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original question----Usually when there is an economic downturn, the first item on the budget to be cut is training. This is usually because managers do not understand what specific benefits are derived from training and development initiatives, especially with soft skills training. In light of this concern, what is “ROI of Training” and how can it be used to select and justify training programs

Response questions. Student must respond to two classmates with at least 200 words and please cite the sources.

Student 1 from Scott, Tiffany, posted 08/15/2018 04:12 PM CDT

In the event of an economic downturn, the first item to be cut from the budget is training. Managers don’t understand the benefit of training and how proper training impacts the business. The development of employees is an important aspect to any line of business as it greatly contributes to the growth of the business. The return of investment is “monetary value of the results (benefits of training minus cost of training; expressed as a percentage)” (Bernardin and Russell, p.112, 2013). Management must analyze the effects of training, particularly what their desire is to get out of the training and what they want their trainees to accomplish. Furthermore following the training it has to be determined whether the aspects of training was exceeded and met their standards (Rowden, 2005). When management is reviewing the ROI of training, they must consider all things that make up training of the employee including the training facilitator and the materials that are being used for the training. It has to be determined whether the return of investment of training greatly differs if the employees are not properly trained, and can the business afford to not properly train the employees and deal with inconsistency as a result. The return of the investment when it comes to training is beneficial once the management team fully understands the impact it has on the organization. “Many companies do not undertake the huge effort needed to evaluate a training program. The companies that maintain detailed records on employee performance and characteristics are best suited for analysis” (Return on Investment, 2000). Perhaps if companies maintain a record of employee performance they will see the benefits of the return on investment when it comes to their training program.

Student 2 from Benson, LaTonya, posted 08/14/2018 09:18 PM CDT

In a time of economic crisis, managers are forced with the challenging decision to eliminate training to accommodate the budget; however, the future of organizations lies on the shoulders of well-trained employees. As organizations recognize the importance and necessity for training and development, budgets continue to increase annually by organization, industry, and country. (De Alwis & Rajaratne, 2011).Measuring the return on investment (ROI) in training and development and performance improvement has consistently earned a place among the critical issues in the Human Resource Development (HRD) field. HRD plays a significant role in supporting and driving a continuous improvement culture. Training can be a powerful building block in allowing a business to achieve its goals, indicating that it must be seen as a strategy and not an event. Training in any field is imperative for the successful development of employees; if employees are not trained properly, they are not able to meet performance expectations. (De Alwis & Rajaratne, 2011). For example, if an employee is hired in the payroll department and has the proper education but lacks experience and training, this creates many opportunities for errors. With that said, skill training and upgrading are necessary to develop the core competencies needed to maintain a productive labour force. (De Alwis & Rajaratne, 2011).

Job training services have been found to increase long-term earnings. Hollenbeck et al. (2005), Mueser, Troske, Jeon, and Kahvecioglu (2010), Barnow and King (2005), Macro et al. (2003), Couch (1992) and Hollister, Kemper, and Maynard (1984). The evidence shows that training programs generate at best modest increases in earnings in the short run but generate larger gains in the long run. (Fleissig, 2014) This also applies for high school students entering the workforce. Training programs are effective in helping individuals find and retain jobs. Individuals with at least some schooling have over a 60 % probability of finding a job. While the probability of finding a job is highest for those without schooling, only ten individuals with no schooling were enrolled in a training program. Studies show an augmented return on investment (ROI) that includes the likelihood of finding and retaining employment. (Fleissig, 2014)

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ber87251_ch08_192-226 C 1/25/06 H A P 09:46 T E Page 192 R 8 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT* G A O V E R V I E W T Throughout this book we have referred to the empirical research linkingEparticular human resource practices to corporate S financial performance. The last chapter , emphasized the critical role of performance measurement and management as characteristics of these D “high-performance work systems.”1 This E to the same body of research also points importance of training and development as A contributors to the “bottom line” of N has corporate performance. Training evolved substantially in recentDyears with evidence indicating more organizational R investment in training and development. The 2004–2005 workplace forecast A from the Society of Human Resource Management ranked the growth of computer-based, electronic learning 1 as one of the top-10 most important trends in all 1 the intense HRM (see Figure 8-1).2 Given pressure to compete, improve2quality and customer service, and lower costs, leading 3 American companies have come to view T survival training as a key to organizational and success. One recent review found that S “many organizations are more likely to include training solutions as part of a systemwide change to gain competitive advantage”3 Likewise, in countries around the world, training has become increasingly important to prepare workers for new jobs. For example, in Japan with the increasing numbers of women entering traditionally male factory jobs, more training is needed to help them learn the necessary skills. At Toyota Motor Corp. women have been given more training in 192 everything from sexual harassment policies to skills for working on assembly lines.4 Of course, some training is required for legal or regulatory reasons. For example, as of 2006, employers with 50 or more employees operating in California must provide sexual harassment training for all supervisors.5 Many employers view the skill level of their workforce as the top priority for planning. They worry that increasing technology is “de-skilling” 75 percent of the population. Their suggestion is continual training for employees. As Chuck Nielson, vice president of human resources at Texas Instruments, notes, “our challenge is creating an environment in which people love to learn.” The company mandates a minimum of 40 hours of training per year. Peter Drucker, wellknown management author, says the fastest-growing industry in the United States will be the continuing education and training of adults due to the replacement of industrial workers with knowledge workers.6 International business scholars, Jeffrey Pfeffer and John Veiga cite training as an “essential component of high performance work systems” and a “source of competitive advantage.” As one example, they described The Men’s Wearhouse, a specialty retailer of men’s tailored business attire, that attributes its success (its stock value has increased by 400 percent) to the emphasis it has placed on training. They built a 35,000-squarefoot training center at their headquarters *Contributed by Joyce E. A. Russell. ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 193 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development in Fremont, California, and put their “clothing consultants” through training and retraining at “Suits University.”7 Organizations with exceptional training opportunities and programs also often make Fortune magazine’s list of the “Best Companies to Work for,” an honor that also translates into financial success. A recent study found that companies that made Fortune’s list had 50 percent less turnover than their peers and returned about three times more money for stockholders. Miami-based Baptist Health South Florida made the list in 2005 due mainly to the manner in which they invested in their people.8 The hospital offers extensive training and tuition reimbursement for taking outside courses. Their “School at Work” programs prepares lower-level workers for college-level courses and more professional careers. They pay their employees to attend the classes and graduates can then take advantage of the hospital’s tuition reimbursement benefits to take community college or university classes. To become a leading-edge company, a firm will need to be more concerned with the types of programs they use to improve workplace learning and performance, not simply how much money they spend on training. A transformation of a firm’s training efforts and other practices and systems that support training may be needed. For example, successful firms align their training with high-performance work practices (e.g., self-directed work teams, access to business information), innovative compensation practices (profit sharing, group-based pay), and innovative training practices (e.g., mentoring or coaching programs, training information systems).9 Not only must firms invest in the continual learning of workers in order to be competitive, but many companies are providing training to workers who are new to the workforce. Many companies also include an assessment of workforce trainability as part of their analysis for expansion and plant openings. Unfortunately, recent evidence indicates that many U.S. workers are not competing well on the trainability criterion. In 2005, Toyota selected Ontario, Canada, over the United States as the place for a new plant for its mini-S.U.V.s. They chose Canada over several U.S. states offering substantial financial incentives based to some extent on the relative trainability of Ontario’s workforce. The president of the Automotive Parts Manufacturers’ Association stated that the educational level in parts of the United States was so low that trainers for Japanese plants have to use “pictorials” to teach some illiterate workers how to use high-tech equipment. Other reports support the contention that auto companies with plants in parts of the United States are disappointed in the trainability of the U.S. workforce.10 Many firms provide life training in addition to skills training. When Marriott Hotels hires new workers, it enrolls them in a six-week training course, with classes on hotel duties and self-esteem and stress. At Burger 193 King, basic training for starting restaurant jobs also includes Life 101 (e.g., teaching employees how to balance a checkbook, the importance of getting to work on time). Ecolab established partnerships with welfare-towork community groups and started a training program at a Wisconsin plant to teach entry-level employees math, basic physics, and blueprint-reading skills.11 This chapter provides an overview of employee training. We will discuss the importance of training in the context of the organization’s competitive strategy and the need to link training needs with the mission and goals of the organization. You will learn how to design and evaluate a training program and to tailor the training to particular situations. G A O B J E C T I V E S T After reading this chapter, you should be able to E what is meant by training, and describe why it S 1. Define is a critical function for corporations today. , 2. Explain how to conduct a needs assessment, including D E A N D R A 3. 4. 5. 6. performing organizational, task, and person analyses and deriving instructional objectives for a training program. Know how to design a training program to facilitate learning. Identify the critical elements related to transfer of training. Compare and contrast the various techniques available for training, including their relative advantages and disadvantages, with particular emphasis on e-learning. Identify criteria to use to evaluate training effectiveness. Understand different experimental designs that can be used for evaluating training programs. Understand the components of training programs for employee orientation, teamwork, information technology, diversity awareness, sexual harassment, creativity, and international assignments. 1 7. 1 8. 