CHAPTER EIGHT
Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists
OUTLINE
I.
Raymond Cattell
A.
The Life of Cattell
1.
B.
Raymond Cattell came from a happy home in Staffordshire,
England. At 16, Cattell enrolled at the University of London to
study physics and chemistry, where he graduated three years
later with honors. Cattell studied psychologist-statistician Charles
E. Spearman, who had developed the technique of factor
analysis. Cattell received his Ph.D. in 1929 and decided to apply
the factor analysis method to the structure of personality. Cattell
eventually moved to Harvard University where his colleagues
included Henry Murray, Gordon Allport, and William Sheldon.
Further, at the University of Illinois, Cattell was employed as a
research professor for more than 20 years while publishing over
500 articles. Cattell taught at the University in Hawaii in his
seventies after achieving many awards in the field of psychology.
Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits
1.
Cattell defined traits as relatively permanent reaction tendencies
that are basic structural units of the personality. A common trait
is one that is possessed by everyone to some degree, such as
intelligence or extraversion. People differ because of their
unique traits, which are those aspects of the personality shared
by few other people. Ability traits help us work efficiently towards
goals, while temperament traits describe the general style and
emotional tone of our behavior, such as being easygoing or
irritable. Dynamic traits define our motivations, interests, and
ambitions, according to Cattell.
2.
Surface traits are personality characteristics that correlate with
one another but do not constitute a factor because they are not
determined by a single source. Anxiety, indecision, and irrational
fear combine to make or form the surface trait Cattell labeled
neuroticism. Source traits are those individual factors derived
from factor analysis that combine to account for surface traits.
3.
Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions, such as a
propensity to consume alcohol leads to behaviors such as
carelessness, talkativeness, and slurred speech. Environmentalmold traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose
a pattern on the personality.
C.
Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality
1.
D.
E.
through factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 source traits as the
basic factors of personality. Cattell called this objective
personality test, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16PF). A person can score high, low, or somewhere in between
on these basic personality factors. Cattell added additional
factors, which he called temperament traits, such as excitability,
zest, self-discipline, politeness, and self-assurance.
Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces
1.
Cattell proposed two kinds of dynamic, motivating traits. The
word erg was used to denote the concept of instinct or drive.
Cattell identified 11 ergs, which are anger, appeal, curiosity,
disgust, gregariousness, hunger, protection, security, selfassertion, self-submission, and sex. A sentiment is an
environmental-mold source trait and is a pattern of learned
attitudes that focus on an important aspect of life, such as a
person’s community, spouse, occupation, religion, or hobby. A
sentiment can be unlearned and can disappear when it is no
longer needed in a person’s life.
2.
Attitudes are defined as our interests in and our emotions and
behaviors toward some person, object, or event. To Cattell, an
attitude is not just an opinion, an attitude encompasses all our
emotions and actions toward an object or situation.
3.
Subsidiation means that within the personality some elements
subsidiate, or are subordinate to, other elements. Attitudes are
subsidiary to sentiments; sentiments are subsidiary to ergs.
These relationships are expressed by Cattell in what he called
the dynamic lattice.
4.
Each person’s pattern of sentiments is organized by a master
sentiment called the self-sentiment. This is our self-concept,
reflected in virtually all of our attitudes and behaviors, which
further control all of the structures in the personality.
The Influences of Heredity and Environment
1.
Cattell’s data suggests that 80% of intelligence (Factor B) and
80% of timidity-versus-boldness (Factor H) can be accounted or
by genetic factors. Further, Cattell concluded that, overall, onethird of our personality is genetically based, and two-thirds is
determined by social and environmental influences.
F.
Stages of Personality Development
1.
G.
H.
Cattell covered the entire life span with six stages of
development. The first period of infancy which spans from birth
to 6, is a time to be influenced by parents and siblings, while
ages 6 to 14, mark the second stage of independence from
parents and an increasing identification with peers. The third
stage is from 14 to 23, and is marked by emotional disorders and
possible delinquency as young people experience conflicts
centered on the drives for independence, self-assertion, and sex.
