held job or one related to it.
This usually means changes in specific knowledge, skills,
attitudes, or behaviors. To be effective, training should involve a learning experience, be a planned organizational
activity, and be designed in response to identified needs.
Ideally, training also should be designed to meet the goals
of the organization while simultaneously meeting the
goals of individual employees. The term training is often
confused with the term development. Development refers
to learning opportunities designed to help employees
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PART III Developing Human Resource Capability
Importance
of ethics
Economic climate
dictates how
companies operate
Concept of
work changing
Increase in diversity
in the workplace
Trends
in the
Workplace
G
A
T
E
S
,
Changes brought about
by global network and
communications
Impact of technology
on work and home life
Security concerns
on a global scale
Faster work pace
requires more flexibility
Figure 8-1 Trends in the Workplace
grow. Such opportunities do not have to be limited to
improving employees’ performance on their current jobs.
At Ford, for example, a new systems analyst is required to
take a course on Ford standards for user manuals. The
content of this training is needed to perform the systems
analyst job at Ford. The systems analyst, however, also
may enroll in a course entitled “Self-Awareness,” the
content of which is not required on the current job. This
situation illustrates the difference between “training” and
“development.”12 The focus of “development” is on the
long term to help employees prepare for future work
demands, while “training” often focuses on the immediate
period to help fix any current deficits in employees’ skills.
The most effective companies look at training and career
development as an integral part of a “human resources
development” (HRD) program carefully aligned with
corporate business strategies.
E XTENT OF T RAINING
AND D EVELOPMENT
U.S. organizations with more than 100 employees spent
$51.4 billion on formal training for their employees in
2004.13 The average percentage of payroll invested in learning in the ASTD Best Award Winner Companies ranged
from 3.2 percent in 2002 to 4.16 percent in 2004. This was
D
E
A
N
Dconsiderably higher than Fortune 500 Companies and public sector firms that were also surveyed (i.e. average perRcentage of payroll 1.99 percent in 2004). The BEST award
Awinners were defined as those organizations honored for
their exceptional efforts to foster, support, and leverage
enterprise-wide learning for business results. Common
1characteristics of BEST winning organizations were:
1•
2•
3•
T•
S
High-level of investment in learning
Measurement and demonstration of efficiency and
effectiveness of the leadership function
Alignment of learning with business needs and
individual contemporary needs
Provision of a broad range of internal and external
formal and informal learning opportunities
• Chief-level involvement and support for learning
• Combination of learning with other performance
improvement solutions14
As an example, Solectron Corporation, a worldwide
provider of electronic manufacturing services, has focused
its efforts on expanding its in-house training capabilities
or in-sourcing, rather than utilizing more outsourcing for
its training needs.15 The proportion of courses designed,
developed, and delivered by outside contractors has remained at about a third for the past few years (35 percent of courses are designed and developed by outside
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
contractors and 26 percent are delivered by outsiders).
These percentages are slightly higher for technical training programs.16 Expenditure per employee group was
greatest for customer service employees in 2003, with an
average of 18 percent to that group. However, an average
of 28 percent of learning expenditures went to employees
with managerial responsibilities, including first-line supervisors (7 percent), middle managers (11 percent), senior
managers (6 percent), and executives (4 percent).17
Delivery of training via learning technologies increased,
and the percentage of learning delivered in classrooms
was 68 percent, showing a steady decrease since 1999
when it was 80 percent.18
Mercedes-Benz built a $30 million training center,
called the Mercedes-Benz Institute, in its new $300 million plant in Alabama. The 100,000-square-foot center
houses labs for teaching basic skills in welding,
hydraulics, pneumatics, computer-aided design, measurement, and robotics. They set aside $60 million to send
new workers to Germany for training.19 Motorola mandates 40 hours of training per employee per year and has
invested over $170 million in training.20 Industries differ
in their use of training. In 2003, the industry sectors with
the highest levels of expenditure per employee were
financial and technology, while those with the lowest
expenditures were manufacturing durables and wholesaling and retail trade.21
Training has been viewed positively among employees. Approximately two-thirds of employees, regardless
of age or gender, view the training they have received
from their employers to be useful in helping them perform their current job duties. They were less enthusiastic
about how well it has prepared them for higher-level jobs
(about half were satisfied). They also viewed the training
their employer provided as critical for determining
whether or not they would stay with their current firm.22
Corporations are offering a variety of training programs to meet their organizational needs. These include
content on IT and systems; processes, procedures and
business practices; industry specific training; managerial
or supervisory training; interpersonal skills; compliance;
sales; executive development; basic skills; new employee
orientation; customer service, and quality.23 Figure 8-2
lists the most frequent types of training offered in 2003.
The importance of training is likely to continue in the
future given recent trends in the workforce. As the United
States shifts from manufacturing to service jobs, more
workers are needed in service-based industries. In addition, increasing technology demands that current employees enhance their skills and technical sophistication. For
example, U.S. Steel (USX) invested money in training for
workers so that they would be able to use the new technology they implemented in its production processes.
Similarly, Xerox spent about $7 million on its training
center to assist its sales staff in gaining additional training
to better meet customers’ needs for handling documents.24
195
Frequent Types of
FIGURE 8-2 Most
Training Offered*
Percentage of
Firms Offering
Type of Training
G
A
T
E
S
,
D
E
A
N
D
R
A
1
1
2
3
T
S
Computer systems/applications
New hire orientation
Management development, nonexecutive
Technical training
Communication skills
Sexual harassment
Supervisory skills
Leadership
New equipment operation
Performance management/appraisal
Team building
Customer service
Product knowledge
Executive development
Safety
Computer programming
Personal growth
Managing change
Problem solving/decision making
Time management
Train-the-trainer
Diversity/cultural awareness
Hiring/interviewing
Strategic planning
Customer education
Quality/process improvement
Public speaking/presentation skills
Basic life/work skills
Ethics
Sales
Wellness
96%
96
91
90
89
88
88
85
85
85
82
81
79
78
77
76
76
75
75
74
74
72
71
69
68
65
62
61
61
55
54
*Respondents were asked the extent to which they used these methods via
classroom, via technology, via a blended approach, or do not provide. The
figures shown here are for those who reported using any of the three means of
providing training.
Employees at RJR Nabisco who have been confronted
with new technology in their jobs are given the option of
receiving retraining or early retirement.25 Employees
themselves are asking for additional training in using new
technology.26
A S YSTEMS V IEW
OF
T RAINING
The basic process of training is illustrated in Figure 8-3.
Three major steps are involved: assessment, development,
and evaluation. The goal of the assessment phase is to collect information to determine if training is needed in the
organization. If it is needed, it is then important to determine where in the organization it is needed, what kind of
training is needed, and what specific knowledge, abilities,
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PART III Developing Human Resource Capability
NEEDS ASSESSMENT
DEVELOPMENT
Identify needs for training by
conducting needs analyses:
EVALUATION
Identify or develop criteria to
evaluate training outcomes:
• Organization
• Task or job
• Person
• Reactions
• Learning
• Behavior change
• Organizational results
Derive instructional objectives
Choose evaluation design
G
A
• Characteristics of adult learners
• Learning principles
T
E
S
Identify or develop training
, and methods
materials
Design a learning environment by examining:
D
E training
Conduct
A
N
D
R
A
Figure 8-3 A Systems Model of Training
skills, or other characteristics (KASOCs) should be
taught. This information is collected by conducting three
types of analyses: at the organizational, job, and individual level of analysis. After the information is compiled,
objectives for the training program can be derived.
The goal of the development phase of training is to
design the training environment necessary to achieve the
objectives. This means trainers must review relevant
learning issues, including characteristics of adult learners
and learning principles as they apply to the particular
training and potential trainees under consideration. Also,
trainers must identify or develop training materials and
techniques to use in the program. Finally, after the appropriate learning environment is designed or selected, the
training is conducted.
The goal of the evaluation phase is to examine
whether the training program has been effective in meeting the stated objectives. The evaluation phase requires
Conduct evaluation and
cost-effectiveness of
training program
1
1the identification and development of criteria, which
2should include participants’ reactions to the training, asof what they learned in the training program,
3sessments
measures of their behavior after the training, indicators of
Torganizational results (e.g., changes in productivity data,
figures, employee turnover, accident rates), and reSsales
turn on investments (ROI) or, as discussed in Chapter 6,
utility analysis. An experimental design is chosen to assess the effectiveness of training. The choice of the criteria
and the design are both made before training is conducted
in order to ensure that training will be properly evaluated.
After the training is completed, the program is then evaluated using the criteria and design selected.
