ABSTRACT
Title of Thesis:
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA
Economics Department, Master of Art, May 2017
Thesis Chair:
s, Ph.D.
The topic of women empowerment in Saudi Arabia has attracted international
attention in recent years. Noticeably, women in Saudi Arabia still constitute less than
16 percent of the national workforce in spite of there being as many qualified women
as men. There is a serious need for reforms in the political, law and labor market
sectors. While putting emphasis on the importance of women’s contribution to
progress and development, this thesis aims to study and analyze the factors
influencing women empowerment in Saudi Arabia with regards to the fulfillment of
the New Vision 2030. The extent to which entrepreneurship is possible for women in
Saudi Arabia is also looked into and its capability to enhance Saudi’s financial
independence, social-cultural autonomy, and general welfare. Since the study wants
to establish about women empowerment in Saudi Arabia, 70 women in institutions of
higher education have given the questionnaires. For this study, the secondary
sources were from the World Bank. The study endeavored to attain the following
objectives: to investigate the influence of social factors on the position of women in
the society, to establish how religious factors influence women empowerment, to
examine the influence of policy factors on women empowerment and lastly to
explore the influence of ideological factors on women empowerment. The most
important part of the finding was the involvement of women in the labor force still low
but increasing. the government should give more opportunities to the female and to
give male and female same treatments in term of education and employment. The
data collected is sometimes not statistically significant and need to undergo extra
testing or a larger sample size is required for the results to be more applicable.
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA
by
s
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the degree Master of Arts
Morgan State University
May 2018
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA
by
s
has been approved
December 2018
THESIS COMMITTEE APPROVAL:
__________________________, Chair
s, Ph.D.
__________________________
s, Ph.D.
__________________________
s, Ph.D.
DEDICATION
To my father and my mother who encouraged me to reach my goal.
To my wife, my sisters and brothers, I appreciate their faith in my abilities.
Table of Contents
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 7
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER ONE..................................................................................................................... 10
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 10
1.0 Background Information ............................................................................................ 10
1.1 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................... 11
1.2 The Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................... 12
1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................. 12
1.4 Research Questions................................................................................................... 12
1.5 The Significance of the Study ................................................................................... 12
1.6 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................. 13
1.7 The Scope of the Study ............................................................................................. 13
1.8 Assumptions of the Study ......................................................................................... 14
2.0 Operational Definition of Terms ............................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 15
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 15
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 15
Human Development in relation to education and employment ................................ 18
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................ 19
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 19
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Source of Data ............................................................................................................ 19
3.3 Place of Survey ........................................................................................................... 19
3.4 Respondents ............................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Sample Design ............................................................................................................ 20
3.6 Sample Size ................................................................................................................ 21
3.7 Research Instruments ................................................................................................ 21
3.8 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 22
3.8.1 Quantitative Data Analysis..................................................................................... 22
3.9 Variables ...................................................................................................................... 23
3.10 Dependent variable .................................................................................................. 23
3.11 Independent variables ............................................................................................. 24
3.12 Statistical Methods ................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 26
4.0 DATA TABULATION AND ANALYSIS .................................................................... 26
4.1 Trends of Employment and Education .................................................................... 26
4.2Frequency Tables ........................................................................................................ 33
4.3 Cross-Tabulation ........................................................................................................ 39
4.3.1 Employment Status vs. marital status .............................................................. 40
4.3.2 Employment status vs. level of education ....................................................... 41
4.3.3 Response Scale of Selected Statement Related to Job Opportunity vs.
Marital Status ................................................................................................................. 42
4.3.4 Response Scale of Selected Statement Related to Job Opportunity vs.
Level of Education......................................................................................................... 49
4.4 Logistic Regression .................................................................................................... 56
4.4.1 Binary logistic regression of employment status ............................................ 56
4.4.2 Ordinal Logistic Regression............................................................................... 57
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 58
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 58
5.2 Summary of the Findings .......................................................................................... 58
5.4 Policy Recommendation ............................................................................................ 61
5.5 Recommendation for Further Research ................................................................. 61
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 62
List of Tables
TABLE 2. 1 SUMMARY OF WOMEN PROGRESS REPORT AS FROM 1970 AND 2014 ............................................ 17
TABLE 4.2.1 PERCEPTION RESPONSES ON SOCIAL FACTORS ................................................................................................ 33
TABLE 4.2.2 PERCEPTION RESPONSES ON RELIGIOUS FACTORS........................................................................................... 34
TABLE 4.2.3 PERCEPTION RESPONSES ON POLICY FACTORS ................................................................................................ 35
TABLE 4.2.4 PERCEPTION RESPONSES ON IDEOLOGICAL FACTORS ........................................................................................ 37
TABLE 4.17 CROSSTAB BETWEEN MARITAL STATUS AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS ............................................... 40
TABLE 4. 18 CROSSTAB BETWEEN LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS ....................................... 41
TABLE 4. 19 CROSSTAB BETWEEN JOB OPPORTUNITY VS. MARITAL STATUS .......................................................................... 42
TABLE 4. 20 CROSSTAB OF MARITAL STATUS ON ‘WOMEN CAN SUCCESSFULLY LEAD ORGANIZATIONS’ .......... 43
TABLE 4. 21 CROSSTAB OF MARITAL STATUS ON ‘ISLAM RELIGION HAS HELPED IN UPLIFTING WOMEN’............ 44
TABLE 4. 22 CROSSTAB OF MARITAL STATUS ON ‘RELIGIOUS LEADERS DO NOT GIVE WOMEN A CHANCE TO
LEAD IN THE MOSQUES’ ............................................................................................................................... 45
TABLE 4. 23 CROSSTAB OF MARITAL STATUS ON ‘WOMEN ARE NOW PERMITTED TO DRIVE VEHICLES’ ............ 46
TABLE 4. 24 CROSSTAB OF MARITAL STATUS ON ‘WOMEN’S EDUCATION IS KEY TO ENSURING DEVELOPMENT IN
THE SOCIETY ............................................................................................................................................... 47
TABLE 4. 25 CROSSTAB OF MARITAL STATUS ON ‘THE NEW VISION 2030 DOES NOT HAVE GREATER IMPACT AS
FAR AS WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA IS CONCERNED’........................................................... 48
TABLE 4. 26 CROSSTAB OF LEVEL OF EDUCATION ON’ WOMEN AND MEN HAVE EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN
EMPLOYMENT’ ............................................................................................................................................. 49
TABLE 4. 28 CROSSTAB OF LEVEL OF EDUCATION ON ‘ISLAM RELIGION HAS HELPED IN UPLIFTING WOMEN’ .... 51
TABLE 4. 29 CROSSTAB OF LEVEL OF EDUCATION ON ‘RELIGIOUS LEADERS DO NOT GIVE WOMEN A CHANCE TO
LEAD IN THE MOSQUES’ ............................................................................................................................... 52
TABLE 4. 30 CROSSTAB LEVEL OF EDUCATION ON ‘WOMEN ARE NOW PERMITTED TO DRIVE VEHICLES.’ ......... 53
TABLE 4. 31 CROSSTAB OF LEVEL OF EDUCATION ON ‘WOMEN’S EDUCATION IS KEY TO ENSURING
DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOCIETY’ ................................................................................................................. 54
TABLE 4. 32 CROSSTAB OF LEVEL OF EDUCATION ON ‘THE NEW VISION 2030 DOES NOT HAVE GREATER
IMPACT AS FAR AS WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA IS CONCERNED’......................................... 55
TABLE 4. 33 BINARY LOGISTIC REGRESSION OF EMPLOYMENT STATUS ON SELECTED VARIABLES ................... 56
TABLE 4. 34 ORDINAL REGRESSION OF WOMEN AND MEN HAVE EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN EMPLOYMENT ON
SELECTED VARIABLES ................................................................................................................................. 57
List of Figures
Figure 3. 1
Figure 4.1 Labor Force of Male and Female with Education
Figure 4.2 Labor Force of Male and Female with Education
Figure 4.3 Labor Force Participation and Employment of Male and
Female
Figure 4.4 Labor Force Participation and Employment of Male and
Female
Figure 4.5 Gross Enrollment of Male and Female in College Level
ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS
CEDAW - Convention of Eliminating Discrimination against Women.