Ages 23 to 50 mark the fourth stage which is generally a
productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and
family situations. Late maturity is from the age of 50 to 65 and
involves personality developments in response to physical,
social, and psychological changes. The final stage is old age,
according to Cattell. A person in this stage has adjustments to
different kinds of losses, such as the death of a spouse,
relatives, and friends, loss of a career, loneliness, and insecurity.
Assessment in Cattell’s Theory
1.
Cattell used three primary assessment techniques. L-data, (life
records); is a technique which involves observers’ ratings of
specific behaviors exhibited by research participants in real-life
settings such as a classroom or office. L-data involve overt
behaviors that can be seen by an observer and occur in a
naturalistic setting rather than in the artificial situation of a
psychology laboratory.
2.
Q-data, (Questionnaires); calls for observers to rate the research
participants. Q-data requires research participants to rate
themselves, however, Cattell warned that Q-data must not be
automatically assumed to be accurate.
3.
T-data, Personality, involves the use of what Cattell called
“objective” tests, in which a person responds without knowing
what aspect of behavior is being evaluated.
4.
Cattell developed the 16 PF, which is based on 16 major source
traits. The 16 PF is widely used to assess personality for
research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational
success. There are variations of the 16 PF that measure such
specific aspects of personality as anxiety, depression, and
neuroticism. The test has been translated into more than 40
languages and can be used with adults, adolescents, and
children.
Research in Cattell’s Theory
1.
I.
The Dimensions of Personality: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and
Psychoticism
1.
J.
Of the three ways to study personality in research, Cattell chose
the multivariate approach, which yields specific data through the
statistical procedure of factor analysis. Cattell collected large
amounts of data with the R technique, where correlations among
all scores are made to determine personality factors or traits.
With the P technique, Cattell collected a large amount of data
from a single subject over a long period. Cattell and his
associates conducted hundreds of factor-analytic studies.
Hans Eysenck was born in Germany but immigrated to England
to flee Hitler in 1934. Eysenck published over 79 books and over
1,097 journal articles. Eysenck developed several personality
assessment devices including the Eysenck Personality
Inventory, The Maudsley Medical Questionnaire, and the
Maudsley Personality Inventory. He conducted research on the
measurement of personality at the University of London’s
Maudsley Hospital and Institute of Psychiatry. Eysenck used
factor analysis to uncover personality traits and supplemented
the method with personality tests and experimental studies that
considered a wide range of variables. Eysenck’s theory of
personality is based on three “super factors,” defined as
combinations of traits or factors. Dimension E is extraversion
versus introversion, Dimension N which is neuroticism versus
emotional stability, and Dimension P, psychoticism versus
impulse control (or superego functioning). Research has shown
that traits and dimensions proposed by Eysenck remain stable
throughout the life span from childhood through adulthood.
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model
1.
McCrae and Costa, who worked for the Gerontology Research
Center of the National Institutes of Health in Baltimore, identified
five so-called robust or Big Five factors in their research. The
five factors are: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These factors were
confirmed through a variety of assessment techniques including
self-ratings, objective tests, and observers’ reports. In studies of
twins, four of the five factors show a strong hereditary
component. Agreeableness was found to have a stronger
environmental component. These five factors have been
consistently observed in both Eastern and Western cultures,
which supports a genetic component. The five factors are found
in children as well as adults and in longitudinal studies, these five
factors demonstrated a high level of stability for all five traits.
2.
In several studies, extraversion was positively related to
emotional well being, whereas neuroticism was negatively
related to emotional well being. From the evidence of research,
it is clear that the five-factor model of personality has a high
predictive value. McCrae and Costa’s findings have been
replicated and continue to inspire considerable research.
K.
Arnold Buss and Robert Plomin: The Temperament Theory
1.
Buss and Plomin identified three temperaments that they believe
are the basic building blocks of personality. The temperaments
combine to form personality patterns or so-called super traits,
such as introversion or extroversion. These three temperaments
are: emotionality, activities, and sociability. Buss and Plomin
developed two tests to assess personality: the Emotionality,
Activity, Sociability Survey for Adults (EAS), and the
Emotionality, Activity, Sociability Infant Temperament Survey
(EASI) for children. Based on extensive research with twin
studies, Buss and Plomin concluded that temperaments are
primarily inherited. These findings have been replicated with
further research and research also suggests the existence of a
strong relationship between the temperamental dispositions and
the Big Five personality factors.