Discrepancies between Research and Practice
Research in training is needed now more than ever before
as the demand for training increases in organizations.27 In
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
addition, since much of the literature on training comes
from a variety of scientific fields (e.g., industrial and
organizational psychology, human resource development,
cognitive psychology, anthropology, education, human
factors, computer science), it is increasingly important to
integrate the findings across those disciplines. Various
fields in psychology even define training differently.28
Compared to other areas of HRM, practitioners have
a fairly strong knowledge of some areas of training research.29 A recent survey of training processes used in
corporate America revealed some discrepancies between
the academic recommendations regarding training program development and evaluation and the current state of
the practice.30 While larger companies were more likely
to have done formal needs assessments, written specific
instructional objectives, and evaluated the training with
something other than a simple, post-training reaction
questionnaire, the majority of all classes of respondents
did none of these things. Small businesses rarely did any
of these things as part of their training. Over 60 percent of
all surveyed companies, regardless of company size, relied only on trainee reactions to assess the training, taken
upon completion of the training, and had no systematic
follow-up to further evaluate the training. Less than
10 percent of companies used any form of control group
to evaluate the effects of the training. Over 50 percent of
companies admitted that managerial training programs
were first tried because some other company had been using them. As one training director put it, “ A lot of companies buy off-the-shelf training programs just because
they had heard or knew that a competitor was using the
same training. Shouldn’t we expect more data to determine training needs?”
Other scholars also have noted the gaps between research and practice in the training field. Practitioners31
point out that research findings are often ignored and faddish programs are adopted with little proven utility. In
addition, training needs assessments and evaluations are
often rare despite their importance, and most training is
informal even though this is not the best approach to use.
In order to address some of the gaps between research and practice, the American Society for Training
and Development has initiated and published their ASTD
2005 Research-to-Practice conference proceedings. In
this extensive report, they have included over 25 articles
examining a variety of training issues such as evaluation
efforts, learning transfer, e-learning, and designing programs. The intent of the proceedings is to share knowledge that will affect practice in the field.32
G
A
T
E
S
,
D
E
A
N
D
R
A
1
1
2
3
T
S
197
decision to conduct training must be based on the best
available data, which are collected by conducting a needs
assessment. This needs analysis ideally should be conducted in the context of a human resource planning
(HRP) program and timely and valid performance data.
Companies that implement training programs without
conducting a needs assessment may be making errors or
spending money unnecessarily. For example, a needs
assessment might reveal that less-costly interventions
(e.g., personnel selection, a new compensation system,
job redesign) could be used in lieu of training. Despite the
importance of conducting needs assessments, few
employers conduct such an analysis in the context of their
strategic plans or any form of strength, weakness, opportunity, or threat analysis.
A needs assessment is a systematic, objective determination of training needs that involves conducting three
primary types of analyses. These analyses are used to
derive objectives for the training program. The three
analyses consist of an organizational analysis, a job
analysis, and a person analysis.33 After compiling the results, objectives for the training program can be derived.
Many trainers suggest that a training need is any discrepancy between what is desired and what exists. Thus,
one of the goals of the needs assessment is to note any
discrepancies. For example, the World Bank recently determined through a needs assessment that many of its
constituents from eastern Europe required training in
transforming state-owned businesses into self-sustaining
businesses. The organization contracted with a number of
universities to develop and provide the necessary training.
Comparisons between the expected level of performance specified (from the job analysis) and the current
level of performance exhibited (evident in the person
analysis) may indicate performance discrepancies. The
Sheraton Corporation, for example, specified that all hotel managers must be familiar with the implications of the
1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for hotel
operations (see Chapter 3). A test of the law was administered, and scores on the test were used as a basis for
identifying those managers who needed training on the
implications of the law. Performance discrepancies,
however, should not be automatically interpreted as a
need for training.34 The analyst must determine whether
the discrepancy is a skill or knowledge deficiency, thus
requiring training. If, however, the required skill is present and performance is still lacking, then the problem
may be motivational in nature and thus require some
other type of organizational intervention (e.g., new
reward or discipline system).
N EEDS A SSESSMENT
The first step in training is to determine that a need for
training actually exists. An organization should commit
its resources to a training activity only if the training can
be expected to achieve some organizational goal. The
Organizational Analysis
An organizational analysis tries to answer the question of
where the training emphasis should be placed in the company and what factors may affect training. To do this, an
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PART III Developing Human Resource Capability
examination should be made of the organizational goals,
personnel inventories, performance data, and climate and
efficiency indices. This examination should ideally be
conducted in the context of the labor supply forecast and
gap analysis. Organization system constraints that may
hamper the training process also should be explored.
Training does not exist in a vacuum and the context in
which it occurs has an impact on whether individuals will
learn.35 Many companies rely on very detailed surveys of
the workforce to determine training needs as part of the
planning effort. Motorola and IBM, for example, conduct
annual surveys that assess particular training needs in the
context of the company’s short- and long-term goals.
The review of short- and long-term goals of the
organization and any trends that may affect these goals is
done to channel the training towards specific issues of
importance to the firm (e.g., international expansion,
improved customer satisfaction, increased productivity).
For example, after Merrill Lynch pleaded guilty to a number of fraudulent business practices, the new chief executive officer (CEO) ordered training in business ethics for
all employees. To reduce layoffs, IBM retrained hundreds
of employees to be sales representatives. Not only was
IBM able to minimize layoffs, but the larger sales staff
was able to attack another corporate goal: to improve
customer satisfaction.
Data from a human resource information system
(HRIS) can reveal projected employee mobility, retirements, and turnover. The more sophisticated inventories
also can indicate the number of employees in each
KASOC or competency group, which can then be
compared to what is needed based on the gap analysis of
the HR planning process. For example, the Ford Manufacturing Systems Division decided to change to a new
programming language for future support work. The first
step it took was to determine the extent to which current
staff was sufficiently skilled in the new language. The HRIS
quickly revealed how many of the staff had at least basic
knowledge of and experience with the new language.
A review of climate and performance efficiency data is
important to identify problems that could be alleviated
with training.36 Climate indices are quality-of-work-life
indicators and include records on turnover, grievances, absenteeism, productivity, accidents, attitude surveys, employee suggestions, and labor–management data (e.g.,
strikes, lockouts). Job satisfaction indexes provide data on
employee attitudes toward the work itself, supervision, and
co-workers. Performance data should be the specific record
of important outcomes over a specific period of time. A
record of competency assessment could be useful data as
well. Multirater data should be maintained here as well.
Efficiency indexes consist of costs of labor, materials, and
distribution; the quality of the product; downtime; waste;
late deliveries; repairs; and equipment utilization. These
data are examined to find any discrepancies between
desired and actual performance.
It is also important to identify any organization system constraints on training efforts. For example, if the
benefits of training are not clear to top management, they
may not plan and budget appropriately for training. Consequently, the training program may not be properly
designed or implemented. Omni Hotels requires senior
executives to attend training programs to ensure that they
are supportive of the training that lower-level managers
receive. In addition, the training staff makes sure that the
training is tailored to Omni so that trainees can more
readily see the value of the training.37
Organizational analysis should test hypotheses about
training needs. You’re testing theories related to strategy
execution. For example, a retail marketing manager
Greceived a complaint from a vendor that the sales staff did
not understand the advantages at a particular product. The
Amanager then “mined” the customer survey and comTplaint database to determine the extent to which product
knowledge of the sales staff was a problem. (He was able
Eto determine that the complaint may have been an isoSlated event.)
,
Job Analysis
job analysis tries to answer the question of what should
DA
be taught in training so that the trainee can perform the
Ejob satisfactorily. As discussed in Chapter 4, a job analyshould document the tasks or duties involved in the job
Asis
as well as the KASOCs (or competencies) needed to carry
Nout the duties. When conducting a job analysis to determine
Dtraining needs, both a worker-oriented approach, which
focuses on identifying behaviors and KASOCs, and a taskRoriented approach, which describes the work activities
Aperformed, should be used. The critical incident technique (CIT) is particularly valuable because it provides
considerable detail on the job and the consequences of
1specific work behaviors. A task-oriented approach is beneficial in identifying specific training objectives that are
1used in curriculum development and program evaluation.
2Ideally more than one method of job analysis should be
to determine training needs. If interviews or ques3used
tionnaires are used and discrepancies exist between what
Ta supervisor says is an important job duty and what an
states, these discrepancies should be resolved
Semployee
before any training programs are designed.38
Person Analysis
A person analysis attempts to answer the question of who
needs training in the firm and the specific type of training
needed. To do this, the performance of individuals,
groups, or units on major job functions (taken from the
performance appraisal data) or assessments of KASOCs
or competencies are compared to the desired levels. Many
companies use self-assessments in this process. For example, Ford determined the training needs for a new computer
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
language based on a self-assessment questionnaire distributed to the staff. At the managerial level, many organizations (e.g., IBM, AT&T, Federal Express, the World Bank,
and the Federal Aviation Administration) use peers and subordinates to provide performance information about their
managers. Knight-Ridder uses a 360-degree appraisal
system to determine training needs. Managers receive
“competency” ratings from customers, peers, subordinates, and their managers. At Ford, each supervisor is
responsible for completing an individual training plan for
each subordinate. The plan is developed jointly by the
supervisor and the subordinate. The two decide on the
courses that should be taken and the time frame for completion. The goal is for each employee to reach a certain
level of proficiency considered necessary for current and
future tasks. Many organizations in the service sector rely
on customers for information about sales personnel.