UN – United Nations
TEVT – Technical Education & Vocational Training
UNIDO – United Nations Industrial Development Organization
GAStat – General Authority for Statistics
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background Information
Since time immemorial, women have been demeaned, dehumanized, secluded, marginalized,
silenced and subjugated. Ostensibly, the topic of women empowerment in Saudi Arabia has attracted
global attention in recent years. Despite the significant increase in females’ involvement as active
members of the community within the complex communal context of the region, there are several
difficulties that come with it.
The topic of entrepreneurship with respect to women’s rights and their experiences in the
ownership of businesses has been important in academic discourse. Women across different parts of
the globe undergo various challenges including financial obstacles and biases in favor of male
counterparts. However, the case is kind of intense in Saudi Arabia as the females face extremely
incredible challenges in conducting business as the owners and even networking with other business
owners and interacting with clients. The reason for the challenges can be attributed to the insufficient
government aid and financing, the absence of business enlightening chances and hurdles based on
cultural and religious factors. For instance, a major legal challenge is the fact that females need a
male guardian’s go ahead to travel or work which is attributed to religious and cultural doctrines. Such
acts affect women’s opportunities to start their own enterprises or even secure employment away
from home vicinity.
Women's education in Saudi Arabia is majorly organized based on the principles of Islam,
which is the fundamental and official religion of the country. The history of education of women is
dated back to 1956 when the first girls' school was introduced. The girls' school referred to as Dar alHanan and few girls had the opportunity to be enrolled in school. Following this was the first state-run
school for girls which was introduced in 1960. Until around 2002, the women education at all levels –
primary, high school, secondary and university, was controlled by Department of Religion whereas for
men it was controlled by the ministry of education (Bowen, 2014). The major reason as to why girls'
school was regulated by the department of religion was to ensure that women were taught in line with
the principles of Islam. It was also choreographed to make women loyal to the religion and also to
men. In addition, women are not permitted to work in similar jobs as men as most Saudi men and
women regarding the nature of women to be different from that of men. This societal take explains the
reason as to why only particular jobs such as nursing and teaching are open to females as opposed
to jobs like engineering.
The topic of empowering women to work in the various fields to boost the Saudi Arabian
economy has been a subject of debate for many years (Smith & Abouammoh, 2013). According to a
study conducted by Welsh et al (2014) to examine the benefits of educating women in Saudi Arabia, it
revealed that educating the women led to 55 percent of women owning businesses in the country.
With the increase in a number of women owning their own businesses, the economy has
subsequently grown by more than 20 percent in the last one decade. Reforms on the empowerment
of women in Saudi Arabia have been given the most attention in the nation and, by large, it has been
incorporated in the 10th Saudi Development Plan (2015-2019) as one of its key goals. The plan has an
in-depth illustration of how women are to be empowered which is the first time women’s agenda has
been stated and discussed in a development plan in Saudi Arabia.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Ostensibly, there has been a rise in the creation of awareness to empower Arabian females
through initiatives such as the Tenth Development Plan (2015-2019) and the New Vision 2030 of
Saudi which give consideration to women empowerment. However, there still exist hardships in
attaining equality for women in Saudi Arabia as there are no detailed research and studies to give
Arabian women, researchers, Non-Governmental Organizations, academia and non-Muslims the
necessary steps to be taken to aid with ensuring gender balance within Saudi Arabia. There seems to
be a conflict in differentiating religious rights, cultural rights and constitutional rights in the
predominantly Muslim nation. The confusion of distinguishing the three rights has led to most women
accepting traditional patriarchy within the community in spite of seeking for gender balance. Over
time, Arabic women have come to learn about the benefits and importance of feminism which has
subsequently led to a gender balance manifestation. However, most Saudi women are reluctant on
engaging in the fight against gender inequality due to the following reasons: differences in sex
obligations, the individual family set up, personification against the robust organization, and the
varying legal position for Arabic women (Badran, 2002). Whereas some researchers have related the
gender inequality in Saudi Arabia to be caused by majorly religion and the nature of women in a
society, little is known of the factors influencing women empowerment in Saudi Arabia. It was,
therefore, crucial to look at the aspects that influence women empowerment in Saudi Arabia among
them being religion, social, policy, and ideological factors.
1.2 The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the factors influencing women empowerment in
Saudi Arabia and to give an in-depth and comprehensive description of the past experiences of
women in Saudi Arabia. Also, the study aimed at illustrating on how the New Vision 2030 will enhance
women empowerment and how the Saudi women would help the economy to achieve their goal by
2030.
1.3 Research Objectives
The Objectives of the study included:
❖ To investigate the influence of social factors on women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
❖ To determine how religious factors influenced women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
❖ To examine the influence of policy factors on women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
❖ To explore the influence of ideological factors on women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
1.4 Research Questions
This thesis was guided by the following questions:
❖ What social factors do Arabians consider when it comes to women empowerment in Saudi
Arabia?
❖ How do religious aspects influence women empowerment in Saudi Arabia?
❖ To what extent do policy aspects influence women empowerment in Saudi Arabia?
❖ Which Ideological factors influence women empowerment in Saudi Arabia?
❖ Will women empowerment help the economy of Saudi Arabia? If yes how?
1.5 The Significance of the Study
This study stands pivotal in contributing knowledge not only to the Saudi Arabian government
at large but also to the women of Saudi Arabia especially in regards to the labor market department.
The findings of the study might help the government understand the factors that influence women
empowerment in Saudi Arabia and thereby ensuring that the initiatives and policies employed to
enhance women empowerment in Saudi Arabia do not lose their intended purposes. The study may
also help the Arabian community to appreciate the importance of women towards boosting the
economy of Saudi Arabia and how the women will help achieve the New Vision 2030. From the
research findings, the women in Saudi Arabia might be informed of the ideological and social factors
that may be contributing to the confusion of distinguishing cultural rights, religious rights, and
constitutional rights.
