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Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists use only these theorists listed in this chapter.

Week 8: Topic 1:
Think of someone you recently met for the first time. Do we "automatically" classify people using the Big Five personality dimensions? In other words, do you instinctively notice how extraverted or conscientious a person is? Try classifying the person you recently met using the Big Five personality dimensions. Was it easy or hard to do? Was it useful to you in determining whether you wanted to keep interacting with this person?

Week 8: Topic 2:

Some trait theorists seem to state that "we are the sum of our traits." Look at the traits listed in our book (ie, in Chapter 8). Is it true that we are the sum of our traits? Is that all there is to us? If I could measure all of your traits with a personality test, would I then be able to reliably predict how you will behave?

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CHAPTER EIGHT Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists OUTLINE I. Raymond Cattell A. The Life of Cattell 1. B. Raymond Cattell came from a happy home in Staffordshire, England. At 16, Cattell enrolled at the University of London to study physics and chemistry, where he graduated three years later with honors. Cattell studied psychologist-statistician Charles E. Spearman, who had developed the technique of factor analysis. Cattell received his Ph.D. in 1929 and decided to apply the factor analysis method to the structure of personality. Cattell eventually moved to Harvard University where his colleagues included Henry Murray, Gordon Allport, and William Sheldon. Further, at the University of Illinois, Cattell was employed as a research professor for more than 20 years while publishing over 500 articles. Cattell taught at the University in Hawaii in his seventies after achieving many awards in the field of psychology. Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits 1. Cattell defined traits as relatively permanent reaction tendencies that are basic structural units of the personality. A common trait is one that is possessed by everyone to some degree, such as intelligence or extraversion. People differ because of their unique traits, which are those aspects of the personality shared by few other people. Ability traits help us work efficiently towards goals, while temperament traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior, such as being easygoing or irritable. Dynamic traits define our motivations, interests, and ambitions, according to Cattell. 2. Surface traits are personality characteristics that correlate with one another but do not constitute a factor because they are not determined by a single source. Anxiety, indecision, and irrational fear combine to make or form the surface trait Cattell labeled neuroticism. Source traits are those individual factors derived from factor analysis that combine to account for surface traits. 3. Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions, such as a propensity to consume alcohol leads to behaviors such as carelessness, talkativeness, and slurred speech. Environmentalmold traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality. C. Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality 1. D. E. through factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. Cattell called this objective personality test, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF). A person can score high, low, or somewhere in between on these basic personality factors. Cattell added additional factors, which he called temperament traits, such as excitability, zest, self-discipline, politeness, and self-assurance. Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces 1. Cattell proposed two kinds of dynamic, motivating traits. The word erg was used to denote the concept of instinct or drive. Cattell identified 11 ergs, which are anger, appeal, curiosity, disgust, gregariousness, hunger, protection, security, selfassertion, self-submission, and sex. A sentiment is an environmental-mold source trait and is a pattern of learned attitudes that focus on an important aspect of life, such as a person’s community, spouse, occupation, religion, or hobby. A sentiment can be unlearned and can disappear when it is no longer needed in a person’s life. 2. Attitudes are defined as our interests in and our emotions and behaviors toward some person, object, or event. To Cattell, an attitude is not just an opinion, an attitude encompasses all our emotions and actions toward an object or situation. 3. Subsidiation means that within the personality some elements subsidiate, or are subordinate to, other elements. Attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments; sentiments are subsidiary to ergs. These relationships are expressed by Cattell in what he called the dynamic lattice. 