2 3 T S D EFINING T RAINING AND D EVELOPMENT Training is defined as any attempt to improve employee performance on a currently held job or one related to it. This usually means changes in specific knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors. To be effective, training should involve a learning experience, be a planned organizational activity, and be designed in response to identified needs. Ideally, training also should be designed to meet the goals of the organization while simultaneously meeting the goals of individual employees. The term training is often confused with the term development. Development refers to learning opportunities designed to help employees ber87251_ch08_192-226 194 1/17/06 23:45 Page 194 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability Importance of ethics Economic climate dictates how companies operate Concept of work changing Increase in diversity in the workplace Trends in the Workplace G A T E S , Changes brought about by global network and communications Impact of technology on work and home life Security concerns on a global scale Faster work pace requires more flexibility Figure 8-1 Trends in the Workplace grow. Such opportunities do not have to be limited to improving employees’ performance on their current jobs. At Ford, for example, a new systems analyst is required to take a course on Ford standards for user manuals. The content of this training is needed to perform the systems analyst job at Ford. The systems analyst, however, also may enroll in a course entitled “Self-Awareness,” the content of which is not required on the current job. This situation illustrates the difference between “training” and “development.”12 The focus of “development” is on the long term to help employees prepare for future work demands, while “training” often focuses on the immediate period to help fix any current deficits in employees’ skills. The most effective companies look at training and career development as an integral part of a “human resources development” (HRD) program carefully aligned with corporate business strategies. E XTENT OF T RAINING AND D EVELOPMENT U.S. organizations with more than 100 employees spent $51.4 billion on formal training for their employees in 2004.13 The average percentage of payroll invested in learning in the ASTD Best Award Winner Companies ranged from 3.2 percent in 2002 to 4.16 percent in 2004. This was D E A N Dconsiderably higher than Fortune 500 Companies and public sector firms that were also surveyed (i.e. average perRcentage of payroll 1.99 percent in 2004). The BEST award Awinners were defined as those organizations honored for their exceptional efforts to foster, support, and leverage enterprise-wide learning for business results. Common 1characteristics of BEST winning organizations were: 1• 2• 3• T• S High-level of investment in learning Measurement and demonstration of efficiency and effectiveness of the leadership function Alignment of learning with business needs and individual contemporary needs Provision of a broad range of internal and external formal and informal learning opportunities • Chief-level involvement and support for learning • Combination of learning with other performance improvement solutions14 As an example, Solectron Corporation, a worldwide provider of electronic manufacturing services, has focused its efforts on expanding its in-house training capabilities or in-sourcing, rather than utilizing more outsourcing for its training needs.15 The proportion of courses designed, developed, and delivered by outside contractors has remained at about a third for the past few years (35 percent of courses are designed and developed by outside ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 195 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development contractors and 26 percent are delivered by outsiders). These percentages are slightly higher for technical training programs.16 Expenditure per employee group was greatest for customer service employees in 2003, with an average of 18 percent to that group. However, an average of 28 percent of learning expenditures went to employees with managerial responsibilities, including first-line supervisors (7 percent), middle managers (11 percent), senior managers (6 percent), and executives (4 percent).17 Delivery of training via learning technologies increased, and the percentage of learning delivered in classrooms was 68 percent, showing a steady decrease since 1999 when it was 80 percent.18 Mercedes-Benz built a $30 million training center, called the Mercedes-Benz Institute, in its new $300 million plant in Alabama. The 100,000-square-foot center houses labs for teaching basic skills in welding, hydraulics, pneumatics, computer-aided design, measurement, and robotics. They set aside $60 million to send new workers to Germany for training.19 Motorola mandates 40 hours of training per employee per year and has invested over $170 million in training.20 Industries differ in their use of training. In 2003, the industry sectors with the highest levels of expenditure per employee were financial and technology, while those with the lowest expenditures were manufacturing durables and wholesaling and retail trade.21 Training has been viewed positively among employees. Approximately two-thirds of employees, regardless of age or gender, view the training they have received from their employers to be useful in helping them perform their current job duties. They were less enthusiastic about how well it has prepared them for higher-level jobs (about half were satisfied). They also viewed the training their employer provided as critical for determining whether or not they would stay with their current firm.22 Corporations are offering a variety of training programs to meet their organizational needs. These include content on IT and systems; processes, procedures and business practices; industry specific training; managerial or supervisory training; interpersonal skills; compliance; sales; executive development; basic skills; new employee orientation; customer service, and quality.23 Figure 8-2 lists the most frequent types of training offered in 2003. The importance of training is likely to continue in the future given recent trends in the workforce. As the United States shifts from manufacturing to service jobs, more workers are needed in service-based industries. In addition, increasing technology demands that current employees enhance their skills and technical sophistication. For example, U.S. Steel (USX) invested money in training for workers so that they would be able to use the new technology they implemented in its production processes. Similarly, Xerox spent about $7 million on its training center to assist its sales staff in gaining additional training to better meet customers’ needs for handling documents.24 195 Frequent Types of FIGURE 8-2 Most Training Offered* Percentage of Firms Offering Type of Training G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S Computer systems/applications New hire orientation Management development, nonexecutive Technical training Communication skills Sexual harassment Supervisory skills Leadership New equipment operation Performance management/appraisal Team building Customer service Product knowledge Executive development Safety Computer programming Personal growth Managing change Problem solving/decision making Time management Train-the-trainer Diversity/cultural awareness Hiring/interviewing Strategic planning Customer education Quality/process improvement Public speaking/presentation skills Basic life/work skills Ethics Sales Wellness 96% 96 91 90 89 88 88 85 85 85 82 81 79 78 77 76 76 75 75 74 74 72 71 69 68 65 62 61 61 55 54 *Respondents were asked the extent to which they used these methods via classroom, via technology, via a blended approach, or do not provide. The figures shown here are for those who reported using any of the three means of providing training. Employees at RJR Nabisco who have been confronted with new technology in their jobs are given the option of receiving retraining or early retirement.25 Employees themselves are asking for additional training in using new technology.26 A S YSTEMS V IEW OF T RAINING The basic process of training is illustrated in Figure 8-3. Three major steps are involved: assessment, development, and evaluation. The goal of the assessment phase is to collect information to determine if training is needed in the organization. If it is needed, it is then important to determine where in the organization it is needed, what kind of training is needed, and what specific knowledge, abilities, ber87251_ch08_192-226 196 1/17/06 23:45 Page 196 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability NEEDS ASSESSMENT DEVELOPMENT Identify needs for training by conducting needs analyses: EVALUATION Identify or develop criteria to evaluate training outcomes: • Organization • Task or job • Person • Reactions • Learning • Behavior change • Organizational results Derive instructional objectives Choose evaluation design G A • Characteristics of adult learners • Learning principles T E S Identify or develop training , and methods materials Design a learning environment by examining: D E training Conduct A N D R A Figure 8-3 A Systems Model of Training skills, or other characteristics (KASOCs) should be taught. This information is collected by conducting three types of analyses: at the organizational, job, and individual level of analysis. After the information is compiled, objectives for the training program can be derived. The goal of the development phase of training is to design the training environment necessary to achieve the objectives. This means trainers must review relevant learning issues, including characteristics of adult learners and learning principles as they apply to the particular training and potential trainees under consideration. Also, trainers must identify or develop training materials and techniques to use in the program. Finally, after the appropriate learning environment is designed or selected, the training is conducted. The goal of the evaluation phase is to examine whether the training program has been effective in meeting the stated objectives. The evaluation phase requires Conduct evaluation and cost-effectiveness of training program 1 1the identification and development of criteria, which 2should include participants’ reactions to the training, asof what they learned in the training program, 3sessments measures of their behavior after the training, indicators of Torganizational results (e.g., changes in productivity data, figures, employee turnover, accident rates), and reSsales turn on investments (ROI) or, as discussed in Chapter 6, utility analysis. An experimental design is chosen to assess the effectiveness of training. The choice of the criteria and the design are both made before training is conducted in order to ensure that training will be properly evaluated. After the training is completed, the program is then evaluated using the criteria and design selected. Discrepancies between Research and Practice Research in training is needed now more than ever before as the demand for training increases in organizations.27 In ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 197 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development addition, since much of the literature on training comes from a variety of scientific fields (e.g., industrial and organizational psychology, human resource development, cognitive psychology, anthropology, education, human factors, computer science), it is increasingly important to integrate the findings across those disciplines. Various fields in psychology even define training differently.28 Compared to other areas of HRM, practitioners have a fairly strong knowledge of some areas of training research.29 A recent survey of training processes used in corporate America revealed some discrepancies between the academic recommendations regarding training program development and evaluation and the current state of the practice.30 While larger companies were more likely to have done formal needs assessments, written specific instructional objectives, and evaluated the training with something other than a simple, post-training reaction questionnaire, the majority of all classes of respondents did none of these things. Small businesses rarely did any of these things as part of their training. Over 60 percent of all surveyed companies, regardless of company size, relied only on trainee reactions to assess the training, taken upon completion of the training, and had no systematic follow-up to further evaluate the training. Less than 10 percent of companies used any form of control group to evaluate the effects of the training. Over 50 percent of companies admitted that managerial training programs were first tried because some other company had been using them. As one training director put it, “ A lot of companies buy off-the-shelf training programs just because they had heard or knew that a competitor was using the same training. Shouldn’t we expect more data to determine training needs?” Other scholars also have noted the gaps between research and practice in the training field. Practitioners31 point out that research findings are often ignored