Bloomingdale’s, for example, uses “paid” customers to
assess the sales techniques of probationary employees.
The data are then used to determine the appropriate managerial intervention to take with the employee (e.g., training, discipline, new compensation).
Performance discrepancies are used to indicate areas
needing attention. It is important to determine whether
any discrepancies are due to a lack of KASOCs, which
KASOCs are missing, and whether they can be developed
in employees through training. Individuals may lack the
necessary skills or perceive themselves as lacking the
skills (i.e., they may lack confidence in their abilities). In
these cases, training may be needed. In other situations,
employees may have the skills yet lack the needed motivation to perform, and other action may be called upon
(e.g., changes in the reward system, discipline). Employees
also can be tested on the desired behaviors using a performance test such as those discussed in Chapter 6. If they
can perform the duties satisfactorily, the organization will
know that skills training is not required. The U.S. Navy,
for example, uses miniature training and testing in
order to determine skill level prior to comprehensive
training. Pratt & Whitney and Office Depot are among
the many companies that use an assessment center to
measure supervisory skills judged to be critical based
on its goals. Person analysis can also be used to assess
trainability; whether the individual is capable of benefiting from the training and who, among candidates,
might benefit the most. We discuss trainability later on
the chapter. Research is clear that individual difference
variables such as cognitive ability and motivation to
learn are related to trainability and the extent someone
will learn.39
G Techniques for Collecting Needs
A Assessment Data
T A variety of techniques have been suggested for conducting a needs assessment and for collecting data to use in
E the organizational, job, and person analyses. Figure 8-4
S lists these techniques. Some techniques (e.g., work
can be used for more than one type of analysis.
, sampling)
Thus, efforts to coordinate and integrate results are
recommended.
D
E Deriving Instructional Objectives
completing the three types of analyses in the needs
A After
assessment, the training professional should begin to
N develop instructional or learning objectives for the perD formance discrepancies identified. Instructional objectives
describe the performance you want trainees to be able to
R exhibit. Well-written learning objectives should contain
A observable actions (e.g., time on target; error rate for
things that can be identified, ordered, or charted), measurable criteria (e.g., percentage correct), and the conditions
of performance (e.g., specification as to when the behavior
1
1
2
FIGURE 8-4 Data Sources Used in Training Needs Assessment
3
Organizational Analysis
Job/Task Analysis
T
Organizational goals and objectives
Job descriptions S
HRIS data
Skills/Competency inventories
Organizational climate indexes
Efficiency indexes/Performance data
Changes in systems or subsystems
(e.g., equipment)
Management requests
Exit interviews
Management-by-objectives or work
planning systems
199
Job specifications or task analysis
Performance standards
Performing the job
Work sampling
Reviewing literature on the job
Asking questions about the job
Training committees/conferences
Analysis of operating problems
O*NET data
Person Analysis
Performance appraisal data
Work sampling
Interviews
Performance tests
Tests (KASOCs)
Attitude surveys
Training progress charts/checklists
Assessment centers
Critical incidents
Self-efficacy measures
Source: Modified from M. L. Moore and P. Dutton, “Training Needs Analysis: Review and Critique,” Academy of Management Review 3 (1978), pp. 534–538.
Used with permission.
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PART III Developing Human Resource Capability
should occur). Some sample learning objectives for a
training program with sales employees are:
• After training, the employee will be able to smile at all
customers even when exhausted or ill, unless the
customer is irate.
• After training, the employee will be able to calculate
markdowns on all sales merchandise (e.g., 30 percent
markdown) correctly 100 percent of the time.
Although training programs can be developed without
deriving learning objectives, there are several advantages
to developing them. First, the process of defining learning
objectives helps the trainer identify criteria for evaluating
training programs. For example, specifying an instructional objective of a 20 percent reduction in waste reveals that measures of waste may be important indicators
of program effectiveness. Second, learning objectives direct trainers to the specific issues and content to focus
on. This ensures that trainers are addressing important
topics that have been identified through strategic planning. Also, learning objectives guide trainees by specifying what is expected of them at the end of training.
Finally, specifying objectives makes the training department more accountable and more clearly linked to other
human resource activities, which may make the training
program easier to sell to line managers.
D EVELOPMENT OF THE
T RAINING P ROGRAM
After a needs analysis has been conducted and the staff is
confident that training is needed to address the performance problem or to advance the firm’s strategic mission,
the training program is developed. This can be done by an
in-house training staff or by outside consultants. Many
firms now even design and manage their own corporate
training centers. Some of the 400 companies that have
their own corporate universities include Toyota, Ford,
Disney, GE, Union Carbide, IBM, Home Depot, Xerox,
Motorola, Phillips Petroleum, McDonald’s, Black &
Decker, Aetna Life & Casualty, Kodak, and Goodyear
Tire & Rubber.40 To develop the program, the trainer
should design a training environment conducive to learning. This can be done by setting up preconditions for
learning and arranging the training environment to ensure learning. Following this, the trainer should examine
various training methods and techniques to choose the
combination most beneficial for accomplishment of
the instructional objectives of the training program.
Designing a Learning Environment for Training
To design a training program in which learning will be
facilitated, trainers should review the basic principles of
how individuals learn. Learning principles should be
reviewed and integrated into the design of the training
program and materials. Also, issues of how to maximize
transfer of new behaviors back to the job should be
addressed. Finally, trainers should design their programs to
meet the needs of adults as learners, which means understanding how adults best learn. For example, adult learners
want to set their own goals for training since they see themselves as capable of self-direction. In addition, they often
enjoy experiential learning techniques and self-directed
learning more than conventional informational techniques.
They are problem-centered and are more receptive to training that enables them to solve problems of particular interest to their situation. They want to be able to apply the
training they receive to their day-to-day work experiences
and are less interested in the program if they cannot see a
direct application to their work situation.41
G
APreconditions of Learning
TTrainees must be ready to learn before they are placed in
any training program. To ensure this, trainers should
Edetermine whether trainees are trainable (i.e., whether
Sthey have the ability to learn and are motivated to learn).
In addition, trainers should try to gain the support of
, trainees and their supervisors prior to actually implementing the program. This is particularly important for
training in sensitive areas such as diversity and gender
Dand race discrimination.
E
Trainability
ABefore the learner can benefit from any formal training,
Nhe or she must be trainable or ready to learn. This means
Dthe trainee must have both the ability and the motivation
to learn. To have the ability, the trainee must possess the
Rskills and knowledge prerequisite to master the material.
AOne way to determine this is to give trainees a performance
test or work sample (i.e., an example of the types of skills
to be performed on the job) and measure how quickly they
1are able to learn the material or how well they are able to
perform the skills. Assessing trainees’ ability to learn is of
1increasing concern to corporate America. In view of the in2creasing technological knowledge required in most jobs,
Americans are not being educated at a level compat3many
ible with the requirements of most entry-level jobs. This
Tsituation appears to be getting worse in the United States
the entry-level jobs of the future are being “upSsince
skilled” while the pool of qualified workers is shrinking.
(Recall the comment earlier about Toyota’s 2005 decision
to open a new plant in Canada and not the United States.)
It has been estimated that over 30 million workers in
the United States are functionally illiterate, meaning that
they cannot read or write well enough to perform their job
duties. Sun Oil, Campbell Soup, and Digital Equipment
work with state and local governments in partnership programs to help address literacy issues among the workforce.42 Research clearly shows that employees with
higher cognitive ability and basic math and reading skills
are more trainable.43
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
It’s not enough that trainees have the ability to learn
the skills; they must also have the desire or motivation to
learn. Research also finds that employees who are more
conscientious, more oriented toward learning, less anxious, and younger are more trainable.44 One way to assess
motivation to learn is to examine how involved they are in
their own jobs and career planning. The assumption is
that those individuals who are more highly involved will
have higher motivation to learn.45 It is also important to
assess the attitudes and expectations of trainees regarding
training since their views will most likely affect their reactions to the program and the amount they learn.46 For
example, employees who choose to attend training learn
more than those who are required to attend.47 Some companies link successful completion of training programs and
acquired skills with compensation. At Ford, employees
must select 40 hours of training from a list of options. An
employee must fulfill the 40 hours to qualify for merit pay.