4. Each person’s pattern of sentiments is organized by a master sentiment called the self-sentiment. This is our self-concept, reflected in virtually all of our attitudes and behaviors, which further control all of the structures in the personality. The Influences of Heredity and Environment 1. Cattell’s data suggests that 80% of intelligence (Factor B) and 80% of timidity-versus-boldness (Factor H) can be accounted or by genetic factors. Further, Cattell concluded that, overall, onethird of our personality is genetically based, and two-thirds is determined by social and environmental influences. F. Stages of Personality Development 1. G. H. Cattell covered the entire life span with six stages of development. The first period of infancy which spans from birth to 6, is a time to be influenced by parents and siblings, while ages 6 to 14, mark the second stage of independence from parents and an increasing identification with peers. The third stage is from 14 to 23, and is marked by emotional disorders and possible delinquency as young people experience conflicts centered on the drives for independence, self-assertion, and sex. Ages 23 to 50 mark the fourth stage which is generally a productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and family situations. Late maturity is from the age of 50 to 65 and involves personality developments in response to physical, social, and psychological changes. The final stage is old age, according to Cattell. A person in this stage has adjustments to different kinds of losses, such as the death of a spouse, relatives, and friends, loss of a career, loneliness, and insecurity. Assessment in Cattell’s Theory 1. Cattell used three primary assessment techniques. L-data, (life records); is a technique which involves observers’ ratings of specific behaviors exhibited by research participants in real-life settings such as a classroom or office. L-data involve overt behaviors that can be seen by an observer and occur in a naturalistic setting rather than in the artificial situation of a psychology laboratory. 2. Q-data, (Questionnaires); calls for observers to rate the research participants. Q-data requires research participants to rate themselves, however, Cattell warned that Q-data must not be automatically assumed to be accurate. 3. T-data, Personality, involves the use of what Cattell called “objective” tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. 4. Cattell developed the 16 PF, which is based on 16 major source traits. The 16 PF is widely used to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational success. There are variations of the 16 PF that measure such specific aspects of personality as anxiety, depression, and neuroticism. The test has been translated into more than 40 languages and can be used with adults, adolescents, and children. Research in Cattell’s Theory 1. I. The Dimensions of Personality: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism 1. J. Of the three ways to study personality in research, Cattell chose the multivariate approach, which yields specific data through the statistical procedure of factor analysis. Cattell collected large amounts of data with the R technique, where correlations among all scores are made to determine personality factors or traits. With the P technique, Cattell collected a large amount of data from a single subject over a long period. Cattell and his associates conducted hundreds of factor-analytic studies. Hans Eysenck was born in Germany but immigrated to England to flee Hitler in 1934. Eysenck published over 79 books and over 1,097 journal articles. Eysenck developed several personality assessment devices including the Eysenck Personality Inventory, The Maudsley Medical Questionnaire, and the Maudsley Personality Inventory. He conducted research on the measurement of personality at the University of London’s Maudsley Hospital and Institute of Psychiatry. Eysenck used factor analysis to uncover personality traits and supplemented the method with personality tests and experimental studies that considered a wide range of variables. Eysenck’s theory of personality is based on three “super factors,” defined as combinations of traits or factors. Dimension E is extraversion versus introversion, Dimension N which is neuroticism versus emotional stability, and Dimension P, psychoticism versus impulse control (or superego functioning). Research has shown that traits and dimensions proposed by Eysenck remain stable throughout the life span from childhood through adulthood. Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model 1. McCrae and Costa, who worked for the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institutes of Health in Baltimore, identified five so-called robust or Big Five factors in their research. The five factors are: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These factors were confirmed through a variety of assessment techniques including self-ratings, objective tests, and observers’ reports. In studies of twins, four of the five factors show a strong hereditary component. Agreeableness was found to have a stronger environmental component. These five factors have been consistently observed in both Eastern and Western cultures, which supports a genetic component. The five factors are found in children as well as adults and in longitudinal studies, these five factors demonstrated a high level of stability for all five traits. 2. In several studies, extraversion was positively related to emotional well being, whereas neuroticism was negatively related to emotional well being. From the evidence of research, it is clear that the five-factor model of personality has a high predictive value. McCrae and Costa’s findings have been replicated and continue to inspire considerable research. K. Arnold Buss and Robert Plomin: The Temperament Theory 1. Buss and Plomin identified three temperaments that they believe are the basic building blocks of personality. The temperaments combine to form personality patterns or so-called super traits, such as introversion or extroversion. These three temperaments are: emotionality, activities, and sociability. Buss and Plomin developed two tests to assess personality: the Emotionality, Activity, Sociability Survey for Adults (EAS), and the Emotionality, Activity, Sociability Infant Temperament Survey (EASI) for children. Based on extensive research with twin studies, Buss and Plomin concluded that temperaments are primarily inherited. These findings have been replicated with further research and research also suggests the existence of a strong relationship between the temperamental dispositions and the Big Five personality factors. 2. The Emotionality temperament refers to our level of arousal or excitability. The Activity temperament is defined by Buss and Plomin in terms of physical energy and vigor. The Sociability temperament refers to the degree of preference for contact and interaction with other people. From research, strong evidence exists that temperaments remain stable from birth into adulthood and that the strength of that stability increases dramatically after age 3. Plomin also suggested that genetic factors influence our perception of stressful life events, so inherited temperaments exert pervasive, long-lasting influences on our behavior. Chapter 8 Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck & Other Trait Theorists Chapter Outline 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Background Life of Cattell Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits Source Traits Dynamic Traits Influences of Heredity & Environment Stages of Personality Development Questions About Human Nature Assessment in Cattell’s Theory Chapter Outline, cont’d. 10.Research on Cattell’s Theory 11.Behavioral Genetics 12.Life of Eysenck 13.Dimensions of Personality 14.McCrae & Costa: Five-Factor Model 15.Ashton & Lee: HEXACO Model 16.Personality Traits & Internet 17.Reflections on the Trait Approach Life of Cattell • 1905-1998 • Born in England • Parents: High standards, permissive • Happy childhood • Psychology difficult in England • Moved to US – high productivity Cattell’s Approach to Traits Traits • Reaction tendencies, relatively permanent Common Traits: possessed by all Unique Traits: possessed by few. Ability Traits: skills & work toward goals Cattell’s Approach to Traits Temperament Traits • Behavioral style in response to environment Dynamic Traits • Describe motivations and interests Surface Traits • Correlated traits without common factor/source Cattell’s Approach to Traits Source Traits • Stable, permanent Constitutional Traits • Source traits dependent on physiology. Environmental-mold Traits • Source traits learned from social/ environmental interactions. Source Traits • Cattell identified 16 source traits • Used in 16 Personality Factor (16 PF) Questionnaire • Presented in bipolar form (two ends of continuum) Cattell’s 16PF Factor High Scorers Low Scorers A Reserved, aloof, detached Outgoing, warmhearted, easygoing B Low in intelligence High in intelligence C Low ego strength, easily upset High ego strength, calm E Submissive, obedient, docile Dominant, assertive, forceful F Serious, sober, depressed Happy-go-lucky, enthusiastic G Expedient, low in superego Conscientious, high in superego H Timid, shy, aloof, restrained Bold, adventurous I Tough-minded, self-reliant Tender-minded, sensitive L Trusting, understanding Suspicious, jealous, withdrawn M Practical, down-to-earth Imaginative, absentminded N Forthright, naїve, unpretentious Shrewd, worldly, insightful O Self-assured, secure, complacent Apprehensive, insecure, self-reproaching Cattell’s 16PF Factor High Scorers Low Scorers Q1 Conservative, holds traditional values, dislikes change Radical, liberal, experimenting, embraces change Q2 Group-dependent, prefers