and faddish programs are adopted with little proven utility. In addition, training needs assessments and evaluations are often rare despite their importance, and most training is informal even though this is not the best approach to use. In order to address some of the gaps between research and practice, the American Society for Training and Development has initiated and published their ASTD 2005 Research-to-Practice conference proceedings. In this extensive report, they have included over 25 articles examining a variety of training issues such as evaluation efforts, learning transfer, e-learning, and designing programs. The intent of the proceedings is to share knowledge that will affect practice in the field.32 G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S 197 decision to conduct training must be based on the best available data, which are collected by conducting a needs assessment. This needs analysis ideally should be conducted in the context of a human resource planning (HRP) program and timely and valid performance data. Companies that implement training programs without conducting a needs assessment may be making errors or spending money unnecessarily. For example, a needs assessment might reveal that less-costly interventions (e.g., personnel selection, a new compensation system, job redesign) could be used in lieu of training. Despite the importance of conducting needs assessments, few employers conduct such an analysis in the context of their strategic plans or any form of strength, weakness, opportunity, or threat analysis. A needs assessment is a systematic, objective determination of training needs that involves conducting three primary types of analyses. These analyses are used to derive objectives for the training program. The three analyses consist of an organizational analysis, a job analysis, and a person analysis.33 After compiling the results, objectives for the training program can be derived. Many trainers suggest that a training need is any discrepancy between what is desired and what exists. Thus, one of the goals of the needs assessment is to note any discrepancies. For example, the World Bank recently determined through a needs assessment that many of its constituents from eastern Europe required training in transforming state-owned businesses into self-sustaining businesses. The organization contracted with a number of universities to develop and provide the necessary training. Comparisons between the expected level of performance specified (from the job analysis) and the current level of performance exhibited (evident in the person analysis) may indicate performance discrepancies. The Sheraton Corporation, for example, specified that all hotel managers must be familiar with the implications of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for hotel operations (see Chapter 3). A test of the law was administered, and scores on the test were used as a basis for identifying those managers who needed training on the implications of the law. Performance discrepancies, however, should not be automatically interpreted as a need for training.34 The analyst must determine whether the discrepancy is a skill or knowledge deficiency, thus requiring training. If, however, the required skill is present and performance is still lacking, then the problem may be motivational in nature and thus require some other type of organizational intervention (e.g., new reward or discipline system). N EEDS A SSESSMENT The first step in training is to determine that a need for training actually exists. An organization should commit its resources to a training activity only if the training can be expected to achieve some organizational goal. The Organizational Analysis An organizational analysis tries to answer the question of where the training emphasis should be placed in the company and what factors may affect training. To do this, an ber87251_ch08_192-226 198 1/17/06 23:45 Page 198 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability examination should be made of the organizational goals, personnel inventories, performance data, and climate and efficiency indices. This examination should ideally be conducted in the context of the labor supply forecast and gap analysis. Organization system constraints that may hamper the training process also should be explored. Training does not exist in a vacuum and the context in which it occurs has an impact on whether individuals will learn.35 Many companies rely on very detailed surveys of the workforce to determine training needs as part of the planning effort. Motorola and IBM, for example, conduct annual surveys that assess particular training needs in the context of the company’s short- and long-term goals. The review of short- and long-term goals of the organization and any trends that may affect these goals is done to channel the training towards specific issues of importance to the firm (e.g., international expansion, improved customer satisfaction, increased productivity). For example, after Merrill Lynch pleaded guilty to a number of fraudulent business practices, the new chief executive officer (CEO) ordered training in business ethics for all employees. To reduce layoffs, IBM retrained hundreds of employees to be sales representatives. Not only was IBM able to minimize layoffs, but the larger sales staff was able to attack another corporate goal: to improve customer satisfaction. Data from a human resource information system (HRIS) can reveal projected employee mobility, retirements, and turnover. The more sophisticated inventories also can indicate the number of employees in each KASOC or competency group, which can then be compared to what is needed based on the gap analysis of the HR planning process. For example, the Ford Manufacturing Systems Division decided to change to a new programming language for future support work. The first step it took was to determine the extent to which current staff was sufficiently skilled in the new language. The HRIS quickly revealed how many of the staff had at least basic knowledge of and experience with the new language. A review of climate and performance efficiency data is important to identify problems that could be alleviated with training.36 Climate indices are quality-of-work-life indicators and include records on turnover, grievances, absenteeism, productivity, accidents, attitude surveys, employee suggestions, and labor–management data (e.g., strikes, lockouts). Job satisfaction indexes provide data on employee attitudes toward the work itself, supervision, and co-workers. Performance data should be the specific record of important outcomes over a specific period of time. A record of competency assessment could be useful data as well. Multirater data should be maintained here as well. Efficiency indexes consist of costs of labor, materials, and distribution; the quality of the product; downtime; waste; late deliveries; repairs; and equipment utilization. These data are examined to find any discrepancies between desired and actual performance. It is also important to identify any organization system constraints on training efforts. For example, if the benefits of training are not clear to top management, they may not plan and budget appropriately for training. Consequently, the training program may not be properly designed or implemented. Omni Hotels requires senior executives to attend training programs to ensure that they are supportive of the training that lower-level managers receive. In addition, the training staff makes sure that the training is tailored to Omni so that trainees can more readily see the value of the training.37 Organizational analysis should test hypotheses about training needs. You’re testing theories related to strategy execution. For example, a retail marketing manager Greceived a complaint from a vendor that the sales staff did not understand the advantages at a particular product. The Amanager then “mined” the customer survey and comTplaint database to determine the extent to which product knowledge of the sales staff was a problem. (He was able Eto determine that the complaint may have been an isoSlated event.) , Job Analysis job analysis tries to answer the question of what should DA be taught in training so that the trainee can perform the Ejob satisfactorily. As discussed in Chapter 4, a job analyshould document the tasks or duties involved in the job Asis as well as the KASOCs (or competencies) needed to carry Nout the duties. When conducting a job analysis to determine Dtraining needs, both a worker-oriented approach, which focuses on identifying behaviors and KASOCs, and a taskRoriented approach, which describes the work activities Aperformed, should be used. The critical incident technique (CIT) is particularly valuable because it provides considerable detail on the job and the consequences of 1specific work behaviors. A task-oriented approach is beneficial in identifying specific training objectives that are 1used in curriculum development and program evaluation. 2Ideally more than one method of job analysis should be to determine training needs. If interviews or ques3used tionnaires are used and discrepancies exist between what Ta supervisor says is an important job duty and what an states, these discrepancies should be resolved Semployee before any training programs are designed.38 Person Analysis A person analysis attempts to answer the question of who needs training in the firm and the specific type of training needed. To do this, the performance of individuals, groups, or units on major job functions (taken from the performance appraisal data) or assessments of KASOCs or competencies are compared to the desired levels. Many companies use self-assessments in this process. For example, Ford determined the training needs for a new computer ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 199 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development language based on a self-assessment questionnaire distributed to the staff. At the managerial level, many organizations (e.g., IBM, AT&T, Federal Express, the World Bank, and the Federal Aviation Administration) use peers and subordinates to provide performance information about their managers. Knight-Ridder uses a 360-degree appraisal system to determine training needs. Managers receive “competency” ratings from customers, peers, subordinates, and their managers. At Ford, each supervisor is responsible for completing an individual training plan for each subordinate. The plan is developed jointly by the supervisor and the subordinate. The two decide on the courses that should be taken and the time frame for completion. The goal is for each employee to reach a certain level of proficiency considered necessary for current and future tasks. Many organizations in the service sector rely on customers for information about sales personnel. Bloomingdale’s, for example, uses “paid” customers to assess the sales techniques of probationary employees. The data are then used to determine the appropriate managerial intervention to take with the employee (e.g., training, discipline, new compensation). Performance discrepancies are used to indicate areas needing attention. It is important to determine whether any discrepancies are due to a lack of KASOCs, which KASOCs are missing, and whether they can be developed in employees through training. Individuals may lack the necessary skills or perceive themselves as lacking the skills (i.e., they may lack confidence in their abilities). In these cases, training may be needed. In other situations, employees may have the skills yet lack the needed motivation to perform, and other action may be called upon (e.g., changes in the reward system, discipline). Employees also can be tested on the desired behaviors using a performance test such as those discussed in Chapter 6. If they can perform the duties satisfactorily, the organization will know that skills training is not required. The U.S. Navy, for example, uses miniature training and testing in order to determine skill level prior to comprehensive training. Pratt & Whitney and Office Depot are among the many companies that use an assessment center to measure supervisory skills judged to be critical based on its goals. Person analysis can also be used to assess trainability; whether the individual is capable of benefiting from the training and who, among candidates, might benefit the most. We discuss trainability later on the chapter. Research is clear that individual difference variables such as cognitive ability and motivation to learn are related to trainability and the extent someone will learn.39 G Techniques for Collecting Needs A Assessment Data T A variety of techniques have been suggested for conducting a needs assessment and for collecting data to use in E the organizational, job, and person analyses. Figure 8-4 S lists these techniques. Some techniques (e.g., work can be used for more than one type of analysis. , sampling) Thus, efforts to coordinate and integrate results are