2.
The Emotionality temperament refers to our level of arousal or
excitability. The Activity temperament is defined by Buss and
Plomin in terms of physical energy and vigor. The Sociability
temperament refers to the degree of preference for contact and
interaction with other people. From research, strong evidence
exists that temperaments remain stable from birth into adulthood
and that the strength of that stability increases dramatically after
age 3. Plomin also suggested that genetic factors influence our
perception of stressful life events, so inherited temperaments
exert pervasive, long-lasting influences on our behavior.
Chapter 8
Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck
& Other Trait Theorists
Chapter Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Background
Life of Cattell
Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits
Source Traits
Dynamic Traits
Influences of Heredity & Environment
Stages of Personality Development
Questions About Human Nature
Assessment in Cattell’s Theory
Chapter Outline, cont’d.
10.Research on Cattell’s Theory
11.Behavioral Genetics
12.Life of Eysenck
13.Dimensions of Personality
14.McCrae & Costa: Five-Factor Model
15.Ashton & Lee: HEXACO Model
16.Personality Traits & Internet
17.Reflections on the Trait Approach
Life of Cattell
• 1905-1998
• Born in England
• Parents: High standards, permissive
• Happy childhood
• Psychology difficult in England
• Moved to US – high productivity
Cattell’s Approach to Traits
Traits
• Reaction tendencies, relatively
permanent
Common Traits: possessed by all
Unique Traits: possessed by few.
Ability Traits: skills & work toward goals
Cattell’s Approach to Traits
Temperament Traits
• Behavioral style in response to
environment
Dynamic Traits
• Describe motivations and interests
Surface Traits
• Correlated traits without common
factor/source
Cattell’s Approach to Traits
Source Traits
• Stable, permanent
Constitutional Traits
• Source traits dependent on physiology.
Environmental-mold Traits
• Source traits learned from social/
environmental interactions.
Source Traits
• Cattell identified 16 source traits
• Used in 16 Personality Factor (16 PF)
Questionnaire
• Presented in bipolar form (two ends
of continuum)
Cattell’s 16PF
Factor
High Scorers
Low Scorers
A
Reserved, aloof, detached
Outgoing, warmhearted, easygoing
B
Low in intelligence
High in intelligence
C
Low ego strength, easily upset
High ego strength, calm
E
Submissive, obedient, docile
Dominant, assertive, forceful
F
Serious, sober, depressed
Happy-go-lucky, enthusiastic
G
Expedient, low in superego
Conscientious, high in superego
H
Timid, shy, aloof, restrained
Bold, adventurous
I
Tough-minded, self-reliant
Tender-minded, sensitive
L
Trusting, understanding
Suspicious, jealous, withdrawn
M
Practical, down-to-earth
Imaginative, absentminded
N
Forthright, naїve, unpretentious
Shrewd, worldly, insightful
O
Self-assured, secure, complacent
Apprehensive, insecure, self-reproaching
Cattell’s 16PF
Factor
High Scorers
Low Scorers
Q1
Conservative, holds traditional values,
dislikes change
Radical, liberal, experimenting, embraces
change
Q2
Group-dependent, prefers to join and
follow others
Self-sufficient, resourceful, independent
Q3
Uncontrolled, lax, impulsive
Controlled, compulsive, exacting
Q4
Relaxed, tranquil, composed
Tense, driven, fretful
Dynamic Traits
Ergs
• Permanent, constitutional source traits
• Provide energy for goal-directed
behavior
Sentiments
• Environmental-mold traits
• Motivate behavior
Influences of Heredity &
Environment
• Interest in relative influences
• Similarities in twins reared apart to
estimate extent of genetic and
environmental influence of traits
• Intelligence & timidity highly
heritable
Stages of Personality
Development
Stage
Age
Development
Infancy
Birth – 6 weaning; toilet training; ego,
superego, attitudes
Childhood
6 – 14
independence from parents;
identification with peers
Adolescence
14 – 23
sex, independence
Maturity
23 – 50
career, marriage, family
Late Maturity 50 – 65
response to change
Old Age
loss of friends, career, status
65 +
Questions About Human
Nature
More toward determinism
Nature & nurture focus
Past & present experiences
Uniqueness & universality
emphasized
• Optimistic
•
•
•
•
Assessment in Cattell’s Theory
L-Data
• Life record ratings of behaviors observed in
real-life situations
Q-Data
• Self-report questionnaire data.