1.6 Limitations of the Study
Given that various labor markets in Saudi Arabia have different views on the role of women,
generalization will be made cautiously. A study of the required qualifications for both the male and
female gender thus needs to be carried out separately. Secondly, the study is focused on women who
have advanced to a higher level of education and beyond and thereby making a generalization of the
other categories of women in Saudi Arabia not to be possible. Thirdly, the study area is in an urban
setting and this may limit comparative analysis with the rural setup, which could give the study a
complete framework on the factors that influence women empowerment in Saudi Arabia. In such a
case, therefore, a study of both urban and rural set up would be applicable ideal for comparative
analysis. Since the study is also limited to Saudi Arabia, it cannot, therefore, be generalized to other
Arabic or Muslim nations. The study was focused on social, religious, policy, and ideological factors
and not any other potential factors that may bring in a better analysis for the study. Lastly, the study
faced limitations with regards to time and finances which was overcome by organizing additional
sources of funds and time out of the busy schedule.
1.7 The Scope of the Study
The study focused on the urban areas of Saudi Arabia and was restricted to the factors influencing
women empowerment in Saudi Arabia. Among the factors considered in this thesis included the
social, policy, religious and ideological aspects in Saudi Arabia. The respondents of the study were 70
individuals with higher education academic qualifications and above.
1.8 Assumptions of the Study
This research was underlined by the following assumptions:
❖ That both women and men have met the minimum qualifications to participate in the labor
market.
❖ That all labor market industries and agencies have sound management practices and
competent managers.
❖ That all the respondents gave accurate and honest information.
❖ That all potential participants consented to be included in the study
❖ That all stakeholders involved in women empowerment programs have some consideration in
mind when handling the topic.
2.0 Operational Definition of Terms
Factors: These are issues that influence the decision-making process.
Influencing: The ability to have the power to change a course of action.
Social Factors: These are issues based on the cultural, traditional and ethical practices and beliefs
of a community that influence women empowerment.
Religious Factors: These are issues related to the country’s predominant religious practices and
beliefs that affect women empowerment.
Policy Factors: These are aspects related to government and labor market industry policies together
with the administrative operations that may impact on women empowerment.
Ideological Factors: Just like religious and social factors, these are values such as political
affiliations that affect women empowerment.
Patriarchy: Refers to a group of social connections within men which have a solid foundation and
enable them to have interdependence and unity, through the hierarchy, and subsequently dominate
women.
Women Empowerment: Refers to the creation and enhancement of an economic, legal, social, and
political environment that is favorable to women to ensure gender equality and make the women have
confidence in claiming for their rights for both their personal gains and the society at large.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Saudi Arabia is a desert country that runs over 8,000 square miles with cities such as
Medinah, Jeddah, Makah, Riyadh, and Dhahran. The country is a monarchy, led by the royal family of
Al Saud with a council of ministers. The country’s current state is attributed to its deep rootedness in
tribal and religious history. Back in the mid-1990s, most of the Arab nations had extremely low literacy
levels. According to statistics by UNESCO (1995), the illiterate lot in the Arabic countries constituted
between one-fifth and one-half of the total nation’s population (Mazawi, 2002). Ostensibly, the level of
illiteracy according to Mazawi (2002) is more prevalent among females, especially in rural regions.
The Al Saud family has intensely directed funds and efforts in education for more than fifteen years
now to curb the prevailing situation for the women. Much emphasis has been put to promote higher
education for women by King Abdullah and currently, 58 percent of Saudi Arabia’s university students
are females (Minkus-McKenna, 2009). Noticeably, most women are now enrolling for management
and business courses in such fields as health care and finance (Eid, 2005). However, due to cultural
and religious practices in Saudi Arabia, women undergo several challenges pertaining to their
educational development (Kayed & Hassan, 2010). As a result of the segregation of women, only 15
percent of the Saudi labor industry is comprised of women.
For there to be the socio-economic development of women there need to be the presence
and accessibility of standard advanced education. Women’s poverty level significantly impact a
country’s economic status since on average they constitute one-half of the population (Alsuwaigh,
1989; Abdul Aziz Alsahlawi & Gardener, 2004). Most institutions of higher learning lack the social
empowerment that is essential for the women’s learning exposures in spite of allowing the females to
enroll for advanced education and graduate studies in Saudi Arabia. In most of the institutions, there
is the practice of sex segregation where classrooms are classified depending on gender (Mtango,
2004). Even so, facilities belonging to the females are, in most cases, of lower quality as compared to
those of males and the sizes of class for the women are bigger as compared to their male
counterparts. According to Mtango (2004), the tutors in male universities are more educated and
trained “with more than 34 percent of the professors at the men’s universities holding doctorates, as
compared with only 3 percent of their counterparts at women’s universities.” In some instances,
accessing vital institutional facilities is regulated as a result of gender segregation policies. For
instance, according to Mtango (2004), females at King Saud University in Riyadh are allocated less
time a week as compared to their male counterparts. Besides, most universities have fewer numbers
of female tutors and professors. As things stand, it is difficult for women seeking to start
entrepreneurship as a result of lesser quality education.
The central factor of community and family life is education. The education of women in Saudi
can be dated back in the past 1500 years, a period when Khadija, the wife of Prophet Muhammad,
was her own employer and owned her own caravan which was successful. Following the demise of
the prophet, the position of women in the country gradually began to decline and by early 1900’s,
female’s status had been reduced to the level of non-education and oppression (Ahmed, 1992). In
Saudi Arabia, women’s education begun informally with the Kuttab schools which basically, taught the
key aspects of Islam and the basics of arithmetic, reading, and writing. King Abdul Aziz would then
initiate an extensive program to start up schools in the Kingdom by 1945. By 1951, Saudi Arabia had
a record of 29,887 students enrolled in 226 schools (Collins, 2005). In 1943, the first private female
school was set up in Makkah by a group of people who sought to teach their daughters the basics of
mathematics, writing and reading (Al Salloom, 1989). In 1960, the public elementary education for the
girl child commenced with only 518 female students enrolled in the 15 schools that had 127
classrooms. This would then be followed by public education at intermediate and secondary levels in
1963. At that particular time, Al Salloom (1989), records that there were 4 school buildings for the
intermediate level and only one for the secondary level. Soon, the Saudi families realized that there
was no harm posed to family life and in the traditional role of females in society by educating the girl
child. Female students would then begin to enroll for education at all levels which led to the expansion
and establishment of more schools. Kathleen (1991) records that the number of females who had
enrolled for higher education had gone up from 400 in 1990 to 48,000 by 1970.
The latest education annual reports indicate that number of women has risen from 13 in 1970
to 21, 721 in 1999 (Smith & Abouammoh, 2013). The increase girl child enrolling to school can be
attributed to sensitization programs to encourage parents in the society to allow women enroll to
school. In 1953, the number of women employed was less than 50, but recently in 2017, there are
more than 15000 women employed by the government. Women in the past were only allowed to
participate in domestic activities. In 1970, women in sport and Olympic were less than 20, but in 2014,
the number has increased to more than 1596. In stock exchange market, the percentage of women
participating in the trade has increased from 4 percent in 1970 to 12 percent in 2014 this according to
Bloomberg report.
Table 2. 1 Summary of women progress report as from 1970 and 2014
Activity
Before
After
Schooling
In 1949, there were no women
In 1999, number of women
enrolled in any girls' school
was 21, 721
In 1953, the number of women
In 2017, there are more than
employed was less than 50
15000 women employed by the
Work opportunities
government
Sports and Olympic
Stock Exchange Market
In 1970, women in sport and
In 2014, the number has
Olympic were less than 20
increased to more than 1596
In 1970, women compose less
In 2014, women compost more
than 4 percent of total
than 12 percent of total
employees in stock exchange
employees in stock exchange
market.
market. Ms. Sarah Alsohaimi
elected Chairman of the board
of the Saudi Stock market.