recommended. D E Deriving Instructional Objectives completing the three types of analyses in the needs A After assessment, the training professional should begin to N develop instructional or learning objectives for the perD formance discrepancies identified. Instructional objectives describe the performance you want trainees to be able to R exhibit. Well-written learning objectives should contain A observable actions (e.g., time on target; error rate for things that can be identified, ordered, or charted), measurable criteria (e.g., percentage correct), and the conditions of performance (e.g., specification as to when the behavior 1 1 2 FIGURE 8-4 Data Sources Used in Training Needs Assessment 3 Organizational Analysis Job/Task Analysis T Organizational goals and objectives Job descriptions S HRIS data Skills/Competency inventories Organizational climate indexes Efficiency indexes/Performance data Changes in systems or subsystems (e.g., equipment) Management requests Exit interviews Management-by-objectives or work planning systems 199 Job specifications or task analysis Performance standards Performing the job Work sampling Reviewing literature on the job Asking questions about the job Training committees/conferences Analysis of operating problems O*NET data Person Analysis Performance appraisal data Work sampling Interviews Performance tests Tests (KASOCs) Attitude surveys Training progress charts/checklists Assessment centers Critical incidents Self-efficacy measures Source: Modified from M. L. Moore and P. Dutton, “Training Needs Analysis: Review and Critique,” Academy of Management Review 3 (1978), pp. 534–538. Used with permission. ber87251_ch08_192-226 200 1/17/06 23:45 Page 200 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability should occur). Some sample learning objectives for a training program with sales employees are: • After training, the employee will be able to smile at all customers even when exhausted or ill, unless the customer is irate. • After training, the employee will be able to calculate markdowns on all sales merchandise (e.g., 30 percent markdown) correctly 100 percent of the time. Although training programs can be developed without deriving learning objectives, there are several advantages to developing them. First, the process of defining learning objectives helps the trainer identify criteria for evaluating training programs. For example, specifying an instructional objective of a 20 percent reduction in waste reveals that measures of waste may be important indicators of program effectiveness. Second, learning objectives direct trainers to the specific issues and content to focus on. This ensures that trainers are addressing important topics that have been identified through strategic planning. Also, learning objectives guide trainees by specifying what is expected of them at the end of training. Finally, specifying objectives makes the training department more accountable and more clearly linked to other human resource activities, which may make the training program easier to sell to line managers. D EVELOPMENT OF THE T RAINING P ROGRAM After a needs analysis has been conducted and the staff is confident that training is needed to address the performance problem or to advance the firm’s strategic mission, the training program is developed. This can be done by an in-house training staff or by outside consultants. Many firms now even design and manage their own corporate training centers. Some of the 400 companies that have their own corporate universities include Toyota, Ford, Disney, GE, Union Carbide, IBM, Home Depot, Xerox, Motorola, Phillips Petroleum, McDonald’s, Black & Decker, Aetna Life & Casualty, Kodak, and Goodyear Tire & Rubber.40 To develop the program, the trainer should design a training environment conducive to learning. This can be done by setting up preconditions for learning and arranging the training environment to ensure learning. Following this, the trainer should examine various training methods and techniques to choose the combination most beneficial for accomplishment of the instructional objectives of the training program. Designing a Learning Environment for Training To design a training program in which learning will be facilitated, trainers should review the basic principles of how individuals learn. Learning principles should be reviewed and integrated into the design of the training program and materials. Also, issues of how to maximize transfer of new behaviors back to the job should be addressed. Finally, trainers should design their programs to meet the needs of adults as learners, which means understanding how adults best learn. For example, adult learners want to set their own goals for training since they see themselves as capable of self-direction. In addition, they often enjoy experiential learning techniques and self-directed learning more than conventional informational techniques. They are problem-centered and are more receptive to training that enables them to solve problems of particular interest to their situation. They want to be able to apply the training they receive to their day-to-day work experiences and are less interested in the program if they cannot see a direct application to their work situation.41 G APreconditions of Learning TTrainees must be ready to learn before they are placed in any training program. To ensure this, trainers should Edetermine whether trainees are trainable (i.e., whether Sthey have the ability to learn and are motivated to learn). In addition, trainers should try to gain the support of , trainees and their supervisors prior to actually implementing the program. This is particularly important for training in sensitive areas such as diversity and gender Dand race discrimination. E Trainability ABefore the learner can benefit from any formal training, Nhe or she must be trainable or ready to learn. This means Dthe trainee must have both the ability and the motivation to learn. To have the ability, the trainee must possess the Rskills and knowledge prerequisite to master the material. AOne way to determine this is to give trainees a performance test or work sample (i.e., an example of the types of skills to be performed on the job) and measure how quickly they 1are able to learn the material or how well they are able to perform the skills. Assessing trainees’ ability to learn is of 1increasing concern to corporate America. In view of the in2creasing technological knowledge required in most jobs, Americans are not being educated at a level compat3many ible with the requirements of most entry-level jobs. This Tsituation appears to be getting worse in the United States the entry-level jobs of the future are being “upSsince skilled” while the pool of qualified workers is shrinking. (Recall the comment earlier about Toyota’s 2005 decision to open a new plant in Canada and not the United States.) It has been estimated that over 30 million workers in the United States are functionally illiterate, meaning that they cannot read or write well enough to perform their job duties. Sun Oil, Campbell Soup, and Digital Equipment work with state and local governments in partnership programs to help address literacy issues among the workforce.42 Research clearly shows that employees with higher cognitive ability and basic math and reading skills are more trainable.43 ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 201 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development It’s not enough that trainees have the ability to learn the skills; they must also have the desire or motivation to learn. Research also finds that employees who are more conscientious, more oriented toward learning, less anxious, and younger are more trainable.44 One way to assess motivation to learn is to examine how involved they are in their own jobs and career planning. The assumption is that those individuals who are more highly involved will have higher motivation to learn.45 It is also important to assess the attitudes and expectations of trainees regarding training since their views will most likely affect their reactions to the program and the amount they learn.46 For example, employees who choose to attend training learn more than those who are required to attend.47 Some companies link successful completion of training programs and acquired skills with compensation. At Ford, employees must select 40 hours of training from a list of options. An employee must fulfill the 40 hours to qualify for merit pay. Given the increasing use of distance learning formats, it is also important to assess learners’ readiness to participate in online learning. The readiness of learners to enter into distance learning environments may play a critical role in increasing their course-completion and program-retention rates. Thus, a tool, the E-learning Readiness Self-Assessment has been designed to provide a quick, yet comprehensive analysis of preparedness for success in an online training program. It addresses questions about the learner’s access to technology, online skills, motivation, online audio, Internet skills, and views about training success.48 Gaining the Support of Trainees and Others If trainees do not see the value of training, they will be unlikely to learn new behaviors or use them on their jobs. Trainees should be informed in advance about the benefits that will result from training. If they see some incentives for training, it may strengthen their motivation to learn the behaviors, practice them, and remember them. To gain the support of trainees for the training program, the trainer must point out the intrinsic (e.g., personal growth) and extrinsic (e.g., promotion) benefits of attending training. At Saturn, employees are strongly encouraged to receive skills training. In fact, 5 percent of their yearly compensation is based on the amount of training they receive. In addition to garnering the support of trainees for training, the support of their supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates should be sought. For example, if the trainees’ supervisors are not supportive of training, then they may not facilitate the learning process (e.g., allow employees time off for training, reward them for using new skills). Likewise, if their peers or subordinates ridicule them for attending training, they may not be motivated to attend training programs or to learn. Trainers can improve the likelihood of acquiring others’ support for training by getting their opinions on the content of training, the location, and the times. At Patapsco Valley Veterinary Hospital located in 201 Ellicott City, Maryland, staff members are consistently asked for their opinions on the most convenient times to hold training sessions. In addition, the owners of the practice set a positive example by attending the training sessions themselves and by rewarding employees for participating in training and using their new skills on the job. Conditions of the Learning Environment After ensuring the preconditions for learning are met, trainers should build a training environment in which learning is maximized. To do this, trainers need to decide how to best arrange the training environment by addressing the issues below. G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S Whole versus Part Learning Research has shown that when a complex task is to be learned, it should be broken down into its parts if this can be done. Trainees should learn each part separately, starting with the simplest and going on to the most difficult. However, part learning should be combined with whole learning; that is, trainees should be shown the whole performance so that they know what their final goal is. The training content should be broken down into integrated parts, and each part should be learned until it can be performed accurately. Then a trainee should be allowed to put all the parts together and practice the whole task. One method that combines part and whole learning is called progressive part learning. In this approach, the trainees learn one part, then learn and practice that first part along with a second part, then learn and practice the first and second parts along with a third part, and so on. This might be used if the topics to be taught are somewhat interdependent (e.g., a communications course that involved sessions on active listening, being assertive, using nonverbals). Massed versus Spaced Practice Practice is important for trainees to learn a new skill or behavior. Trainers also can observe the practice sessions and provide feedback to the trainees to correct their mistakes. Spaced practice (i.e., practicing the new behavior and taking rest periods in between) is more effective than massed practice (practicing the new behavior without breaks), especially for motor skills. For example, it would be easier for you to learn how to play golf by having a lesson on putting and then going out to practice putting, rather than learning how to do all of the possible golf shots (e.g., putting, chipping, pitching, driving, etc.) and