Given the increasing use of distance learning formats, it is also important to assess learners’ readiness to
participate in online learning. The readiness of learners to
enter into distance learning environments may play a
critical role in increasing their course-completion and
program-retention rates. Thus, a tool, the E-learning
Readiness Self-Assessment has been designed to provide
a quick, yet comprehensive analysis of preparedness for
success in an online training program. It addresses questions about the learner’s access to technology, online
skills, motivation, online audio, Internet skills, and views
about training success.48
Gaining the Support of Trainees and Others
If trainees do not see the value of training, they will be unlikely to learn new behaviors or use them on their jobs.
Trainees should be informed in advance about the benefits
that will result from training. If they see some incentives
for training, it may strengthen their motivation to learn the
behaviors, practice them, and remember them. To gain
the support of trainees for the training program, the trainer
must point out the intrinsic (e.g., personal growth) and extrinsic (e.g., promotion) benefits of attending training. At
Saturn, employees are strongly encouraged to receive
skills training. In fact, 5 percent of their yearly compensation is based on the amount of training they receive.
In addition to garnering the support of trainees for
training, the support of their supervisors, co-workers, and
subordinates should be sought. For example, if the trainees’
supervisors are not supportive of training, then they may not
facilitate the learning process (e.g., allow employees time
off for training, reward them for using new skills). Likewise, if their peers or subordinates ridicule them for attending training, they may not be motivated to attend training
programs or to learn. Trainers can improve the likelihood of
acquiring others’ support for training by getting their
opinions on the content of training, the location, and the
times. At Patapsco Valley Veterinary Hospital located in
201
Ellicott City, Maryland, staff members are consistently
asked for their opinions on the most convenient times to
hold training sessions. In addition, the owners of the practice set a positive example by attending the training sessions
themselves and by rewarding employees for participating in
training and using their new skills on the job.
Conditions of the Learning Environment
After ensuring the preconditions for learning are met,
trainers should build a training environment in which
learning is maximized. To do this, trainers need to decide
how to best arrange the training environment by addressing the issues below.
G
A
T
E
S
,
D
E
A
N
D
R
A
1
1
2
3
T
S
Whole versus Part Learning
Research has shown that when a complex task is to be
learned, it should be broken down into its parts if this can
be done. Trainees should learn each part separately, starting with the simplest and going on to the most difficult.
However, part learning should be combined with whole
learning; that is, trainees should be shown the whole
performance so that they know what their final goal is. The
training content should be broken down into integrated
parts, and each part should be learned until it can be performed accurately. Then a trainee should be allowed to put
all the parts together and practice the whole task. One
method that combines part and whole learning is called
progressive part learning. In this approach, the trainees
learn one part, then learn and practice that first part along
with a second part, then learn and practice the first and second parts along with a third part, and so on. This might be
used if the topics to be taught are somewhat interdependent
(e.g., a communications course that involved sessions on
active listening, being assertive, using nonverbals).
Massed versus Spaced Practice
Practice is important for trainees to learn a new skill or
behavior. Trainers also can observe the practice sessions
and provide feedback to the trainees to correct their mistakes. Spaced practice (i.e., practicing the new behavior
and taking rest periods in between) is more effective than
massed practice (practicing the new behavior without
breaks), especially for motor skills. For example, it would
be easier for you to learn how to play golf by having a lesson on putting and then going out to practice putting,
rather than learning how to do all of the possible golf
shots (e.g., putting, chipping, pitching, driving, etc.) and
then going out to play. If a learner has to concentrate for
long periods of time without some rest, learning and
retention may suffer. It’s a little like cramming for an
examination: rapid forgetting sets in very soon. Consequently, spaced practice seems to be more productive for
long-term retention and for transfer of learning to the
work setting. Of course, it takes longer for spaced
practice than for massed practice so trainees may resist it
(e.g., they may be less receptive to attending four half-day
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PART III Developing Human Resource Capability
workshops than two full-day sessions). Tasks that are
difficult and complex seem to be performed better when
massed practice is provided first, followed by briefer
sessions with more frequent rest periods.49
Overlearning
Overlearning (i.e., practicing far beyond the point of
performing the task successfully) can be critical in both
acquisition and transfer of knowledge and skills. Generally, overlearning increases retention over time, makes
the behavior or skill more automatic, increases the quality of the performance during stress, and helps trainees
transfer what they have learned back to the job setting.50
Overlearning is desirable in a program when the task to
be learned is not likely to be immediately practiced in the
work situation and when performance must be maintained during periods of emergency and stress. For example, overlearning skills for driving or flying may be
important so that in a crisis situation the individual will
be able to quickly remember what actions should be
taken. Pat Head Summitt, rated as one of the top coaches
in collegiate basketball, believes in the importance of
overlearning, which she calls “discipline.” She has her
nationally ranked team, the Tennessee Lady Volunteers,
practice their plays over and over again in preparation for
critical games.51
Figure 8-5 presents a summary of the research on the
trainee characteristics and work environment variables
shown to be related to relatively more training success
and training transfer.
and Correlates of
FIGURE 8-5 Predictors
Trainability
TRAINEE CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO
GREATER TRAINING SUCCESS
High cognitive ability
High basic reading and math skills
Oriented toward learning
Less anxious
High-conscientiousness (from the Five Factor Model-see
Ch. 6)
High-achievement motivation
Self-efficacy/confidence in success
High motivation to learn
Perceive training as relevant to job/career
Value outcomes (learning)
WORK ENVIRONMENT CORRELATES
OF TRANSFER
Opportunity to perform trained tasks
Positive climate for learning
Reinforce importance of continuous learning
Time and opportunity for training and practice
Source: Adapted from Arthur, W., Bennett, W., Jr., Edens, P., & Bell, S.
(2003). Effectiveness of training in organizations: A meta-analysis of design
and evaluation features. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 234–245.
Goal Setting
Goal setting can help employees improve their performance by directing their attention to specific behaviors that
need to be changed. If employees set specific, challenging
goals, they can reach higher levels of performance. For example, research has shown that goal setting has led to an
average increase of 19 percent.52 Goal setting improves
performance because it affects four mechanisms: (a) it
directs and focuses a person’s behavior, (b) it increases an
individual’s effort towards attaining the goal, (c) it encourages an individual to persist on the goal or work harder and
faster to attain it, and (d) it enables an individual to set specific strategies for attaining the goal.53 Training programs
should include specific, yet challenging goals so trainees
Gcan reach higher levels of performance or greater mastery
the training material. Trainees should be encouraged to
Aof
set public goals and to record their accomplishments to
Tensure greater transfer of their training skills.
EKnowledge of Results
SFor trainees to improve performance, they need to receive
and specific feedback or knowledge of results.
, timely
Feedback serves informational and motivational purposes.
It tells trainees how discrepant their performance is from
Dthe desired performance and what particular skills or
behaviors they need to correct. Also, it can motivate them
Eto meet their performance goals once they see that they are
Acoming close to accomplishing them. Trainers should build
into the training environment opportunities for providing
Nfeedback to trainees. For example, the trainer could give
Dpop quizzes to trainees during the session and call out the
correct answers. Trainees could quickly score their work to
Rsee how well they are doing in the session and what they
Aneed additional learning or practice in. Sometimes trainees
can provide feedback to one another (e.g., observers can be
used in role-plays to provide feedback to role-players).
1
Attention
1Trainers should try to design training programs and
2materials to ensure that trainees devote attention to them.
can do this by choosing a training environment that
3They
is comfortable to trainees (e.g., that has good temperaTture, lighting, seats, plenty of room, snacks) and free from
(e.g., phone calls, interruptions from colSdistractions
leagues). This is becoming increasingly more critical and
challenging as trainees bring in more and more technology (e.g., blackberries, cell phones; laptops) into the
classroom. No matter how motivated trainees are, if the
environment is not comfortable to work in, trainees will
have difficulty learning. Trainers also should make sure
that trainees are familiar with and have accepted the
learning objectives. They can do this by asking trainees to
describe how accomplishing the objectives will resolve
problems on the job. If trainees are able to translate learning objectives into relevant job issues, they may pay more
attention to the training sessions.
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
Retention
The ability to retain what is learned is obviously relevant
to the effectiveness of a training program. Many factors
have been found to increase retention. If the material presented is meaningful to trainees, they should have an easier time understanding and remembering it. Trainers can
make the content meaningful by (1) presenting trainees
with an overview of what is to be learned so that they will
be able to see the overall picture, (2) using examples, concepts, and terms familiar to the trainees (e.g., use medical
terms and examples when training doctors and nurses),
and (3) organizing the material from simple to complex
(e.g., teach someone how to serve before you teach
him/her strategies in tennis). Retention also can be enhanced by rehearsal or requiring trainees to periodically
recall what they have learned through tests.