The orientation of any society is largely dependent on traditional and cultural factors
alongside political and economic systems. The number of well-known Saudi women in leadership is
very low which is attributed to the pronounced gender segregation and discrimination against the girl
child. This study aims at exploring the discriminative government and judicial systems in Saudi Arabia
which have placed restrictive laws to women and barred them from pursuing leadership roles. The
irony about the whole scenario is that females are more than males in Saudi Arabia though the
females are not allowed to work. The society still looks down upon employed women and it is only in
the past ten years that women have been acknowledged as part of the labor sector. Such thoughts
show the absence of labor market open to females in the country.
Human Development in relation to education and employment
There has been a huge debate, based on ideological, theoretical, empirical and
epistemological aspects, on the relationship that exists between economic and social values.
Perhaps, it is imperative to understand that human development does not in any way imply the cell
and organ development of a human being in this context but rather the social nature of basic needs
such as a sense of dignity and security obtained from the work. In most communities, certain jobs are
associated with class and improving level of dignity in a rural agrarian context. Of the complexities
imposed towards human development is unemployment as it not only affects the demand and
incomes of an individual but also the social cohesion and dignity. The situation can be further
worsened by placing policies which forces people to accept substandard employment not proportional
to their skills and qualifications. Education comes in as a tool to enable one expand one’s skills or
learn new skills thereby resulting in enhanced social mobility, self-confidence and ultimately income.
When one has the right skills and opts for self-employment, one gets linked to a status of well-off
persons which entails having a source of social security and dignity. Other utilitarian arguments that
monetary market value of a social life does not significantly impute its value does not hold grounds in
a world where people are forced to do a job and don’t have the freedom to pull out following the lack
of a good labor market bargain. Such a lack of good base of labor market bargain can lead to
exploitation. According to the Journal of Education and Work Volume 20, (2007) “an educational
institution contributes to expanding its graduates' basic functionalities such as being able to acquire
knowledge, being able to get a job in a short time, being able to change jobs and thus to improve
earnings, being able to search for better opportunities.”
Education quality influences the quality of a person’s capital and therefore there
exists great need to expand the education sector of a girl child in Oman so that their
opportunities become spread too. It is also evident that there exists unequal employment
opportunities in Oman for females as compared to the males. Such an indifference leads to
devastation of the female gender which makes them have a limited scope of developing and
empowered.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights on how the data was sourced, processed and analyzed. It contains
information on research design, study area, target population, sample and sampling procedure, the
research instruments, validity and reliability of instruments, the trustworthiness of qualitative
instrument, data collection, data analysis, and ethical considerations. The qualitative data were
analyzed using only descriptive statistics. The descriptive data was used to describe and summarize
the statistics in the form of charts, tables, frequencies, and percentages. For the qualitative data, a
thematic analysis approach was used. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 22
was used to analyze the data.
3.2 Source of Data
This study applied both primary and secondary methods of data collection. Primary data can
be referred to as raw information which is costly to come by and for this study will include
questionnaires. Since the study wants to establish about women empowerment in Saudi Arabia, 70
women in institutions of higher education will be given the questionnaires. Secondary data can be
referred to as data that is already existing that has been already researched on. For this study, the
secondary sources will include literature books, journals, educational sites, organization site and
government sites.
3.3 Place of Survey
This study was conducted in the urban areas of Saudi Arabia which has a population of
approximately twenty million and an area of about two million kilometers. Saudi Arabia is one of the
Arabic countries found in the East and is the fifth largest state in Asia and second largest in the Arab
world. The state is bordered by Iraq and Jordan to the North, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and
Bahrain to the East, Yemen and Oman to the South. Most of its terrain consists of mountains and arid
desert and it is the only country having both a Persian Gulf coast and a Red Sea coast. The nation
has centuries-old attitudes and traditions mostly derived from Arab civilization. This culture has been
heavily influenced by the Wahhabi form of Islam which came about in the eighteenth Century and now
dominates the country. Its command economy is petroleum-based with approximately 90% of export
earnings and 75% of its budget revenues generated from the oil industry. Amongst the biggest
challenges facing Saudi Arabia’s economy is enhancing education, diminishing inequality and
corruption and reversing or halting the decline in per capita income. Fair enough, education is free at
all levels.
3.4 Respondents
The respondents in this study will be entirely women in Saudi Arabia since the study is based
on women empowerment in Saudi Arabia. Questionnaires of both closed and open-ended questions
will be given to 70 women in institutions of higher learning in Saudi Arabia.
3.5 Sample Design
A research design can be thought of as the structure or the glue that holds all the elements in
research. It is the scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to research problems
(Orodho, 2003). The study on women empowerment in the urban areas of Saudi Arabia adopted a
descriptive survey design. This model gave the researcher confidence that results can be generalized
to the target population (Yin 2003). The reason is that it is involved in a field where the researcher
went out and described the chief variables affecting the reverse logistics practices. According to
Kerlinger (1999), descriptive survey methods are not only restricted to fact findings but often result in
the formulation of important principles of knowledge and solutions to significant problems. They
present data in a meaningful form thus help to understand the characteristics of a group in a given
situation. Further, survey method is capable of providing generalized information on a variety aspects
of women empowerment. Data collected through survey were therefore essential in advancing our
understanding of what influences women empowerment in Saudi Arabia especially in the labor
market. Being an efficient means of gathering information about a population, (Bryman, 2008).
Education
Social
Factors
Religious
Factors
Employment
Human
Development =
Women
Empowerment
Ideological
Factors
Policy
Factors
Figure 3. 2
3.6 Sample Size
A sample is a small part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). From the target population, both purposive
and stratified random sampling was used to give the study sample. Purposively, the researcher drew
the sample from individuals in higher education (and beyond) and the private sector in the ratio 5:1.
According to Newman (2003) stratified random sampling is used when the population is not
homogenous and in this case, there were individuals both from monetary agencies and higher levels
of learning. Stratified random sampling method would ensure inclusion in the method subgroups
which otherwise could entirely be omitted by other sampling methods due to their small numbers
which were considered.
3.7 Research Instruments
The study used the following instruments:
❖ Questionnaires
According to Orodho (2004), a questionnaire comprises of a written set of questions to be
completed by individual respondents. It is always accompanied by general information of what is
expected from the respondents and instructions on how to complete the questionnaire. According to
Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), questionnaires give a detailed answer to complex problems.
Questionnaires are also a popular means of data collection in deduction because of their relative ease
and cost-effectiveness of construction and administration. The questionnaire is a powerful
scientific instrument for measuring different variables as in the case of this study (Bryman,
2008); and was the best method to deal with such a large number of respondents who were
geographically dispersed in various regions, since they were sampled using random sampling
technique. The questions used in this research were mainly closed to ensure that the
respondents were directed to the specific area of research and this provided most valid and
reliable information needed to arrive at a conclusion. The first part of the individuals’
questionnaire dealt with demographic information on family background. The second part had
questions on different aspects of the factors influencing women empowerment in a Likert
scale and this was used to further enhance reliability.