then going out to play. If a learner has to concentrate for long periods of time without some rest, learning and retention may suffer. It’s a little like cramming for an examination: rapid forgetting sets in very soon. Consequently, spaced practice seems to be more productive for long-term retention and for transfer of learning to the work setting. Of course, it takes longer for spaced practice than for massed practice so trainees may resist it (e.g., they may be less receptive to attending four half-day ber87251_ch08_192-226 202 1/17/06 23:45 Page 202 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability workshops than two full-day sessions). Tasks that are difficult and complex seem to be performed better when massed practice is provided first, followed by briefer sessions with more frequent rest periods.49 Overlearning Overlearning (i.e., practicing far beyond the point of performing the task successfully) can be critical in both acquisition and transfer of knowledge and skills. Generally, overlearning increases retention over time, makes the behavior or skill more automatic, increases the quality of the performance during stress, and helps trainees transfer what they have learned back to the job setting.50 Overlearning is desirable in a program when the task to be learned is not likely to be immediately practiced in the work situation and when performance must be maintained during periods of emergency and stress. For example, overlearning skills for driving or flying may be important so that in a crisis situation the individual will be able to quickly remember what actions should be taken. Pat Head Summitt, rated as one of the top coaches in collegiate basketball, believes in the importance of overlearning, which she calls “discipline.” She has her nationally ranked team, the Tennessee Lady Volunteers, practice their plays over and over again in preparation for critical games.51 Figure 8-5 presents a summary of the research on the trainee characteristics and work environment variables shown to be related to relatively more training success and training transfer. and Correlates of FIGURE 8-5 Predictors Trainability TRAINEE CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO GREATER TRAINING SUCCESS High cognitive ability High basic reading and math skills Oriented toward learning Less anxious High-conscientiousness (from the Five Factor Model-see Ch. 6) High-achievement motivation Self-efficacy/confidence in success High motivation to learn Perceive training as relevant to job/career Value outcomes (learning) WORK ENVIRONMENT CORRELATES OF TRANSFER Opportunity to perform trained tasks Positive climate for learning Reinforce importance of continuous learning Time and opportunity for training and practice Source: Adapted from Arthur, W., Bennett, W., Jr., Edens, P., & Bell, S. (2003). Effectiveness of training in organizations: A meta-analysis of design and evaluation features. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 234–245. Goal Setting Goal setting can help employees improve their performance by directing their attention to specific behaviors that need to be changed. If employees set specific, challenging goals, they can reach higher levels of performance. For example, research has shown that goal setting has led to an average increase of 19 percent.52 Goal setting improves performance because it affects four mechanisms: (a) it directs and focuses a person’s behavior, (b) it increases an individual’s effort towards attaining the goal, (c) it encourages an individual to persist on the goal or work harder and faster to attain it, and (d) it enables an individual to set specific strategies for attaining the goal.53 Training programs should include specific, yet challenging goals so trainees Gcan reach higher levels of performance or greater mastery the training material. Trainees should be encouraged to Aof set public goals and to record their accomplishments to Tensure greater transfer of their training skills. EKnowledge of Results SFor trainees to improve performance, they need to receive and specific feedback or knowledge of results. , timely Feedback serves informational and motivational purposes. It tells trainees how discrepant their performance is from Dthe desired performance and what particular skills or behaviors they need to correct. Also, it can motivate them Eto meet their performance goals once they see that they are Acoming close to accomplishing them. Trainers should build into the training environment opportunities for providing Nfeedback to trainees. For example, the trainer could give Dpop quizzes to trainees during the session and call out the correct answers. Trainees could quickly score their work to Rsee how well they are doing in the session and what they Aneed additional learning or practice in. Sometimes trainees can provide feedback to one another (e.g., observers can be used in role-plays to provide feedback to role-players). 1 Attention 1Trainers should try to design training programs and 2materials to ensure that trainees devote attention to them. can do this by choosing a training environment that 3They is comfortable to trainees (e.g., that has good temperaTture, lighting, seats, plenty of room, snacks) and free from (e.g., phone calls, interruptions from colSdistractions leagues). This is becoming increasingly more critical and challenging as trainees bring in more and more technology (e.g., blackberries, cell phones; laptops) into the classroom. No matter how motivated trainees are, if the environment is not comfortable to work in, trainees will have difficulty learning. Trainers also should make sure that trainees are familiar with and have accepted the learning objectives. They can do this by asking trainees to describe how accomplishing the objectives will resolve problems on the job. If trainees are able to translate learning objectives into relevant job issues, they may pay more attention to the training sessions. ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 203 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development Retention The ability to retain what is learned is obviously relevant to the effectiveness of a training program. Many factors have been found to increase retention. If the material presented is meaningful to trainees, they should have an easier time understanding and remembering it. Trainers can make the content meaningful by (1) presenting trainees with an overview of what is to be learned so that they will be able to see the overall picture, (2) using examples, concepts, and terms familiar to the trainees (e.g., use medical terms and examples when training doctors and nurses), and (3) organizing the material from simple to complex (e.g., teach someone how to serve before you teach him/her strategies in tennis). Retention also can be enhanced by rehearsal or requiring trainees to periodically recall what they have learned through tests. Using Learning Principles to Develop Training Materials The learning principles described above should be considered not only when designing the training environment but also when developing training materials. Any materials used with trainees should be able to stimulate them into learning and remembering the information. To ensure that this occurs, trainers need to make sure that the learning principles are built into their training materials. For example, the materials should provide illustrations and relevant examples to stimulate trainees. In addition, the objectives of the material should be clearly stated and a summary should be provided.54 Transfer of Training The ultimate goal of a training program is that the learning that occurs during training be transferred back to the job. Research strongly supports the view that the posttraining climate will affect whether training influences behaviors or results on the job. To maximize transfer, the following suggestions have been offered.55 These include ideas for the training session itself as well as for the employee once he or she has returned to the job: 1. Maximize the similarity between the training context and the job context. That is, the training should resemble the job as closely as possible. At GE, for example, the “action-learning” process focuses on real business problems. 2. Require practice of the new behaviors and overlearning in training. 3. Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in between training sessions. For example, the executive education programs conducted by the Robert H. Smith School of Business for its corporate clients (e.g., Entergy, Lockheed Martin) often require “homework assignments” such as customer-value projects, organizational systems projects, and 4. 5. G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 203 individual leadership development plans in between attendance at sessions. The assignments encourage trainees to apply their new skills in the workplace, using an action learning model. Include a variety of stimulus situations in the practice so trainees will learn to generalize their knowledge and skills. Coach Pat Summitt sets up grueling basketball game schedules with top-ranked teams so that the Lady Vols will play in a variety of situations and be ready for the NCAA playoffs each year. Label or identify the important features of the content to be learned to distinguish the major steps involved. Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to remind employees of the key action steps necessary on the job. For example, Alcoa uses job aids in many of its manufacturing jobs. Make sure that the general principles underlying the specific content are understood in training. Ensure that there is a supportive climate for learning and for transferring new behaviors. This can be done by building managerial support (emotional and financial) for training, providing trainees with the freedom to set personal performance goals, and encouraging risk-taking among trainees. One study used 505 supermarket managers from 52 stores and found that the work environment, measured by training climate and learning culture, was directly related to the transfer of trained behaviors.56 It is also important to encourage peer support since this type of support has been shown to influence transfer of training skills.57 Build the trainee’s self-efficacy for learning and using the new skills. Self-efficacy is a feeling of control and accomplishment; that you can control your own destiny. It has been shown to be related to learning using a sample of Navy warfare officers in midlevel managerial positions. In addition, encourage trainees to develop an action plan including specific measurable goals.58 Once back on the job, employees should be given opportunities to demonstrate that they can use the new skills. For example, one study of plane mechanics from the Air Force found that after training they were given opportunities to perform only about half of the tasks they learned in training.59 Likewise, in a study of university employees, it was found that situational constraints (e.g., adequate resources, time) limited the amount that trainees could transfer new skills to the work environment.60 Encourage continual learning by employees. They should realize that one-time training in an area is not sufficient to maintain effective skills. Retraining also may be needed to update skills. ber87251_ch08_192-226 204 1/17/06 23:45 Page 204 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability Relapse Prevention Sometimes despite trainers’ best efforts to get individuals to transfer what they have learned back to the job, it is difficult for trainees to maintain new behaviors or skills over a long period. They encounter high-risk situations and revert back to their old habits. Most people experience relapses after learning new behaviors. Think about all the times you or someone you know went on a diet or started an exercise program. Perhaps you were quite successful sticking to the plan after attending a training program (e.g., Weight Watchers). Then, one weekend you go on a trip with friends. Next thing you know you are eating lots of snacks and ignoring your exercise plan. This is a relapse. The same thing often happens to employees after they have attended a training program. For example, a manager learns how to control his temper in training, yet the first time returning back to the job he encounters an irate employee and he screams at the person. Relapse prevention is needed to assist trainees.61 This model emphasizes the learning of a set of self-control and coping strategies when the trainee is faced with high-risk situations.62 Employees should be made aware of the relapse process itself by informing them there are some situations that make it difficult for trainees to use their new behaviors. For example, they may be faced with peers or supervisors who are not supportive of their new skills.63 They should learn to identify and anticipate high-risk situations they will face when returning from training. They should be instructed on how to cope in these