Using Learning Principles to Develop
Training Materials
The learning principles described above should be considered not only when designing the training environment
but also when developing training materials. Any materials used with trainees should be able to stimulate them
into learning and remembering the information. To
ensure that this occurs, trainers need to make sure that the
learning principles are built into their training materials.
For example, the materials should provide illustrations
and relevant examples to stimulate trainees. In addition,
the objectives of the material should be clearly stated and
a summary should be provided.54
Transfer of Training
The ultimate goal of a training program is that the learning that occurs during training be transferred back to the
job. Research strongly supports the view that the posttraining climate will affect whether training influences
behaviors or results on the job. To maximize transfer, the
following suggestions have been offered.55 These include
ideas for the training session itself as well as for the
employee once he or she has returned to the job:
1. Maximize the similarity between the training
context and the job context. That is, the training
should resemble the job as closely as possible. At
GE, for example, the “action-learning” process
focuses on real business problems.
2. Require practice of the new behaviors and
overlearning in training.
3. Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in
between training sessions. For example, the executive
education programs conducted by the Robert H.
Smith School of Business for its corporate clients
(e.g., Entergy, Lockheed Martin) often require
“homework assignments” such as customer-value
projects, organizational systems projects, and
4.
5.
G
A
T
E
S
,
D
E
A
N
D
R
A
1
1
2
3
T
S
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
203
individual leadership development plans in between
attendance at sessions. The assignments encourage
trainees to apply their new skills in the workplace,
using an action learning model.
Include a variety of stimulus situations in the
practice so trainees will learn to generalize their
knowledge and skills. Coach Pat Summitt sets up
grueling basketball game schedules with top-ranked
teams so that the Lady Vols will play in a variety of
situations and be ready for the NCAA playoffs each
year.
Label or identify the important features of the
content to be learned to distinguish the major steps
involved.
Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to
remind employees of the key action steps necessary
on the job. For example, Alcoa uses job aids in
many of its manufacturing jobs.
Make sure that the general principles underlying the
specific content are understood in training.
Ensure that there is a supportive climate for learning
and for transferring new behaviors. This can be
done by building managerial support (emotional and
financial) for training, providing trainees with the
freedom to set personal performance goals, and
encouraging risk-taking among trainees. One study
used 505 supermarket managers from 52 stores and
found that the work environment, measured by
training climate and learning culture, was directly
related to the transfer of trained behaviors.56 It is
also important to encourage peer support since this
type of support has been shown to influence transfer
of training skills.57
Build the trainee’s self-efficacy for learning and
using the new skills. Self-efficacy is a feeling of
control and accomplishment; that you can control
your own destiny. It has been shown to be related to
learning using a sample of Navy warfare officers in
midlevel managerial positions. In addition,
encourage trainees to develop an action plan
including specific measurable goals.58
Once back on the job, employees should be given
opportunities to demonstrate that they can use the
new skills. For example, one study of plane
mechanics from the Air Force found that after
training they were given opportunities to perform
only about half of the tasks they learned in
training.59 Likewise, in a study of university
employees, it was found that situational constraints
(e.g., adequate resources, time) limited the amount
that trainees could transfer new skills to the work
environment.60
Encourage continual learning by employees. They
should realize that one-time training in an area is
not sufficient to maintain effective skills. Retraining
also may be needed to update skills.
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Relapse Prevention
Sometimes despite trainers’ best efforts to get individuals to transfer what they have learned back to the job, it
is difficult for trainees to maintain new behaviors or
skills over a long period. They encounter high-risk situations and revert back to their old habits. Most people experience relapses after learning new behaviors. Think
about all the times you or someone you know went on a
diet or started an exercise program. Perhaps you were
quite successful sticking to the plan after attending a
training program (e.g., Weight Watchers). Then, one
weekend you go on a trip with friends. Next thing you
know you are eating lots of snacks and ignoring your exercise plan. This is a relapse. The same thing often happens to employees after they have attended a training
program. For example, a manager learns how to control
his temper in training, yet the first time returning back to
the job he encounters an irate employee and he screams
at the person. Relapse prevention is needed to assist
trainees.61 This model emphasizes the learning of a set of
self-control and coping strategies when the trainee is
faced with high-risk situations.62
Employees should be made aware of the relapse
process itself by informing them there are some situations
that make it difficult for trainees to use their new behaviors.
For example, they may be faced with peers or supervisors
who are not supportive of their new skills.63 They should
learn to identify and anticipate high-risk situations they
will face when returning from training. They should be instructed on how to cope in these situations. Teaching these
issues should increase trainees’ self-efficacy so that they
can effectively use their new training skills back on the job.
Choosing Methods for the Training Program
Training methods can be divided into two categories:
G1.
A
T
E 2.
S
,
Methods that are primarily informational or
transmittal in nature; that is, they use primarily
one-way communication in which information is
transmitted to the learners.
Methods that are experiential in nature; that is, the
learner interacts with the instructor, a
computer/simulator, customers, or other trainees to
practice the skill.
D
E
Benefits
A
N
Equally good as programmed
instruction and television
D
Low cost
Reaches a large audienceR
at one time
Audience is often comfortable with it
A
FIGURE 8-6 Informational Training Methods
Uses
LECTURE
Gaining new knowledge
To present introductory material
AUDIOVISUALS
Gaining new knowledge
Gaining attention
INDEPENDENT STUDY
Gaining new knowledge
Completing degree requirements
Continuous education
E-LEARNING
Gaining new knowledge
Pretraining preparation to ensure
that all trainees have similar
backgrounds
Can reach a large audience at one time
1
Allows for replays
Versatility
1
Can reduce trainer, travel
2
and facility costs
3
T own pace
Allows trainees to go at their
Minimizes trainers’ time
S
Minimizes costs of development
Convenient
Allows trainees to go at their own pace
Can guarantee mastery at a specified
level
Encourages active trainee involvement
Provides immediate feedback to trainees
Limitations
Learners are passive
Poor transfer
Depends on the lecturer’s ability
Is not tailored to individual trainees
Is not tailored to individual trainees
Must be updated
Passive learners
Expensive to develop a library of
materials
Materials must be designed to adjust to
varying reading levels
Performance depends on trainee’s
motivation
Is not applicable for all jobs
Expensive to develop
Is not easily applicable for all
tasks (e.g., cognitive tasks, verbal,
psychomotor)
Does not lead to higher performance
than lectures
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CHAPTER 8 Training and Development
Some of the major methods including their uses, benefits, and limitations are described below and in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. Electronic learning or e-learning can be
both on informational and an experiential method of
training.
Most training programs utilize several training
techniques since no one approach is best suited for
205
every purpose. In fact, there has been increased interest
in the use of blended training approaches in organizations. This often means the integration of classroom and
e-learning training approaches.64 IBM’s international
sales training program includes both classroom and onthe-job training (OJT), which is given over one year. AMC
Theatres uses videotapes, detailed training manuals,
FIGURE 8-7 Experiential Training Methods
Uses
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
Learning job skills
Apprenticeship training
Job rotation
E-LEARNING
Gaining new knowledge
Drill and practice
Individualized training
EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS
To reproduce real-world conditions
For physical and cognitive skills
For team training
GAMES AND SIMULATIONS
Decision-making skills
Management training
Interpersonal skills
Benefits
Limitations
Good transfer
G
Limited trainer costs
High trainee motivation
A since training
is relevant
Depends on the trainer’s skills
and willingness
May be costly due to lost
production and mistakes
May have frequent interruptions
due to job demands
Often is haphazardly done
Trainees may learn bad habits
Self-paced
Standardization of training over time
Feedback given
D
Good retention
E
Convenient
Can reduce costs
Trainees may have difficulties
using computers
Limited opportunities for trainee
interaction
Less useful for training
interpersonal skills or
psychomotor tasks
T
E
S
,
A
N
Effective for learning
Dand transfer
Can practice most of the job skills
R
A
Resembles the job tasks
Provides feedback
Presents realistic challenges
1
Costly to develop
Sickness can occur
Requires good fidelity
Highly competitive
Time-consuming
May stifle creativity
CASE STUDY OR ANALYSIS
Decision-making skills
Analytical skills
Communication skills
To illustrate diversity of solutions
Decision-making practice
Real-world training2
materials
Active learning
3
Good for developing problem-solving skills
Must be updated
Criticized as being unable to
teach general management skills
Trainers often dominate
discussions
ROLE-PLAYING
For changing attitudes
To practice skills
To analyze interpersonal problems
Gain experience of other roles
Active learning
Close to reality
Initial resistance of trainees
Trainees may not take it seriously
Allows practice
Provides feedback
Retention is improved
Strong research evidence
Time-consuming
May be costly to develop
Can improve self-concept
Can reduce prejudice
Can change interpersonal behaviors
May be threatening
May have limited generalizability
to job situations
BEHAVIORAL MODELING
To teach interpersonal skills
To teach cognitive skills
To teach training/teaching skills
SENSITIVITY TRAINING
To enhance self-awareness
To allow trainees to see how others
see them
1
T
S
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PART III Developing Human Resource Capability
and OJT programs to train ushers and concession personnel. To determine which combination of methods to
select for a particular training program, a developer
should first clearly define the purpose of and the audience for the training. In addition, an assessment of the
resources available to conduct the training is necessary.