3.8 Data Analysis
Data analysis was both quantitative and qualitative.
3.8.1 Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative data from questionnaires were edited hence provided the opportunity for
identification and correction of wrong entries, errors in responses, omissions and other
inconsistencies. Open ended questions were grouped into themes or sub-themes then coded. The
final data was corrected in preparation for coding and tabulation according to major variables included
in the questionnaire. The coding system was incorporated in the Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) version 22 data analysis software. According to Wolverto (2009), descriptive analysis
involves a process of transforming a mass of raw data into tables and charts with frequency
distribution and percentages.
Data Analysis involved the application of the two types of statistical techniques namely descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics were used to compute percentages, means,
frequency distribution and correlation. This analysis was conducted according to the research
questions. The data was primarily presented using frequency distribution, tables, graphs and pie
charts for quick reference. Inferential statistics such as Pearson correlation and regression analysis
were used to analyze the quantitative data.
3.8.2 Qualitative Data Analysis
The study followed the principles of thematic analysis according to Braun and Clarke (2006).
Thematic analysis, according to the two individuals, is a method for identifying and analyzing patterns
within data. It minimally organizes and describes data set in details. Furthermore, thematic analysis
interprets various aspects of research. Thematic analysis was found appropriate for this study
because it is not grounded on any particular theoretical and epistemological framework and can,
therefore, be applied across a wide range of qualitative research approaches, making it flexible.
Thematic analysis has the merits and demerits. The merits it accommodates the large data sets and
flexibility which allows researchers to test multiple theories across the board.
Thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative data and focused on the discussion of the
themes. The analysis emphasized on the organization of data which was rich in descriptive data set. It
went further in creating themes developed on each objective of the study, from which questions are
developed. Thematic analysis has merits and demerits with the merits including its suitability for large
data sets and flexibility which allows researchers to test various theories. Demerits of thematic
analysis are that its flexibility makes it complicated since it brings forth various aspects of data to be
worked on. The interview and data analysis were used in order to determine the monetary agency
individuals’ perception of the factors that influence women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
3.9 Variables
A variable can be referred to as a unit which impacts or is impacted by another unit. In this
study, the variables are education, employment, social factors, religious aspects, ideological aspects,
policy factors and human development/women empowerment. This study tries to assess how women
empowerment/ human development is impacted by education and employment.
3.10 Dependent variable
These are the variables that the researcher is concerned about and are affected by the other
variables. The changes that come about due to these variables are the point of interest for the
researcher. For our study, the dependent variables are education and employment which are a
measure of human development and women empowerment.
3.11 Independent variables
These are the variables that are changed or controlled in a research proposal to test the
effects on the dependent variable. In this study the independent variables are social, policy,
ideological and religious factors that impact on human development/ women empowerment.
3.12 Statistical Methods
1) Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics such mean, variance, minimum and maximum values, provides
fundamental information on the selected variables in order tto make decision for application of those
in in advanced level of statistical analysis.
2) Cross-tabulation
Cross-tabulation has been considered to use in order to find the association between teo
qualitative variables. The strength of the association is assessed by the Pearson chi-square.
Pearson Chi-square
Pearson chi-square test used to assess the relationship in cross-tabulation. The formula of this is:
r
c
=
2
i =1 j =1
(Oij − Eij )2
Eij
where Oij is observed frequency, and Eij is expected frequency, which is compared with critical chisquare at α level of significance and (r-1)(c-1) degrees of freedom.
3) Binary Logistic Regression
Dependent variable:
a) Whether employed or unemployed
Y = 1 employed, and 0 = unemployed
b) Whether women and men have equal opportunities in employment
Y=1, if agree on it; otherwise Y = 0.
Independent variables:
Age, marital status (single =1, ever-married =0 ) and education level
The expression of binary logistic model )logistic regression function) is presented here with n
observations and p predictors. The probability p is modeled as:
p = Pr(Y = 1| X 1 = x1 ,..., X p = x p )
0 + 1 x1 + 2 x2 + ,..+ p x p
e
=
1+ e
0
+ 1 x1 + 2 x2 + ,.. + p x p
The odds ratio for the event is
p
, and
1− p
p
+ x + x + ,..+ x
=e
1− p
The logit transformation of the odds ratio is:
0
1 1
2
2
p
p
p
ln
= 0 + 1 x1 + 2 x2 +,.. + p x p ,
1
−
p
which is linear function of the parameters 0 , 1 ,.., p
4) Ordinal Logistic Regression
Y = Whether men and women have equal opportunities in employment
1= strongly agree, 2= agree, 3= partly agree,4 =neutral, 5 = partly disagree, 6= disagree
7 = strongly disagree
The expression of the model with n observations and p parameters is given below. The response
variable falls into k categories (1, 2, …, k) in order. Let Y denote the response variable. The
cumulative distribution for Y is
Fj ( xi ) = Pr(Y j | X i = xi1,..., X p = xip ); j = 1,2,...,( k − 1)
The proportional odds model is given by,
F j ( xi )
L j ( xi ) = ln
= 0 j + 1 j x1i + 2 j x2i + ... + pj x pi
1 − F j ( xi )
for j=1, 2, ..., (k-1)
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DATA TABULATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Trends of Employment and Education
Figure 4.1 Labor Force of Male and Female with Education
The chart shows that the percentage of males in labour force with secondary education has been on
the rise over the years, which now stands at around 30%, while the percentage of females in labour
force with secondary education has been on the decline and is just above 18%. This means that more
women with secondary education are not in the labour force.
Figure 4.2 Labor Force of Male and Female with Education
The chart shows that by 2014, 40% of the women in the labour force have tertiary education. More
women have been acquiring tertiary education hence entering the labour force. On the other hand,
females with tertiary education in the labour force have been growing at a low pace as compared to
females and are below 20% of the total population of men.
Figure 4.3 Labor Force Participation and Employment of Male and
Female
The labour force participation rate for men in Saudi Arabia has remained high, above 70%, though it
has slightly declined. On the other hand, the participation rate for females in the country has been low
and has grown at a low rate. The participation rate for the female gender is below 20%, but has been
growing positively over the years.
Figure 4.4 Labor Force Participation and Employment of Male and
Female
The female employment in the industrial sector has remained below 10%, while in the service sector;
the employment rate has been over 90% for the period in study. This is as compared to men where
the employment in the service sector has remained below 30% but in the industrial sector, the rate
has been above 60%. This shows that men are more likely to be employed in the industrial sector but
not women.
Figure 4.5 Gross Enrollment of Male and Female in College Level
The female enrollment rate to colleges in the 1970s to 1980s was below that of men which were all
below 20% of the total population. The enrollment for women was above that of men from 1990s to
2010. Currently, both genders have similar enrolment rate to colleges. Overall, the enrollment rate to
colleges for both genders has been on the rise.