situations. Teaching these issues should increase trainees’ self-efficacy so that they can effectively use their new training skills back on the job. Choosing Methods for the Training Program Training methods can be divided into two categories: G1. A T E 2. S , Methods that are primarily informational or transmittal in nature; that is, they use primarily one-way communication in which information is transmitted to the learners. Methods that are experiential in nature; that is, the learner interacts with the instructor, a computer/simulator, customers, or other trainees to practice the skill. D E Benefits A N Equally good as programmed instruction and television D Low cost Reaches a large audienceR at one time Audience is often comfortable with it A FIGURE 8-6 Informational Training Methods Uses LECTURE Gaining new knowledge To present introductory material AUDIOVISUALS Gaining new knowledge Gaining attention INDEPENDENT STUDY Gaining new knowledge Completing degree requirements Continuous education E-LEARNING Gaining new knowledge Pretraining preparation to ensure that all trainees have similar backgrounds Can reach a large audience at one time 1 Allows for replays Versatility 1 Can reduce trainer, travel 2 and facility costs 3 T own pace Allows trainees to go at their Minimizes trainers’ time S Minimizes costs of development Convenient Allows trainees to go at their own pace Can guarantee mastery at a specified level Encourages active trainee involvement Provides immediate feedback to trainees Limitations Learners are passive Poor transfer Depends on the lecturer’s ability Is not tailored to individual trainees Is not tailored to individual trainees Must be updated Passive learners Expensive to develop a library of materials Materials must be designed to adjust to varying reading levels Performance depends on trainee’s motivation Is not applicable for all jobs Expensive to develop Is not easily applicable for all tasks (e.g., cognitive tasks, verbal, psychomotor) Does not lead to higher performance than lectures ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/18/06 11:12 Page 205 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development Some of the major methods including their uses, benefits, and limitations are described below and in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. Electronic learning or e-learning can be both on informational and an experiential method of training. Most training programs utilize several training techniques since no one approach is best suited for 205 every purpose. In fact, there has been increased interest in the use of blended training approaches in organizations. This often means the integration of classroom and e-learning training approaches.64 IBM’s international sales training program includes both classroom and onthe-job training (OJT), which is given over one year. AMC Theatres uses videotapes, detailed training manuals, FIGURE 8-7 Experiential Training Methods Uses ON-THE-JOB TRAINING Learning job skills Apprenticeship training Job rotation E-LEARNING Gaining new knowledge Drill and practice Individualized training EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS To reproduce real-world conditions For physical and cognitive skills For team training GAMES AND SIMULATIONS Decision-making skills Management training Interpersonal skills Benefits Limitations Good transfer G Limited trainer costs High trainee motivation A since training is relevant Depends on the trainer’s skills and willingness May be costly due to lost production and mistakes May have frequent interruptions due to job demands Often is haphazardly done Trainees may learn bad habits Self-paced Standardization of training over time Feedback given D Good retention E Convenient Can reduce costs Trainees may have difficulties using computers Limited opportunities for trainee interaction Less useful for training interpersonal skills or psychomotor tasks T E S , A N Effective for learning Dand transfer Can practice most of the job skills R A Resembles the job tasks Provides feedback Presents realistic challenges 1 Costly to develop Sickness can occur Requires good fidelity Highly competitive Time-consuming May stifle creativity CASE STUDY OR ANALYSIS Decision-making skills Analytical skills Communication skills To illustrate diversity of solutions Decision-making practice Real-world training2 materials Active learning 3 Good for developing problem-solving skills Must be updated Criticized as being unable to teach general management skills Trainers often dominate discussions ROLE-PLAYING For changing attitudes To practice skills To analyze interpersonal problems Gain experience of other roles Active learning Close to reality Initial resistance of trainees Trainees may not take it seriously Allows practice Provides feedback Retention is improved Strong research evidence Time-consuming May be costly to develop Can improve self-concept Can reduce prejudice Can change interpersonal behaviors May be threatening May have limited generalizability to job situations BEHAVIORAL MODELING To teach interpersonal skills To teach cognitive skills To teach training/teaching skills SENSITIVITY TRAINING To enhance self-awareness To allow trainees to see how others see them 1 T S ber87251_ch08_192-226 206 1/25/06 18:48 Page 206 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability and OJT programs to train ushers and concession personnel. To determine which combination of methods to select for a particular training program, a developer should first clearly define the purpose of and the audience for the training. In addition, an assessment of the resources available to conduct the training is necessary. This will mean examining the staff, materials, and budget capable of handling the training demands. It is also important to consider whether the focus will be on skill acquisition, maintenance, or generalization of the skill to other areas.65 At a minimum, the training methods selected should (1) motivate the trainee to learn the new skill, (2) illustrate the desired skills to be learned, (3) be consistent with the content (e.g., use an interactive approach to teach interpersonal skills), (4) allow for active participation by the trainees to fit with the adult learning model, (5) provide opportunities for practice and overlearning, (6) provide feedback on performance during training, (7) be structured from simple to complex, (8) encourage positive transfer from the training to the job, and (9) be cost effective. In many cases, trainers will use several different techniques. For example, teaching supervisors how to give performance feedback may first begin with a lecture or overview of the performance appraisal process, followed by small-group discussions or videotapes depicting effective coaching, and then role-plays to have supervisors practice their feedback skills. Informational Methods Informational methods are used primarily to teach factual material, skills, or attitudes. Generally, they do not require the trainee to actually experience or practice the material taught during the training session. Some of the more commonly used informational techniques include lectures, audio and video media, and self-directed learning (SDL) methods. E-learning is one of the most popular approaches today. Lectures The lecture method is the most commonly used technique for training employees and teaching students. A 2004 survey found that 85 percent of firms offer or still use a classroom with an instructor for some training.66 The method is often supplemented with group discussions, audiovisual aids, motion pictures, or television. The approach also can vary in the degree to which discussion is permitted, since some lectures involve all one-way communication, while others may allow trainees to participate by asking questions or providing comments. Despite the criticism of this method, recent research shows lecture-based training is quite an effective way to facilitate the transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual material.67 In addition, a meta-analysis of the effects of lecture, modeling, and active participation on the performance of older trainees found that all three methods had positive effects on learning and skill measures.68 Audio and Video Media A variety of audiovisuals are available to trainers including films, videos, slides, overheads, audiotapes, flip charts, and chalkboards. As of 2004, one survey found the following usage rates (often or always used) for various media: CD-ROM/DVD/diskettes (60 percent), videotapes (56 percent), teleconferencing (25 percent), videoconferencing (19 percent), satellite/broadcast TV (8 percent), and audiocassettes (5 percent).69 Videoconferencing has gained in popularity as costs have become more affordable for employers and different systems have become Gmore compatible. The staff of Greenberg Traurig, an international law firm, set up a videoconference system that Ais used almost constantly to share information and multiTmedia presentations in the 375-attorney firm.70 FedEx Kinko’s has videoconferencing facilities available at over E150 U.S. locations, with costs of about $225 per hour.71 SOther firms using videoconferencing include JCPenney, AT&T, and Texas Instruments. Often, these multi, IBM, media approaches are used to supplement other training techniques, including lectures and self-directed learning They can address a variety of topics such as moDmethods. tivational techniques, EEO issues, performance appraisal Einterviews, leadership skills, and teamwork. ASelf-Directed Learning (SDL) Methods NSeveral informational methods for training are considered Dto be SDL approaches because the trainee takes responsibility for learning the necessary knowledge and skills at Rhis or her own pace. A wide range of decisions can be Agiven to the trainee, including the topic of study, objec- tives, resources, schedule, learning strategy, type and sequence of activities, and media. In most cases, trainees 1work without direct supervision, set their own pace, and are allowed to choose their own activities, resources, and 1learning environments. Generally, the training depart2ment’s role is to provide assistance by establishing learncenters with available materials and by having trained 3ing facilitators on hand for questions. Larger companies such Tas Motorola, Sunoco, and Office Depot have been sucin setting up such centers and encouraging selfScessful directed learning by employees. In these centers, trainees can be given self-assessment tools or instruments. The advantages of SDL include (1) reduced training time, as compared to more conventional methods (e.g., lecture); (2) more favorable attitudes by trainees compared to conventional techniques; (3) more consistent with an adult learning approach; (4) minimal reliance on instructors or trainers; (5) mobility (i.e., a variety of places can be used for training); (6) flexibility (i.e., trainees can learn at their own pace); (7) consistency of the information taught to all trainees; and (8) cost savings. There are also several disadvantages, including ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 207 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development (1) high developmental time for course materials and extensive planning requirements, (2) difficulties in revising and updating materials, and (3) limited interactions with peers and trainers. Research indicates that employees with high levels of readiness for SDL as measured by the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) were more likely to be higher-level managers, to be outstanding performers,72 to possess greater creativity,73 and to have a higher degree of life satisfaction.74 Also, employees who were outstanding performers in jobs requiring high levels of creativity or problem solving or involving high levels of change were more likely to have high SDLRS scores. In addition, employees with higher SDLRS scores were successful in relatively unstructured learning situations in which more responsibility rests on the learners.75 A variety of SDL approaches are available. Two of the more commonly used techniques include independent study and various forms of e-learning. Independent study requires a trainee to read, synthesize, and remember the contents of written material, audio or videotapes, or other sources of information. The training or personnel department can develop a library of materials for trainees to use in teaching themselves at their own pace about various skills or knowledge. Companies such as Coors, Digital Equipment Corporation, Kraft, and U.S. Gypsum utilize extensive self-study materials for their sales employees.76 Trainees also can design their own training curriculum by opting for correspondence courses or enrolling in independent study courses at local schools or on the Web. Generally, in these programs, trainees are required to master the content on their own without direct supervision. E-learning is typically (although not always) an individualized learning method that allows for study of material online. For example, UBS uses an e-based program to train new stockbrokers. Most programs build in the important learning principles by (1) specifying what is to be learned (i.e., the behavioral objectives); (2) breaking down the learning topic into small, discrete steps; (3) presenting each step to the trainee and requiring him or her to respond to each step of the learning process (i.e., by reading each part); (4) testing the trainees’ learning at each step (i.e., by responding to questions); (5) providing immediate feedback to the trainee on whether his or her response was correct or incorrect; and (6) testing the level of skill or knowledge acquired at the end of the training module. E-learning has replaced “programmed instruction” in training classification but is based on the same principles. Experiential Methods Experiential methods are often used to teach physical and cognitive skills and abilities. These techniques include OJT, computer-based training (CBT), equipment simulations, 207 games and other simulations, case analyses, role-playing, and behavior modeling. In addition, a variety of electronic training-delivery media and distance learning techniques have increased in their usage as instructional/ experiential methods. G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S On-the-Job Training Approximately 90 percent of all industrial training is conducted on the job.77 OJT is conducted at the work site and in the context of the job. Often, it is informal as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to perform the job tasks. The trainer may watch over the trainee to provide guidance during practice or learning. For example, sales employees use coaching calls where a senior sales person coaches a new sales employee. Five steps are utilized:78 1. Observation of the new employee. 