This will mean examining the staff, materials, and
budget capable of handling the training demands. It is
also important to consider whether the focus will be on
skill acquisition, maintenance, or generalization of the
skill to other areas.65
At a minimum, the training methods selected should
(1) motivate the trainee to learn the new skill, (2) illustrate the desired skills to be learned, (3) be consistent with
the content (e.g., use an interactive approach to teach interpersonal skills), (4) allow for active participation by
the trainees to fit with the adult learning model, (5) provide opportunities for practice and overlearning, (6) provide feedback on performance during training, (7) be
structured from simple to complex, (8) encourage positive transfer from the training to the job, and (9) be cost
effective. In many cases, trainers will use several different
techniques. For example, teaching supervisors how to give
performance feedback may first begin with a lecture or
overview of the performance appraisal process, followed
by small-group discussions or videotapes depicting effective coaching, and then role-plays to have supervisors
practice their feedback skills.
Informational Methods
Informational methods are used primarily to teach factual
material, skills, or attitudes. Generally, they do not require
the trainee to actually experience or practice the material
taught during the training session. Some of the more commonly used informational techniques include lectures, audio and video media, and self-directed learning (SDL)
methods. E-learning is one of the most popular approaches
today.
Lectures
The lecture method is the most commonly used technique
for training employees and teaching students. A 2004 survey found that 85 percent of firms offer or still use a classroom with an instructor for some training.66 The method is
often supplemented with group discussions, audiovisual
aids, motion pictures, or television. The approach also can
vary in the degree to which discussion is permitted, since
some lectures involve all one-way communication, while
others may allow trainees to participate by asking questions or providing comments. Despite the criticism of
this method, recent research shows lecture-based training
is quite an effective way to facilitate the transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual material.67
In addition, a meta-analysis of the effects of lecture,
modeling, and active participation on the performance of
older trainees found that all three methods had positive
effects on learning and skill measures.68
Audio and Video Media
A variety of audiovisuals are available to trainers including
films, videos, slides, overheads, audiotapes, flip charts,
and chalkboards. As of 2004, one survey found the following usage rates (often or always used) for various media: CD-ROM/DVD/diskettes (60 percent), videotapes
(56 percent), teleconferencing (25 percent), videoconferencing (19 percent), satellite/broadcast TV (8 percent),
and audiocassettes (5 percent).69 Videoconferencing has
gained in popularity as costs have become more affordable for employers and different systems have become
Gmore compatible. The staff of Greenberg Traurig, an international law firm, set up a videoconference system that
Ais used almost constantly to share information and multiTmedia presentations in the 375-attorney firm.70 FedEx
Kinko’s has videoconferencing facilities available at over
E150 U.S. locations, with costs of about $225 per hour.71
SOther firms using videoconferencing include JCPenney,
AT&T, and Texas Instruments. Often, these multi, IBM,
media approaches are used to supplement other training
techniques, including lectures and self-directed learning
They can address a variety of topics such as moDmethods.
tivational techniques, EEO issues, performance appraisal
Einterviews, leadership skills, and teamwork.
ASelf-Directed Learning (SDL) Methods
NSeveral informational methods for training are considered
Dto be SDL approaches because the trainee takes responsibility for learning the necessary knowledge and skills at
Rhis or her own pace. A wide range of decisions can be
Agiven to the trainee, including the topic of study, objec-
tives, resources, schedule, learning strategy, type and sequence of activities, and media. In most cases, trainees
1work without direct supervision, set their own pace, and
are allowed to choose their own activities, resources, and
1learning environments. Generally, the training depart2ment’s role is to provide assistance by establishing learncenters with available materials and by having trained
3ing
facilitators on hand for questions. Larger companies such
Tas Motorola, Sunoco, and Office Depot have been sucin setting up such centers and encouraging selfScessful
directed learning by employees. In these centers, trainees
can be given self-assessment tools or instruments.
The advantages of SDL include (1) reduced training
time, as compared to more conventional methods (e.g.,
lecture); (2) more favorable attitudes by trainees compared to conventional techniques; (3) more consistent
with an adult learning approach; (4) minimal reliance on
instructors or trainers; (5) mobility (i.e., a variety of
places can be used for training); (6) flexibility (i.e.,
trainees can learn at their own pace); (7) consistency of
the information taught to all trainees; and (8) cost savings. There are also several disadvantages, including
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(1) high developmental time for course materials and extensive planning requirements, (2) difficulties in revising
and updating materials, and (3) limited interactions with
peers and trainers.
Research indicates that employees with high levels
of readiness for SDL as measured by the Self-Directed
Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) were more likely
to be higher-level managers, to be outstanding performers,72 to possess greater creativity,73 and to have a higher
degree of life satisfaction.74 Also, employees who were
outstanding performers in jobs requiring high levels of
creativity or problem solving or involving high levels of
change were more likely to have high SDLRS scores.
In addition, employees with higher SDLRS scores were
successful in relatively unstructured learning situations
in which more responsibility rests on the learners.75
A variety of SDL approaches are available. Two of
the more commonly used techniques include independent
study and various forms of e-learning. Independent
study requires a trainee to read, synthesize, and remember the contents of written material, audio or videotapes,
or other sources of information. The training or personnel
department can develop a library of materials for trainees
to use in teaching themselves at their own pace about various skills or knowledge. Companies such as Coors, Digital Equipment Corporation, Kraft, and U.S. Gypsum utilize extensive self-study materials for their sales
employees.76 Trainees also can design their own training
curriculum by opting for correspondence courses or enrolling in independent study courses at local schools or on
the Web. Generally, in these programs, trainees are required to master the content on their own without direct
supervision.
E-learning is typically (although not always) an individualized learning method that allows for study of
material online. For example, UBS uses an e-based
program to train new stockbrokers. Most programs build
in the important learning principles by (1) specifying
what is to be learned (i.e., the behavioral objectives);
(2) breaking down the learning topic into small, discrete
steps; (3) presenting each step to the trainee and requiring
him or her to respond to each step of the learning process
(i.e., by reading each part); (4) testing the trainees’ learning at each step (i.e., by responding to questions); (5) providing immediate feedback to the trainee on whether his
or her response was correct or incorrect; and (6) testing
the level of skill or knowledge acquired at the end of the
training module. E-learning has replaced “programmed
instruction” in training classification but is based on the
same principles.
Experiential Methods
Experiential methods are often used to teach physical and
cognitive skills and abilities. These techniques include OJT,
computer-based training (CBT), equipment simulations,
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games and other simulations, case analyses, role-playing,
and behavior modeling. In addition, a variety of electronic training-delivery media and distance learning techniques have increased in their usage as instructional/
experiential methods.
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On-the-Job Training
Approximately 90 percent of all industrial training is
conducted on the job.77 OJT is conducted at the work site
and in the context of the job. Often, it is informal as when
an experienced worker shows a trainee how to perform
the job tasks. The trainer may watch over the trainee to
provide guidance during practice or learning. For example, sales employees use coaching calls where a senior
sales person coaches a new sales employee. Five steps are
utilized:78
1. Observation of the new employee.
2. Feedback obtained by the new employee.
3. Consensus (i.e., the coach and the new employee
arrive at an agreement as to the strengths and
weaknesses of the sales call).
4. Rehearsal of a new sales call.
5. Review of the employee’s performance.
Although OJT is often associated with the development
of new employees, it also can be used to update or
broaden the skills of existing employees when new procedures or work methods are introduced.79 In some cases,
the trainer may be a retired employee. For instance, at
Corning Glass Works, new employees are paired with retirees for a brief on-the-job introduction regarding the
company culture and market data. Following this, they
are exposed to formal classroom and field training.80
Many companies combine OJT with formal classroom
training. At McDonald’s, after a three-hour induction,
new employees are partnered with a buddy who is a member of the training squad.81 Dow Chemical alternates
sales employees between classroom training at corporate
headquarters and OJT experiences in the field for a year.