Table 4.1 Employment status by marital status
Employment status
Unemploye
.Marital
Ever-married
d
Employed
Total
%
%
%
22.2
53.6
41.3
(4)
(15)
(19)
77.8
46.4
58.7
(14)
(13)
(27)
100.0
100.0
100.0
(18)
(28)
(46)
status
Single
Total
Pearson Chi-Square = 4.441a ; degrees of freedom = 1 p < 035
22.2% of those who have ever married are unemployed while 77.8% of those who are single are
unemployed. 53.6% of those employed have ever married while 46.4% of those who are single are
employed. This tells that more married people are in the labour force, but this would be explained by
the fact that many youths who have no jobs are also single.
Table 4.2 Employment status by level of education
Employment status
Level of
Unemployed
Employed
%
%
High School
education
College
Certificate
Bachelor's
degree
Postgraduate
Total
Total
%
16.7
7.1
10.9
(3)
(2)
(5)
11.1
25.0
19.6
(2)
(7)
(9)
44.4
28.6
34.8
(8)
(8)
(16)
27.8
39.3
34.8
(5)
(11)
(16)
100.0
100.0
100.0
(18)
(28)
(46)
Pearson Chi-Square = 3.205; degress of freedom = 3; p < .361
34.8% of the population has a bachelor’s degree while 34.8% have a postgraduate degree. Out of
those employed, 7.1% have a high school education, 25% have a college education, 28.6% have a
bachelor’s degree and 39.3% have a postgraduate degree. This shows that the higher or the more an
individual (s) is educated, the greater the chances of being employed. Nonetheless, there are some
individuals with higher education and not employed yet.
Table 4.3 Binary Logistic regression of employment status on selected variables
Variable
B
Age
t level of education
Marital status
Women are more qualified than men in terms of
S.E.
Wald
df
Sig.
Exp(B)
.123
.081
2.315
1
.128
1.130
-.227
.456
.247
1
.619
.797
-1.053
.865
1.482
1
.223
.349
.356
.221
2.588
1
.108
1.427
-2.929
2.378
1.517
1
.218
.053
labor skills requirements.
Constant
Dependent variable : Employment status (employed =1, and unemployed = 0)
-2 Log likelihood = 48.046; Cox & Snell R Square = .230; Nagelkerke R Square = .310; ; Chi-square = 11.488, df = 4, p
=.022
Age and skills of women positively lead increased chances of being employed in Saudi Arabia. On the
contrary, the education level and marital status negatively influence the chances of being employed.
However, the variables only explain 31% of the factors that influence employment as per the Nagelkerke
R Squared and 23% as per Cox and Snell R squared. There are other factors not in the model that
would influence chances of being employed.
4.2Frequency Tables
In Table 4.2.1 “Women are more qualified than men in terms of labor skills requirements.” The
participants were instructed to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are
“neutral,” “partly disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of 53 people
responded. Out of these, a total of 11 agreed (of which 9 strongly agreed, and 2 agreed). In addition,
7 people partly agreed. Altogether, 18 people indicated some degree of agreement with this
statement. A similar number of respondents remained neutral – 21 people. Only 6 people disagreed
or disagreed strongly, while 8 people disagreed partly. Thus, the number of people who indicated
some degree of disagreement with this statement is 14, which is smaller than the number of people
who agreed to some degree. Thus, we can conclude that there is nearly 1/3 of the sample who
agreed in some form; however, a majority of those sampled to not believe that women are more
qualified than men in labor skills. The difference between the number of people who agreed and the
number who disagreed also does not seem large enough to suggest that there is a strong support for
this point of view in the sample.
Table 4.2.1 perception responses on Social Factors
Statement
SA
A
PA
N
PD
D
SD
Women are more qualified than men in terms
of labor skills requirements.
16.4
3.6
12.7
38.2
14.5
3.6
7.3
(9)
(2)
(7)
(21)
(8)
(2)
(4)
3.7
14.5
21.1
12.5
3.8
27.2
(2)
(18)
Women and men have equal opportunities in
employment
Women can successfully lead organizations
7.1
(4)
(2)
(7)
(12)
(6)
29.1
5.5
12.7
21.8
10.9
9.1
7.3
(16)
(3)
(7)
(12)
(6)
(5)
(4)
Strongly agree (SA)Agree (A)Partly agree (PA)Neutral (N)Partly Disagree (PD)Disagree
(D)Strongly Disagree (SD)
“Women are more qualified than men in terms of labor skills requirements.” The participants were
instructed to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly
disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of 53 people responded. Out
of these, a total of 11 agreed (of which 9 strongly agreed, and 2 agreed). In addition, 7 people partly
agreed. Altogether, 18 people indicated some degree of agreement with this statement. A similar
number of respondents remained neutral – 21 people. Only 6 people disagreed or disagreed
strongly, while 8 people disagreed partly. Thus, the number of people who indicated some degree of
disagreement with this statement is 14, which is smaller than the number of people who agreed to
some degree. Thus, we can conclude that there is nearly 1/3 of the sample who agreed in some
form; however, a majority of those sampled to not believe that women are more qualified than men in
labor skills. The difference between the number of people who agreed and the number who
disagreed also does not seem large enough to suggest that there is a strong support for this point of
view in the sample.
“Women can successfully lead organizations.” Many respondents strongly agreed with this statement:
16 people in strong support. In addition, 3 people agreed, and 7 people agreed partly. Thus, a total of
26 people agreed that women can successfully lead organizations. Fifteen people disagreed in some
form, of which only 4 disagreed strongly, and 6 disagreed partly. Twelve respondents remained neutral.
Thus, a total of 27 respondents either remained neutral or disagreed with the statement that women
can successfully lead organizations. This is nearly half of the total number of respondents. Thus, the
number of respondents who agreed is similar to that of those who disagreed OR were neutral. Out of
those who agreed, a greater part agreed strongly. About one fourth of those sampled expressed strong
support. Although the statement has positive terminology, the support for it is not overwhelming. We
would need to check different variations of the message, in order to see whether other wordings draw
the same amount of support from the population. The lack of overwhelming support may be due to
cultural factors, although there are also very few people, who strongly oppose the idea of women's
leadership.
Table 4.2.2 perception responses on Religious Factors
Statement
Islam religion has helped in uplifting women
Religious leaders do not give women a chance to
lead in the mosques
Islam religion has positive contribution to women
in carrying leadership in both private and public
sectors.
SA
A
PA
N
PD
D
SD
40.0
10.9
5.5
10.9
3.6
7.3
18.2
(22)
(6)
(3)
(6)
(2)
(4)
(10)
30.9
3.6
5.5
25.5
7.3
9.1
12.7
(17)
(2)
(3)
(14)
(4)
(5)
(7)
32.7
12.7
5.5
23.6
5.5
5.5
9.1
(18)
(7)
(3)
(13)
(3)
(3)
(5)
Strongly agree (SA)Agree (A)Partly agree (PA)Neutral (N)Partly Disagree (PD)Disagree
(D)Strongly Disagree (SD)
“Islam religion has helped in uplifting women.” The participants were instructed to indicate whether
they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly
disagree” with the statement. A total of 53 people responded. Out of these, a total of 28 people agreed
(of which 22 strongly agreed, and 6 agreed). Additionally, 3 people partly agreed. Altogether, 31 people
indicated some degree of agreement with this statement. Only 6 people remained neutral. In addition,
14 people disagreed or disagreed strongly, while 2 people disagreed partly. Thus, the number of
people who indicated some degree of disagreement with this statement is 16, which is visibly smaller
than the number of people who agreed to some degree. Thus, we can conclude that a clear majority,
31 people, agreed in some form with the idea that Islam religion has helped in uplifting women. The
difference between the number of people who agreed and the number of people who disagreed is large
enough to suggest that there is a strong support for this point of view in the sample. This seems to fall
in line with strong respect for religion present in the country.