T-Data
• Data derived from personality tests
resistant to faking
• 16 PF Test
Research on Cattell’s Theory
Approaches
Bivariate / Univariate
• Effect of one variable on another
Clinical
• Case study, dream analysis, etc.
Multivariate
• R & P techniques
– R: A lot of data from a lot of people
– P: A lot of data from one person
Reflections on Cattell’s Theory
Contributions
• Widely respected, seldom read
• More popular in Europe
• Trait approach continues to fascinate
Criticisms
• Subjectivity in factor-analytic approach
• Difficult to replicate
• Complexity – lack of acceptance
• Defended approach as the only one
Behavioral Genetics
• Study of the relationship between
genetic or hereditary factors and
personality traits
• Allport and Cattell among first to
suggest role of inherited factors in
personality
Life of Hans Eysenck
• 1916-1997
• Born in Germany
• Immigrated to England from Germany
when Hitler came to power in 1934
• Not academically qualified for physics;
psychology a fall-back
• Long, productive career
Dimensions of Personality
Superfactors
• Combinations of traits or factors
• Stable from child to adult
Dimensions
• Extraversion vs. Introversion
• Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability
• Psychoticism vs. Impulse Control
Extraversion
• Sociable, impulsive, adventurous,
dominant, assertive
Cortical Arousal
Extraverts
Introverts
• Lower base level
• Higher base level
• Seek excitement
• Avoid excitement
• Mixed research results; some genetic
basis
Neuroticism
• Anxious, depressed, tense, irrational,
moody
Sympathetic Nervous System
• Tends to be overreactive
• Largely inherited
• Research suggests neurotics work
better under stress
Psychoticism
• Aggressive, antisocial, tough-minded,
cold, egocentric
Parents
• Authoritarian & controlling parents
• Mixed gender findings; some support for
criminality
Primary Role of Heredity
• Compared identical (monozygotic)
to fraternal (dizygotic) twins
• Identical twins more similar
• Adoption studies show more
similarity with biological parents
Costa & McCrae:
Five-Factor Model
Research revealed five factors:
•
•
•
•
•
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
• Self-observer ratings, objective tests
– NEO Personality Inventory
• All but agreeableness show heritability
Cross-Cultural Consistency
& Stability
• Five Factors in Eastern & Western
cultures
• Differences by culture
Stability
– Childhood to adulthood
– Early to mid-adulthood
Decreases in neuroticism
– Adolescence to adulthood
– 40’s to 60’s
Emotional Correlates
Well-being
• High Extraversion
• Low Neuroticism
• High
Agreeableness
• High
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
• Social support
• Positive emotions
Neuroticism
• Negative outcomes
Behavioral Correlates
Conscientiousness
• Better grades &
work
• Increased health
Agreeableness
• Fewer behavior
problems
General
• High predictive
value of traits
• Some controversy
about number of
factors
Ashton & Lee:
HEXACO Six-Factor Model
Honesty-Humility
Agreeableness
• Sincere, honest, faithful
• Tolerant, peaceful, gentle,
agreeable
Emotionality
• Emotional, oversensitive,
faithful, anxious
Extraversion
• Outgoing, lively, sociable,
cheerful
Conscientiousness
• Disciplined, diligent,
thorough, precise
Openness to Experience
• Creative, innovative,
unconventional
Personality Traits & Internet
Neuroticism
• Internet addiction
• Post more photos on
Facebook
• Women more likely to
blog
Extraversion
• Use social media sites
more
Psychoticism
• Substitute internet for
face-to-face relationships
Conscientiousness
• More Facebook friends
Reflections
• Behavioral genetics findings may
require research restructuring
• Caution to avoid rushing to extreme
views
Personality
• Genetics & environment
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