Similarly, Wang Laboratories spends up to nine months
alternating salespeople from company headquarters and
field offices. Restaurant employees at the Hard Rock Café
are trained by OJT and the use of job aids (i.e. training
materials). Workers view this approach very favorably.82
OJT is best used when one-on-one training is necessary, only a small number (usually fewer than five) employees need to be trained, classroom instruction is not
appropriate, work in progress cannot be interrupted, a
certain level of proficiency on a task is needed for certification, and equipment or safety restrictions make other
training techniques inappropriate. The training should
emphasize equipment or instruments that are to be used,
as well as safety issues or dangerous processes. For example, Quality Commercial Services, located in Westminster, Maryland, uses OJT effectively with its staff of
construction workers to teach electrical wiring, dry
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walling, reading engineering blueprints, and painting,
among other things.
Apprenticeship programs often are considered OJT
programs because they involve a substantial amount of
OJT, even though they do consist of some off-the-job
training. Typically, the trainee follows a prescribed order
of coursework and hands-on experience. The Department
of Labor regulates apprenticeship programs and many require a minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction
each year, as well as OJT with a skilled employee.83
Many professions (e.g., medicine) or trades require some
type of apprenticeship program that may last anywhere
from two to five years. Some of the most common occupations to offer apprenticeship programs include electricians, carpenters, plumbers, pipe fitters, sheet-metal
workers, machinists, tool-and-die makers, roofers, firefighters, bricklayers, cooks, structural-steel workers,
painters, operating engineers, correction officers, and mechanics.84 In Europe, apprenticeships are still one of the
most likely ways for individuals to gain entry into skilled
jobs, while in the United States only 2 percent of high
school graduates enter apprenticeship programs.85 This is
a problem for the U.S. workforce since the pool of qualified skilled labor for future jobs has been shrinking. In
France in one apprenticeship program alone, there are
currently 4,200 apprentices with the Association des
Compagnons du Devoir (elite artisans responsible for
restoring historical sites such as Notre Dame Cathedral
and Arc de Triomphe). Restricted to men, they begin as
young as 15 and undertake up to nine years of lessons,
community chores, and hands-on training with 6,500
companies that have contracts with them. They train for
an additional two years and have to complete a personal
building project. Only one in 10 typically survives the apprenticeship period and is allowed to join the ranks of
Compagnons.86
Another commonly used technique for OJT training
is job rotation, which involves moving employees from
one job to another to broaden their experience. Many U.S.
companies are showing greater interest in having their
employees be able to perform several job functions so
that their workforce is more flexible and interchangeable.
For example, in the automobile industry today, it is fairly
common to see employees being trained on two or more
tasks (e.g., painting and welding). This is done at GM’s
Saturn plant in order to relieve employees’ boredom as
well as make the company less dependent on specialized
workers. GE requires all managerial trainees to participate
in an extensive job rotation program in which the trainees
must perform all jobs they will eventually supervise. This
helps managers develop a broader background required
for future managerial positions. At Lockheed Martin, a
leadership development program was established for new
HR college recruits. They are rotated to a variety of HR
departments (e.g., recruiting, selection, compensation) to
gain broader experiences as HR professionals. Black and
Decker provides a 3-year job rotation program for its new
MBA employees entering into its financial development
program.
Computer-Based Training (CBT)/E-Learning
The 2004–2005 workplace forecast conducted by the
Society of Human Resource Management ranked
e-learning as the second most important science and
technology trend that will affect the workplace.87 The
survey also found that when used effectively, e-learning
has been able to deliver training for large numbers of
employees at reduced costs and that there was an increased usage of e-learning during an economic downturn. Another recent study found that Web-based
Ginstruction was more effective than classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge and procedural
Aknowledge. Interestingly, they also noted that trainees
Twere more satisfied with Web-based classes that had
higher levels of human interaction than lower levels.
EWhen trainees were not given the opportunity to intercourses, they preSact with others during Web-based
ferred classroom instruction.88 One leading provider of
, CBT software, CBT Group, has deals with Cisco Systems, IBM, Informix, Microsoft, Netscape CommuniNovell, Oracle, PeopleSoft, SAP, and Sybase,
Dcations,
among others.
E Effective computer skill training is vital to organizaproductivity. One recent study demonstrated that
Ational
the behavior modeling approach to computer skill trainNing could be improved by incorporating symbolic mental
Drehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual
Rimages and symbolic memory codes. The authors recomAmend that practitioners use SMR for89 improving the effectiveness of computer skill training.
Chunking refers to chopping computer-based train1ing into its smallest parts and sending them through a network so that learners receive just the instruction they need
1when they need it. Spring Corporation chunks CBT on
2the corporate intranet and90is one of the leaders in using
training over the intranet. The most popular processing
3software
packages (e.g., Microsoft Word) use CBT to inTtroduce learners to the use of the software. The U.S.
Forces use CBT extensively for training many of
SArmed
their technicians. In fact, the military and NASA have
numerous advanced technologies such as intelligent
tutoring systems and virtual reality that are used for training purposes.91 In some CBT programs, trainees interact
directly with computers to actually learn and practice
new skills. This is done similarly to the PI system and is
called computer-assisted instruction (CAI). For example,
Dialect Interactive Lectures (DIALECT) are university
lectures that have been converted into multimedia-based
digital learning material. DIALECT use animation, computer simulations, and hyperlink facilities to guide
students through lectures.92
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CBT has the advantage of being self-paced, standardized, self-sufficient, easily available, and flexible.
This is particularly important in today’s fast-paced
environment, where organizations cannot afford for employees to be away from the job for large amounts of
time. In fact, many employees view it as a proven way to
save time and money while delivering consistent content.
Electronic training-delivery media involve some
of the fastest growing instructional methods. The latest
round of CBT-oriented software offers revolutionary
ways in which interactive training is developed and delivered. Multimedia training programs often feature text,
graphics, sound, pictures, videos, simulations, and hypertext links that enable trainees to structure their own learning experiences.93 In 2005, it has been reported that over
$500 million has been spent on Web conferencing with
the figure expected to top $3 billion by 2011. Most CBT
systems support links to the Internet and to corporate
intranets. Internet-based e-learning has emerged as a
cost- and time-efficient way to address many companies’
training needs. The recent SHRM survey found very positive results in terms of user reactions and efficiencies.94
Given these trends, it is clear that traditional training
methods will continue to decline as electronic delivery
techniques increase in usage. This is particularly true of
more innovative firms that use a greater variety of learning technologies for training.95
Distance Learning Programs
Online education is the fastest growing sector of the education market. Online learners are predicted to go from
3 million in 2001 to more than 6 million by 2006.96 Many
resources now exist for designing and implementing
distance learning programs.97 In addition, a comprehensive
list of vendors is provided by the Distance Education
Clearinghouse Web site (http://www.uwex.edu/disted).
Companies such as Banco national de Mexico, one
of the oldest and largest banks in Mexico, graduated its
first class of 11 executives from a global MBA degree
from San Diego–based National University that is a
distance learning program. The company found that
enabling managers to complete the coursework without
having to leave their work or homes was beneficial.98
Research on the effectiveness of distance education
programs has only begun.99 In general, offering training
or educational programs over the Internet enables employees to access high-quality education at their own
pace.100 They have access to class material, conduct
research without traveling, and have dialogs with professors and classmates via e-mail, bulletin boards, and chat
rooms. Some programs use videoconferencing or transmit lectures via satellite. In this regard, they may have an
easier time juggling careers and families.101 Numerous
firms have successfully used distance learning programs
for their employees, including Ford, AT&T, EDS, MCI
Communications, U.S. Department of Defense, Tennessee
209
Valley Authority, United Technologies Corporation,
Lockheed Martin, and Lucent Technologies.102 Organizations have reported the following benefits for distance
learning programs:103
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• A fast, effective way to train global employees.
• Increased the impact and productivity of dollars
invested in training and education programs.
• Reduced travel costs and made time formerly spent
traveling available for more productive uses.
• Allowed for the training of more people, more often,
in sessions that are easier to schedule and coordinate.
• Offered the ability to add students and instructors as
needed without incurring significant additional
expenses.
• Delivered a consistent message that can be
disseminated quickly companywide.
• Provided real-time updates and just-in-time
information access.
• Delivered to both work and home sites that are
convenient for trainees.
• Offered live interactive programs delivered to multiple
networked sites for group learning.
• Is learner-centered and enabled students to have more
control over the pacing and sequencing of the learning
experience.
• Offered easy access to learning resources.
One recent article provides a set of research-based principles for “learner control” training in the e-learning environment. “Learner control generally refers to ‘a mode of
instruction in which one or more key instructional decisions are delegated to the learner.’” Simply put, trainees
have greater control over their training, such as pace, materials covered, and sequence.104 Figure 8-8 presents the
guidelines for more effective e-learning.