“Religious leaders do not give women a chance to lead in the mosques.” The participants were
instructed to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly
disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. Seventeen people strongly agreed with
this statement, while 2 agreed, and 3 agreed partly. Thus, a total of 22 people agreed with this
statement in some form. We can see that slightly fewer than the majority of respondents supported this
statement. A total of 16 people disagreed with this statement. Of these, 7 people disagreed strongly,
5 people disagreed, and 4 people disagreed partly. Fourteen people were neutral. Thus, nearly
comparable amounts of people disagreed and remained neutral to the idea that religious leaders do not
give women a chance to lead in the mosques. A little below half of the respondents agreed with the
statement in some form. Thus, we can conclude that opinions regarding this statement vary, although
there is a certain amount of support for the idea. However, a fairly large amount of people remained
neutral. This may be due to the fact that they do not understand or are not familiar with this issue.
“Islam religion has positive contribution to women in carrying leadership in both private and public
sectors” was presented to 52 subjects, 18 people agreed strongly. In addition, 7 people agreed, and
3 agreed partly. Thirteen people remained neutral. Five people disagreed strongly, while 3 people
disagreed, and 3 disagreed partly. Thus, an majority of those sampled, a total of 28 people, supported
the statement in some form. Less than one fourth of the sample disagreed, a total of 11 subjects, while
a similar number remained neutral. We can conclude that there was support for the idea that Islam
religion has positive contribution to women in carrying leadership in both private and public sectors,
while the group of people who disagree is very small. This is the smallest number of people in
disagreement we have seen so far, among all tables analyzed. The support of this statement may be
due to the deeply ingrained religious views in the population. It may be helpful to test other variations
of this statement to assess the effect of the wording on the degree of support, as well as to run statistical
tests, in order to determine whether the results are statistically significant.
Table 4.2.3 perception responses on Policy Factors
Statement
The level of women participation in politics,
economy, and public life is good in general.
There are transportation policies that directly
affect women in Saudi Arabia.
Women are now permitted to drive vehicles.
There should be policies implemented to ensure
the status of women in Saudi Arabia is improved.
Most women in Saudi do not know their rights.
SA
A
PA
N
PD
D
SD
9.1
5.5
10.9
36.4
12.7
10.9
9.1
(5)
(3)
(6)
(20)
(7)
(6)
(5)
52.5
9.1
10.9
27.3
9.1
5.5
7.3
(14)
(5)
(6)
(15)
(5)
(3)
(4)
41.8
10.9
9.1
12.7
7.3
3.6
10.9
(23)
(6)
(5)
(7)
(4)
(2)
(6)
38.2
10.9
9.1
10.9
3.6
12.7
9.1
(21)
(6)
(5)
(6)
(2)
(7)
(5)
29.1
9.1
9.1
12.7
14.5
1.8
20.0
(16)
(5)
(5)
(7)
(8)
(1)
(11)
Strongly agree (SA)Agree (A)Partly agree (PA)Neutral (N)Partly Disagree (PD)Disagree
(D)Strongly Disagree (SD)
“The level of women participation in politics, economy, and public life is good in general.” Very few
people strongly agreed with this statement: 5 people in strong support. In addition, 3 people agreed,
and 6 people agreed partly. Thus, a total of 14 people agreed that the level of women participation in
politics, economy, and public life is good in general, in some form. Eighteen people disagreed in some
form, of which 5 disagreed strongly. An unusually large level of neutrality was observed: 20
respondents remained neutral. Thus, a total of 38 respondents either remained neutral or disagreed
with the statement. Slightly below half of the total number of respondents remained neutral. The
number of respondents who agreed is nearly one fourth of the entire sample, and slightly lower than
that of those who disagreed in some form. This is the strongest level of neutrality towards a statement
that we have seen among the tables analyzed so far. The split between those who agree and those
who disagree can be called roughly even. The high level of neutrality may be due to the idea that many
people are uncomfortable or afraid of answering this question. It may be a good idea to check different
variations of the message, to see whether the wording can sway people to answer one way or another.
“There are transportation policies that directly affect women in Saudi Arabia.” The participants were
asked to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,”
“disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of 25 people agreed with the statement in
some form. Most of these 25 people agreed strongly (14 subjects), while 5 of the subjects agreed and
6 agreed partly. This is a fairly high amount of support for this statement, as it includes nearly half of
the given sample. Fifteen people were neutral. Thus, more people were neutral than had strongly
agreed with the statement, and it is a fairly high count of the neutrally-minded, as compared with the
remaining questions. Five people partly disagreed, 3 people disagreed, and 4 people disagreed
strongly. Thus, about 12 people showed some form of disagreement altogether. Clearly, more people
agreed with the statement than disagreed, and while the neutrality factor was high. These results seem
to indicate that most people agree that there are transportation policies that directly affect women in
Saudi Arabia. In addition, a large amount of people agree strongly (about as many as the total for
disagreement in any form).
“Women are now permitted to drive vehicles.” Their options were to indicate whether they “strongly
agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with
the statement. A total of 23 people strongly agreed with the statement, while 6 respondents agreed,
and 5 partly agreed. Thus, 34 people out of 53 agreed with the statement in some manner. As for
those who disagreed, 4 people disagreed partly, while 2 disagreed, and 6 disagreed strongly. Thus, a
total of 12 people disagreed with this statement in some form, which constitutes about one fourth of the
sample. Seven people remained neutral. Since a majority of people indicated some form of agreement
with the statement, we can conclude that most people support the view that women are now permitted
to drive vehicles. However, we do not know whether this majority was statistically significant, and would
need to run tests, such as the t-test to determine the significance of these findings. Still, the support
for this idea among those sampled is not overwhelming, as 19 people either remained neutral or
disagreed with this statement. The wording of the statement is straightforward, though the word “now”
may carry some implication that would affect the respondents' answers.
“There should be policies implemented to ensure the status of women in Saudi Arabia is improved.”
The participants were instructed to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are
“neutral,” “partly disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of 52 people
responded. Out of these, a total of 27 people agreed (of which 21 strongly agreed, and 6 agreed).
Additionally, 5 people partly agreed. Altogether, 32 people indicated some degree of agreement with
this statement. Only 6 people remained neutral. In addition, 12 people disagreed or disagreed strongly,
while 2 people disagreed partly.
Thus, the number of people who indicated some degree of
disagreement with this statement is 14, which is visibly smaller than the number of people who agreed
to some degree. Thus, we can conclude that a large majority, 32 people, agreed in some form with the
idea that there should be policies implemented to ensure the status of women in Saudi Arabia is
improved. The difference between the number of people who agreed and the number who disagreed
is large enough to suggest that there is a strong support for this point of view in the sample.