2. Feedback obtained by the new employee. 3. Consensus (i.e., the coach and the new employee arrive at an agreement as to the strengths and weaknesses of the sales call). 4. Rehearsal of a new sales call. 5. Review of the employee’s performance. Although OJT is often associated with the development of new employees, it also can be used to update or broaden the skills of existing employees when new procedures or work methods are introduced.79 In some cases, the trainer may be a retired employee. For instance, at Corning Glass Works, new employees are paired with retirees for a brief on-the-job introduction regarding the company culture and market data. Following this, they are exposed to formal classroom and field training.80 Many companies combine OJT with formal classroom training. At McDonald’s, after a three-hour induction, new employees are partnered with a buddy who is a member of the training squad.81 Dow Chemical alternates sales employees between classroom training at corporate headquarters and OJT experiences in the field for a year. Similarly, Wang Laboratories spends up to nine months alternating salespeople from company headquarters and field offices. Restaurant employees at the Hard Rock Café are trained by OJT and the use of job aids (i.e. training materials). Workers view this approach very favorably.82 OJT is best used when one-on-one training is necessary, only a small number (usually fewer than five) employees need to be trained, classroom instruction is not appropriate, work in progress cannot be interrupted, a certain level of proficiency on a task is needed for certification, and equipment or safety restrictions make other training techniques inappropriate. The training should emphasize equipment or instruments that are to be used, as well as safety issues or dangerous processes. For example, Quality Commercial Services, located in Westminster, Maryland, uses OJT effectively with its staff of construction workers to teach electrical wiring, dry ber87251_ch08_192-226 208 1/25/06 09:46 Page 208 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability walling, reading engineering blueprints, and painting, among other things. Apprenticeship programs often are considered OJT programs because they involve a substantial amount of OJT, even though they do consist of some off-the-job training. Typically, the trainee follows a prescribed order of coursework and hands-on experience. The Department of Labor regulates apprenticeship programs and many require a minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year, as well as OJT with a skilled employee.83 Many professions (e.g., medicine) or trades require some type of apprenticeship program that may last anywhere from two to five years. Some of the most common occupations to offer apprenticeship programs include electricians, carpenters, plumbers, pipe fitters, sheet-metal workers, machinists, tool-and-die makers, roofers, firefighters, bricklayers, cooks, structural-steel workers, painters, operating engineers, correction officers, and mechanics.84 In Europe, apprenticeships are still one of the most likely ways for individuals to gain entry into skilled jobs, while in the United States only 2 percent of high school graduates enter apprenticeship programs.85 This is a problem for the U.S. workforce since the pool of qualified skilled labor for future jobs has been shrinking. In France in one apprenticeship program alone, there are currently 4,200 apprentices with the Association des Compagnons du Devoir (elite artisans responsible for restoring historical sites such as Notre Dame Cathedral and Arc de Triomphe). Restricted to men, they begin as young as 15 and undertake up to nine years of lessons, community chores, and hands-on training with 6,500 companies that have contracts with them. They train for an additional two years and have to complete a personal building project. Only one in 10 typically survives the apprenticeship period and is allowed to join the ranks of Compagnons.86 Another commonly used technique for OJT training is job rotation, which involves moving employees from one job to another to broaden their experience. Many U.S. companies are showing greater interest in having their employees be able to perform several job functions so that their workforce is more flexible and interchangeable. For example, in the automobile industry today, it is fairly common to see employees being trained on two or more tasks (e.g., painting and welding). This is done at GM’s Saturn plant in order to relieve employees’ boredom as well as make the company less dependent on specialized workers. GE requires all managerial trainees to participate in an extensive job rotation program in which the trainees must perform all jobs they will eventually supervise. This helps managers develop a broader background required for future managerial positions. At Lockheed Martin, a leadership development program was established for new HR college recruits. They are rotated to a variety of HR departments (e.g., recruiting, selection, compensation) to gain broader experiences as HR professionals. Black and Decker provides a 3-year job rotation program for its new MBA employees entering into its financial development program. Computer-Based Training (CBT)/E-Learning The 2004–2005 workplace forecast conducted by the Society of Human Resource Management ranked e-learning as the second most important science and technology trend that will affect the workplace.87 The survey also found that when used effectively, e-learning has been able to deliver training for large numbers of employees at reduced costs and that there was an increased usage of e-learning during an economic downturn. Another recent study found that Web-based Ginstruction was more effective than classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge and procedural Aknowledge. Interestingly, they also noted that trainees Twere more satisfied with Web-based classes that had higher levels of human interaction than lower levels. EWhen trainees were not given the opportunity to intercourses, they preSact with others during Web-based ferred classroom instruction.88 One leading provider of , CBT software, CBT Group, has deals with Cisco Systems, IBM, Informix, Microsoft, Netscape CommuniNovell, Oracle, PeopleSoft, SAP, and Sybase, Dcations, among others. E Effective computer skill training is vital to organizaproductivity. One recent study demonstrated that Ational the behavior modeling approach to computer skill trainNing could be improved by incorporating symbolic mental Drehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual Rimages and symbolic memory codes. The authors recomAmend that practitioners use SMR for89 improving the effectiveness of computer skill training. Chunking refers to chopping computer-based train1ing into its smallest parts and sending them through a network so that learners receive just the instruction they need 1when they need it. Spring Corporation chunks CBT on 2the corporate intranet and90is one of the leaders in using training over the intranet. The most popular processing 3software packages (e.g., Microsoft Word) use CBT to inTtroduce learners to the use of the software. The U.S. Forces use CBT extensively for training many of SArmed their technicians. In fact, the military and NASA have numerous advanced technologies such as intelligent tutoring systems and virtual reality that are used for training purposes.91 In some CBT programs, trainees interact directly with computers to actually learn and practice new skills. This is done similarly to the PI system and is called computer-assisted instruction (CAI). For example, Dialect Interactive Lectures (DIALECT) are university lectures that have been converted into multimedia-based digital learning material. DIALECT use animation, computer simulations, and hyperlink facilities to guide students through lectures.92 ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 209 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development CBT has the advantage of being self-paced, standardized, self-sufficient, easily available, and flexible. This is particularly important in today’s fast-paced environment, where organizations cannot afford for employees to be away from the job for large amounts of time. In fact, many employees view it as a proven way to save time and money while delivering consistent content. Electronic training-delivery media involve some of the fastest growing instructional methods. The latest round of CBT-oriented software offers revolutionary ways in which interactive training is developed and delivered. Multimedia training programs often feature text, graphics, sound, pictures, videos, simulations, and hypertext links that enable trainees to structure their own learning experiences.93 In 2005, it has been reported that over $500 million has been spent on Web conferencing with the figure expected to top $3 billion by 2011. Most CBT systems support links to the Internet and to corporate intranets. Internet-based e-learning has emerged as a cost- and time-efficient way to address many companies’ training needs. The recent SHRM survey found very positive results in terms of user reactions and efficiencies.94 Given these trends, it is clear that traditional training methods will continue to decline as electronic delivery techniques increase in usage. This is particularly true of more innovative firms that use a greater variety of learning technologies for training.95 Distance Learning Programs Online education is the fastest growing sector of the education market. Online learners are predicted to go from 3 million in 2001 to more than 6 million by 2006.96 Many resources now exist for designing and implementing distance learning programs.97 In addition, a comprehensive list of vendors is provided by the Distance Education Clearinghouse Web site (http://www.uwex.edu/disted). Companies such as Banco national de Mexico, one of the oldest and largest banks in Mexico, graduated its first class of 11 executives from a global MBA degree from San Diego–based National University that is a distance learning program. The company found that enabling managers to complete the coursework without having to leave their work or homes was beneficial.98 Research on the effectiveness of distance education programs has only begun.99 In general, offering training or educational programs over the Internet enables employees to access high-quality education at their own pace.100 They have access to class material, conduct research without traveling, and have dialogs with professors and classmates via e-mail, bulletin boards, and chat rooms. Some programs use videoconferencing or transmit lectures via satellite. In this regard, they may have an easier time juggling careers and families.101 Numerous firms have successfully used distance learning programs for their employees, including Ford, AT&T, EDS, MCI Communications, U.S. Department of Defense, Tennessee 209 Valley Authority, United Technologies Corporation, Lockheed Martin, and Lucent Technologies.102 Organizations have reported the following benefits for distance learning programs:103 G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S • A fast, effective way to train global employees. • Increased the impact and productivity of dollars invested in training and education programs. • Reduced travel costs and made time formerly spent traveling available for more productive uses. • Allowed for the training of more people, more often, in sessions that are easier to schedule and coordinate. • Offered the ability to add students and instructors as needed without incurring significant additional expenses. • Delivered a consistent message that can be disseminated quickly companywide. • Provided real-time updates and just-in-time information access. • Delivered to both work and home sites that are convenient for trainees. • Offered live interactive programs delivered to multiple networked sites for group learning. • Is learner-centered and enabled students to have more control over the pacing and sequencing of the learning experience. • Offered easy access to learning resources. One recent article provides a set of research-based principles for “learner control” training in the e-learning environment. “Learner control generally refers to ‘a mode of instruction in which one or more key instructional decisions are delegated to the learner.’” Simply put, trainees have greater control over their training, such as pace, materials covered, and sequence.104 Figure 8-8 presents the guidelines for more effective e-learning. Equipment Simulations Some training may involve machines or equipment designed to reproduce physiological and psychological conditions of the real world that are necessary in order for learning and transfer to occur. For example, driving simulators or flight simulators often are used to train employees in driving or flying skills. Another example of a simulation is the FireArms Training System (FATS), which is used by more than 300 law enforcement agencies in the United States.105 In this simulation, officers are confronted with a number of everyday work situations (e.g., fleeing felons) on a video screen. The military uses virtual reality simulators for training of war game demonstrations. One exercise, called the Synthetic Theater of War, links tactics, techniques, and processes of modern systems to illustrate battles.106 Equipment simulators also are relied on to a great deal in training for space missions (e.g., astronaut training). While many of these simulations are extremely costly, some have become more affordable. In addition, using simulators for training is only ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/25/06 09:46 Page 210 FIGURE 8-8 Guidelines for Learner Controlled Training in E-Learning PREPARING TRAINEES FOR LEARNER-LED INSTRUCTION Guideline #1: Understanding Learner Control Is Half the Battle • Instruct employees about areas they can control and how this increased control can increase learning. • The perception of control can increase learning. Guideline #2: Give It Time • Typical learner-controlled training tasks last from 30 to 60 minutes. • “Provide trainees with enough time to learn how to use learner control and with suggested completion times for each section of the training task.” • Ten or more separate training sessions are recommended as users become more familiar with the system as time progresses. Guideline #3: Calibrate Expectations Ensure trainees understand the training will be challenging. Adult users often perceive learning as an easy process and when confronted with the challenge of training they may become frustrated. DESIGNING LEARNER-CONTROLLED TRAINING Guideline #4: Offer Help G • Offer self-tests and feedback so trainees can self-regulate the number of examples to view and the amount of practice items to A complete. Guideline #5: What’s Good for One Trainee May Not Be GoodT for Another • “Trainees who are high in ability, prior experience, and motivation may benefit the most from learner control.” E known as ‘g’] and prior experience with more learner • “Create programs that provide trainees high in learning ability [also control options than trainees low in ability and prior experience.” S • Motivation: “When trainees are made aware of the organizational objectives of the training they are often more motivated to , successfully complete the training program.” Guideline #6: More Isn’t Necessarily Better • Match learner control to the amount of control needed for effective instruction and training objectives. D • Structure training tasks based on trainees’ learning preferences. E Guideline #7: “Skipping” Is Better than “Adding” For optional/additional training material, use the word “skip” additional A instruction rather than “add” additional material. Guideline #8: Keep It Real N Increase meaningfulness of training by using familiar contexts and examples. D R Guideline #10: Keep Each Instructional Segment Self-Contained A Guideline #9: Footprints Help (“You Are Here”) Provide trainees with a ‘map’ to track their training progress. • Each section should be short and concise. • Trainees should not have to revisit a previous section to complete the current section. Guideline #11: Share Design Control 1 • Obtain user preferences from trainees prior to training; i.e., does the user prefer having multiple windows open during the 1 training session? • “Allow the trainees to stop, pause, or restart the program where 2 they wish.” Guideline #12: Be Consistent 3 • “Keep the font size and color as well as the background color consistent from one instructional segment to another.” Guideline #13: Create Smooth Transitions Have clear relationships between training segments. T S CREATING WORKPLACE CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATE SUCCESSFUL LEARNER-LED INSTRUCTION Guideline #14: Promote It Supervisors can improve learner-controlled effectiveness by setting difficult but attainable goals regarding the level of skill mastery and encouraging the trainees to use their new obtained skills on the job. Guideline #15: Make It Matter Ensure that trainees judge the incentive to participate in training is attainable but also valuable. Guideline #16: Organizational Climate Matters Organizations with climates that encourage employee participation, empowerment, and autonomy may find it easier to implement learner-controlled training programs. Source: Adapted from Renée E. DeRouin, Barbara A. Fritzsche, and Eduardo Salas, (2004). “Optimizing E-Learning: Research-Based Guidelines for LearnerControlled Training,” Human Resource Management 43, pp. 147–162. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons. 210 ber87251_ch08_192-226 1/17/06 23:45 Page 211 CHAPTER 8 Training and Development a fraction of the cost of using the real equipment to train employees. Games, Simulations, and Outdoor Experiential Programs Some training programs rely on the use of a variety of games, nonequipment simulations, or outdoor experiential programs. In fact, these instructional techniques appear to be gaining in popularity with hundreds of different types of games available for teaching technical, managerial, professional, or other business-related skills. In 2004, 21 percent of organizations often used games or simulations, and 10 percent used computer-based games or simulations.107 Some of the more common games include inbaskets and business games. Most games are used to teach skills such as decision making as well as analytical, strategic, or interpersonal skills. Business games typically require trainees to assume various roles in a company (e.g., president, marketing vice president) where they are given several years’ worth of information on the company’s products, technology, and human resources and asked to deal with the information in a compressed period of time (several weeks or months). They make decisions regarding production volumes, inventory levels, and prices in an environment in which other trainees are running competitor companies. The most successful business games keep the focus on specific corporate objectives or problems such as profits, customer service, or labor costs. One very popular cross-functional simulation is The Marketplace Business Simulation. Working in teams, trainees must assume various roles in the start-up of a firm in the microcomputer industry. The teams work over a compressed period of time to play 2 to 3 years in the game. Performance is measured on a number of short- and longterm metrics (e.g., financial, marketing, human resource). Numerous levels and variations of the game are available depending on the expertise and backgrounds of the trainees. The simulation has been used all over the world as a capstone, integrative experience to an MBA or undergraduate program as well as by organizations (e.g., Nextel, Hughes Network Systems).108 In-baskets are used to train managerial candidates in decision-making skills by requiring them to act on a variety of memos, reports, and other correspondence that are typically found in a manager’s in-basket. As we discussed in Chapter 5, participants must prioritize items and respond to them in a limited time period. In-baskets are often included in assessment centers. For example, the method is used as one component of the week-long executive development program at the Center for Creative Leadership. Outdoor experiential programs have gained in popularity as training methods for teams. In 2004, 20 percent of firms often or always used experiential programs and estimates of over $100 million are spent annually on them.109 Firms such as Outward Bound and Higher Pursuits have developed a variety of outdoor activities and 211 challenge courses (e.g., rope courses, canoeing trips, hiking trips) that can be used to help employers build stronger teams. By placing a work unit in a challenge course or physical activity, the coaches or counselors can observe how the team works together and can debrief them and provide feedback on issues of communication, conflict, and trust. G A T E S , D E A N D R A 1 1 2 3 T S Case Analyses Most business students are very familiar with case analysis, a training method often used in management training to improve analytical skills. In 2004, 43 percent of firms with over 100 employees often or always used case studies for employee and management training.110 Trainees are asked to read a case report that describes the organizational, social, and technical aspects of some organizational problem (e.g., poor leadership, intergroup conflict). Each trainee prepares a report in which he or she describes the problems and offers solutions (including potential risks and benefits). Working in a group, trainees may then be asked to justify the problems they have identified and their recommendations. The trainer’s role is to facilitate the group’s learning and to help the trainees see the underlying management concepts in the case. One variation to the traditional case method is called a living case. This has trainees analyze a problem that their organization is currently facing.111 Role-Playing In a role-playing exercise, trainees act out roles and attempt to perform the behaviors required in those roles. Role-plays are commonly used in training, and in 2004, 34 percent of the firms reported often or always using them for training.112 This method is often used to teach skills such as oral communication, interpersonal styles, leadership styles, performance feedback reviews, and interviewing techniques. In the popular MBA course, “Executive Power and Negotiations,” at the University of Maryland’s Robert H. Smith School of Business, students participate in role-plays every class period to enhance their negotiating skills across a variety of situations (e.g., receiving jobs, raises and promotions, international deals, ethical dilemmas). Similarly, in the EMBA course on Leadership and Human Capital, executives are videotaped while role-playing and given feedback on their skills. At the Chicago Tribune, trainees are assigned the role of a supervisor giving performance appraisal feedback to a subordinate, while other trainees play the role of the subordinate. Xerox uses role-plays in some of its training programs to teach managers how to develop a culturally diverse workforce. Role-plays are very common components of sexual harassment training programs. Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling is quickly growing as a technique for training with managers on interpersonal and supervisory ber87251_ch08_192-226 212 1/25/06 09:46 Page 212 PART III Developing Human Resource Capability skills. Many large companies such as Exxon, Westinghouse, and Union Carbide use this approach. Based on Bandura’s theory of social learning,113 the method consists of four consecutive components: (1) attention (watching someone perform a behavior usually through videotapes), (2) retention (processes to help the trainee retain what was observed), (3) motor reproduction or behavioral rehearsal (using role-plays to practice new behaviors), and (4) motivation or feedback/reinforcement (receiving feedback on the behaviors performed). The success...
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