Equipment Simulations
Some training may involve machines or equipment
designed to reproduce physiological and psychological
conditions of the real world that are necessary in order
for learning and transfer to occur. For example, driving
simulators or flight simulators often are used to train
employees in driving or flying skills. Another example
of a simulation is the FireArms Training System
(FATS), which is used by more than 300 law enforcement
agencies in the United States.105 In this simulation, officers
are confronted with a number of everyday work situations
(e.g., fleeing felons) on a video screen. The military uses
virtual reality simulators for training of war game demonstrations. One exercise, called the Synthetic Theater of
War, links tactics, techniques, and processes of modern
systems to illustrate battles.106 Equipment simulators also
are relied on to a great deal in training for space missions
(e.g., astronaut training). While many of these simulations are extremely costly, some have become more affordable. In addition, using simulators for training is only
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FIGURE 8-8 Guidelines for Learner Controlled Training in E-Learning
PREPARING TRAINEES FOR LEARNER-LED INSTRUCTION
Guideline #1: Understanding Learner Control Is Half the Battle
• Instruct employees about areas they can control and how this increased control can increase learning.
• The perception of control can increase learning.
Guideline #2: Give It Time
• Typical learner-controlled training tasks last from 30 to 60 minutes.
• “Provide trainees with enough time to learn how to use learner control and with suggested completion times for each section
of the training task.”
• Ten or more separate training sessions are recommended as users become more familiar with the system as time progresses.
Guideline #3: Calibrate Expectations
Ensure trainees understand the training will be challenging. Adult users often perceive learning as an easy process and when
confronted with the challenge of training they may become frustrated.
DESIGNING LEARNER-CONTROLLED TRAINING
Guideline #4: Offer Help
G
• Offer self-tests and feedback so trainees can self-regulate the number of examples to view and the amount of practice items to
A
complete.
Guideline #5: What’s Good for One Trainee May Not Be GoodT
for Another
• “Trainees who are high in ability, prior experience, and motivation may benefit the most from learner control.”
E known as ‘g’] and prior experience with more learner
• “Create programs that provide trainees high in learning ability [also
control options than trainees low in ability and prior experience.”
S
• Motivation: “When trainees are made aware of the organizational objectives of the training they are often more motivated to
,
successfully complete the training program.”
Guideline #6: More Isn’t Necessarily Better
• Match learner control to the amount of control needed for effective instruction and training objectives.
D
• Structure training tasks based on trainees’ learning preferences.
E
Guideline #7: “Skipping” Is Better than “Adding”
For optional/additional training material, use the word “skip” additional
A instruction rather than “add” additional material.
Guideline #8: Keep It Real
N
Increase meaningfulness of training by using familiar contexts and examples.
D
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Guideline #10: Keep Each Instructional Segment Self-Contained
A
Guideline #9: Footprints Help (“You Are Here”)
Provide trainees with a ‘map’ to track their training progress.
• Each section should be short and concise.
• Trainees should not have to revisit a previous section to complete the current section.
Guideline #11: Share Design Control
1
• Obtain user preferences from trainees prior to training; i.e., does the user prefer having multiple windows open during the
1
training session?
• “Allow the trainees to stop, pause, or restart the program where 2
they wish.”
Guideline #12: Be Consistent
3
• “Keep the font size and color as well as the background color consistent from one instructional segment to another.”
Guideline #13: Create Smooth Transitions
Have clear relationships between training segments.
T
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CREATING WORKPLACE CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATE SUCCESSFUL LEARNER-LED INSTRUCTION
Guideline #14: Promote It
Supervisors can improve learner-controlled effectiveness by setting difficult but attainable goals regarding the level of skill
mastery and encouraging the trainees to use their new obtained skills on the job.
Guideline #15: Make It Matter
Ensure that trainees judge the incentive to participate in training is attainable but also valuable.
Guideline #16: Organizational Climate Matters
Organizations with climates that encourage employee participation, empowerment, and autonomy may find it easier to
implement learner-controlled training programs.
Source: Adapted from Renée E. DeRouin, Barbara A. Fritzsche, and Eduardo Salas, (2004). “Optimizing E-Learning: Research-Based Guidelines for LearnerControlled Training,” Human Resource Management 43, pp. 147–162. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.
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a fraction of the cost of using the real equipment to train
employees.
Games, Simulations, and Outdoor
Experiential Programs
Some training programs rely on the use of a variety of
games, nonequipment simulations, or outdoor experiential
programs. In fact, these instructional techniques appear to
be gaining in popularity with hundreds of different types
of games available for teaching technical, managerial,
professional, or other business-related skills. In 2004,
21 percent of organizations often used games or simulations, and 10 percent used computer-based games or simulations.107 Some of the more common games include inbaskets and business games. Most games are used to
teach skills such as decision making as well as analytical,
strategic, or interpersonal skills. Business games typically require trainees to assume various roles in a company (e.g., president, marketing vice president) where
they are given several years’ worth of information on the
company’s products, technology, and human resources
and asked to deal with the information in a compressed
period of time (several weeks or months). They make
decisions regarding production volumes, inventory levels, and prices in an environment in which other trainees
are running competitor companies. The most successful
business games keep the focus on specific corporate objectives or problems such as profits, customer service, or labor
costs. One very popular cross-functional simulation is The
Marketplace Business Simulation. Working in teams,
trainees must assume various roles in the start-up of a firm
in the microcomputer industry. The teams work over a
compressed period of time to play 2 to 3 years in the game.
Performance is measured on a number of short- and longterm metrics (e.g., financial, marketing, human resource).
Numerous levels and variations of the game are available
depending on the expertise and backgrounds of the
trainees. The simulation has been used all over the world
as a capstone, integrative experience to an MBA or
undergraduate program as well as by organizations (e.g.,
Nextel, Hughes Network Systems).108
In-baskets are used to train managerial candidates in
decision-making skills by requiring them to act on a variety of memos, reports, and other correspondence that are
typically found in a manager’s in-basket. As we discussed
in Chapter 5, participants must prioritize items and respond
to them in a limited time period. In-baskets are often included in assessment centers. For example, the method is
used as one component of the week-long executive development program at the Center for Creative Leadership.
Outdoor experiential programs have gained in popularity as training methods for teams. In 2004, 20 percent
of firms often or always used experiential programs and
estimates of over $100 million are spent annually on
them.109 Firms such as Outward Bound and Higher Pursuits have developed a variety of outdoor activities and
211
challenge courses (e.g., rope courses, canoeing trips, hiking trips) that can be used to help employers build
stronger teams. By placing a work unit in a challenge
course or physical activity, the coaches or counselors can
observe how the team works together and can debrief
them and provide feedback on issues of communication,
conflict, and trust.
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Case Analyses
Most business students are very familiar with case analysis, a training method often used in management training
to improve analytical skills. In 2004, 43 percent of firms
with over 100 employees often or always used case studies for employee and management training.110 Trainees
are asked to read a case report that describes the organizational, social, and technical aspects of some organizational problem (e.g., poor leadership, intergroup conflict).
Each trainee prepares a report in which he or she describes the problems and offers solutions (including potential risks and benefits). Working in a group, trainees
may then be asked to justify the problems they have identified and their recommendations. The trainer’s role is to
facilitate the group’s learning and to help the trainees see
the underlying management concepts in the case. One
variation to the traditional case method is called a living
case. This has trainees analyze a problem that their
organization is currently facing.111
Role-Playing
In a role-playing exercise, trainees act out roles and
attempt to perform the behaviors required in those roles.
Role-plays are commonly used in training, and in 2004,
34 percent of the firms reported often or always using
them for training.112 This method is often used to teach
skills such as oral communication, interpersonal styles,
leadership styles, performance feedback reviews, and
interviewing techniques. In the popular MBA course,
“Executive Power and Negotiations,” at the University of
Maryland’s Robert H. Smith School of Business, students
participate in role-plays every class period to enhance
their negotiating skills across a variety of situations (e.g.,
receiving jobs, raises and promotions, international deals,
ethical dilemmas). Similarly, in the EMBA course on
Leadership and Human Capital, executives are videotaped while role-playing and given feedback on their
skills. At the Chicago Tribune, trainees are assigned the
role of a supervisor giving performance appraisal feedback
to a subordinate, while other trainees play the role of the
subordinate. Xerox uses role-plays in some of its training
programs to teach managers how to develop a culturally
diverse workforce. Role-plays are very common components of sexual harassment training programs.
Behavior Modeling
Behavior modeling is quickly growing as a technique for
training with managers on interpersonal and supervisory
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skills. Many large companies such as Exxon, Westinghouse, and Union Carbide use this approach. Based on
Bandura’s theory of social learning,113 the method consists
of four consecutive components: (1) attention (watching
someone perform a behavior usually through videotapes),
(2) retention (processes to help the trainee retain what was
observed), (3) motor reproduction or behavioral rehearsal
(using role-plays to practice new behaviors), and (4)
motivation or feedback/reinforcement (receiving feedback
on the behaviors performed). The success...
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