“Most women in Saudi Arabia do not know their rights.” The participants were instructed to
indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,”
“disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. Sixteen people strongly agreed with this
statement, while 5 agreed, and 5 agreed partly. Thus, a total of 26 people agreed with this statement
in some form. We can see that slightly fewer than the majority of respondents supported this
statement. A total of 20 people disagreed with this statement. Of these, 11 people disagreed
strongly, one person disagreed, and 8 people disagreed partly. Only 7 people were neutral. Thus,
nearly comparable amounts of people agree and disagree that most women in Saudi Arabia do not
know their rights overall, though a slightly higher number agree. A greater amount of people agree
strongly than disagree strongly. Thus, we can conclude that opinions regarding this statement vary
greatly, although there is a certain amount of support for the idea. The wording of this statement
seems a little ambiguous, which may also have led to the division of opinions among the respondents.
It could either be seen as women need to learn more about their rights, or as women do not care to
know their rights
Table 4.2.4 perception responses on Ideological Factors
“Women’s education is key to ensuring development in the society” was presented to 52 subjects again,
28 people agreed strongly. Only 5 people agreed, and 3 agreed partly. A small group of subjects, only
5 people, remained neutral. Eight people disagreed strongly, while 3 people disagreed. Thus, an
overwhelming majority of those sampled, a total of 36 people supported the statement in some form.
Less than one fourth of the sample disagreed, a total of 11 subjects, while only 5 remained neutral. We
can conclude that there was continuing support for the idea that women's education is key to ensuring
development in the society, with a small group of people that disagree, and disagree strongly at that.
This may be a group of people with strongly held conservative views, although this group is fairly small.
The support by the statement may be due to simple and positive terminology that juxtaposes education
and development, both of which are positive concepts to most people. It may be helpful to test other
variations of this statement to assess the effect of the wording on the degree of response, as well as to
run statistical tests, in order to determine whether the results are statistically significant.
“The new Vision 2030 does not have greater impact as far as women empowerment in Saudi Arabia is
concerned.” The participants were instructed to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly
agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of
13 people agreed with the statement in some form. Most of these 13 people only partly agreed (7
subjects), while 4 subjects agreed strongly and 2 just agreed. This is not a high amount of support for
this statement, as it is only about one fourth of the given sample. Also, both of the preceding statements
received a higher amounts of support. Fifteen people were neutral. Thus, more people were neutral
than agreed with the statement. Five people partly disagreed, eight people disagreed, and eleven
people disagreed strongly. Thus, about nineteen people either disagreed or disagreed strongly.
Clearly, more people disagreed with the statement than agreed, and even more disagreed in some
form, including partly. These results seem to indicate that most people do not agree that the new Vision
has a greater impact on women empowerment in Saudi Arabia. In addition, a large amount of people
disagree strongly (about as many as the total for agreement in any form).
Statement
SA
A
PA
N
Women’s education is key to ensuring
development in the society.
52.7
3.6
5.5
(29)
(2)
The new Vision 2030 does not have greater
impact as far as women empowerment in Saudi
Arabia is concerned
7.3
Women can help steer the New vision 2030 of
Saudi Arabia when empowered
PD
D
SD
14.5
3.6
14.5
(3)
(8)
(2)
(8)
3.6
12.7
27.3
9.1
14.5
20.0
(4)
(2)
(7)
(15)
(5)
(8)
(11)
32.7
12.7
9.1
14.5
9.1
5.5
9.1
(18)
(7)
(8)
(8)
(5)
(3)
(5)
Strongly agree (SA)Agree (A)Partly agree (PA)Neutral (N)Partly Disagree (PD)Disagree
(D)Strongly Disagree (SD)
“Women’s education is key to ensuring development in the society” was presented to 52 subjects again,
28 people agreed strongly. Only 5 people agreed, and 3 agreed partly. A small group of subjects, only
5 people, remained neutral. Eight people disagreed strongly, while 3 people disagreed. Thus, an
overwhelming majority of those sampled, a total of 36 people supported the statement in some form.
Less than one fourth of the sample disagreed, a total of 11 subjects, while only 5 remained neutral. We
can conclude that there was continuing support for the idea that women's education is key to ensuring
development in the society, with a small group of people that disagree, and disagree strongly at that.
This may be a group of people with strongly held conservative views, although this group is fairly small.
The support by the statement may be due to simple and positive terminology that juxtaposes education
and development, both of which are positive concepts to most people. It may be helpful to test other
variations of this statement to assess the effect of the wording on the degree of response, as well as to
run statistical tests, in order to determine whether the results are statistically significant.
“The new Vision 2030 does not have greater impact as far as women empowerment in Saudi Arabia is
concerned.” The participants were instructed to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly
agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of
13 people agreed with the statement in some form. Most of these 13 people only partly agreed (7
subjects), while 4 subjects agreed strongly and 2 just agreed. This is not a high amount of support for
this statement, as it is only about one fourth of the given sample. Also, both of the preceding statements
received a higher amounts of support. Fifteen people were neutral. Thus, more people were neutral
than agreed with the statement. Five people partly disagreed, eight people disagreed, and eleven
people disagreed strongly. Thus, about nineteen people either disagreed or disagreed strongly.
Clearly, more people disagreed with the statement than agreed, and even more disagreed in some
form, including partly. These results seem to indicate that most people do not agree that the new Vision
has a greater impact on women empowerment in Saudi Arabia. In addition, a large amount of people
disagree strongly (about as many as the total for agreement in any form).
“Women can help steer the New vision 2030 of Saudi Arabia when empowered.” Their options were
to indicate whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “partly agree,” are “neutral,” “partly disagree,”
“disagree,” or “strongly disagree” with the statement. A total of 18 people strongly agreed with the
statement, while 7 respondents agreed, and 5 partly agreed. Thus, 30 people out of 51 agreed with
the statement in some form. As for those who disagreed, 5 people disagreed partly, while 3
disagreed, and 5 disagreed strongly. Thus, a total of 13 people disagreed with this statement in some
form, which is about one fourth of the sample. A total of 8 people were neutral. Since a majority of
people indicated some form of agreement with the statement, we can conclude that most people
support the idea that women can help steer the New vision 2030 of Saudi Arabia. However, we do not
know whether this majority was statistically significant, and would need to run tests, such as the t-test
to determine this. Still, the support for this idea among those sampled is not overwhelming, as 21
people either remained neutral or disagreed with this statement
4.3 Cross-Tabulation
The following crosstabs present association between qualitative variables and the differences
in frequency or responses by levels of the variables. First, the association has been assessed
between employment status, and marital status and level of education. Second, the association has
been assessed between the Reponses of the statements related to women perception on job
opportunity, and marital status and level of education.
4.3.1 Employment Status vs. marital status
Table 4.17 Crosstab between marital status and employment status
Employment status
Unemployed
.Marital status
Ever-married Count
%
Single
Total
15
19
22.2%
53.6%
41.3%
14
13
27
77.8%
46.4%
58.7%
18
28
46
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Count
%
Total
4
Count
%
Employed
Pearson Chi-Square = 4.441a ; degrees of
freedom = 1 p < 035
This table evaluates whether the variables, the employment status and marital status, were
independent. A total of 46 people were sampled for this test. Since the number of levels of each
variable was 2, the degrees of freedom for the was 1. These variables turn out to not be independent,
with
2 = 4.44 , and p
Purchase answer to see full
attachment