to join and follow others Self-sufficient, resourceful, independent Q3 Uncontrolled, lax, impulsive Controlled, compulsive, exacting Q4 Relaxed, tranquil, composed Tense, driven, fretful Dynamic Traits Ergs • Permanent, constitutional source traits • Provide energy for goal-directed behavior Sentiments • Environmental-mold traits • Motivate behavior Influences of Heredity & Environment • Interest in relative influences • Similarities in twins reared apart to estimate extent of genetic and environmental influence of traits • Intelligence & timidity highly heritable Stages of Personality Development Stage Age Development Infancy Birth – 6 weaning; toilet training; ego, superego, attitudes Childhood 6 – 14 independence from parents; identification with peers Adolescence 14 – 23 sex, independence Maturity 23 – 50 career, marriage, family Late Maturity 50 – 65 response to change Old Age loss of friends, career, status 65 + Questions About Human Nature More toward determinism Nature & nurture focus Past & present experiences Uniqueness & universality emphasized • Optimistic • • • • Assessment in Cattell’s Theory L-Data • Life record ratings of behaviors observed in real-life situations Q-Data • Self-report questionnaire data. T-Data • Data derived from personality tests resistant to faking • 16 PF Test Research on Cattell’s Theory Approaches Bivariate / Univariate • Effect of one variable on another Clinical • Case study, dream analysis, etc. Multivariate • R & P techniques – R: A lot of data from a lot of people – P: A lot of data from one person Reflections on Cattell’s Theory Contributions • Widely respected, seldom read • More popular in Europe • Trait approach continues to fascinate Criticisms • Subjectivity in factor-analytic approach • Difficult to replicate • Complexity – lack of acceptance • Defended approach as the only one Behavioral Genetics • Study of the relationship between genetic or hereditary factors and personality traits • Allport and Cattell among first to suggest role of inherited factors in personality Life of Hans Eysenck • 1916-1997 • Born in Germany • Immigrated to England from Germany when Hitler came to power in 1934 • Not academically qualified for physics; psychology a fall-back • Long, productive career Dimensions of Personality Superfactors • Combinations of traits or factors • Stable from child to adult Dimensions • Extraversion vs. Introversion • Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability • Psychoticism vs. Impulse Control Extraversion • Sociable, impulsive, adventurous, dominant, assertive Cortical Arousal Extraverts Introverts • Lower base level • Higher base level • Seek excitement • Avoid excitement • Mixed research results; some genetic basis Neuroticism • Anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, moody Sympathetic Nervous System • Tends to be overreactive • Largely inherited • Research suggests neurotics work better under stress Psychoticism • Aggressive, antisocial, tough-minded, cold, egocentric Parents • Authoritarian & controlling parents • Mixed gender findings; some support for criminality Primary Role of Heredity • Compared identical (monozygotic) to fraternal (dizygotic) twins • Identical twins more similar • Adoption studies show more similarity with biological parents Costa & McCrae: Five-Factor Model Research revealed five factors: • • • • • Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness • Self-observer ratings, objective tests – NEO Personality Inventory • All but agreeableness show heritability Cross-Cultural Consistency & Stability • Five Factors in Eastern & Western cultures • Differences by culture Stability – Childhood to adulthood – Early to mid-adulthood Decreases in neuroticism – Adolescence to adulthood – 40’s to 60’s Emotional Correlates Well-being • High Extraversion • Low Neuroticism • High Agreeableness • High Conscientiousness Extraversion • Social support • Positive emotions Neuroticism • Negative outcomes Behavioral Correlates Conscientiousness • Better grades & work • Increased health Agreeableness • Fewer behavior problems General • High predictive value of traits • Some controversy about number of factors Ashton & Lee: HEXACO Six-Factor Model Honesty-Humility Agreeableness • Sincere, honest, faithful • Tolerant, peaceful, gentle, agreeable Emotionality • Emotional, oversensitive, faithful, anxious Extraversion • Outgoing, lively, sociable, cheerful Conscientiousness • Disciplined, diligent, thorough, precise Openness to Experience • Creative, innovative, unconventional Personality Traits & Internet Neuroticism • Internet addiction • Post more photos on Facebook • Women more likely to blog Extraversion • Use social media sites more Psychoticism • Substitute internet for face-to-face relationships Conscientiousness • More Facebook friends Reflections • Behavioral genetics findings may require research restructuring • Caution to avoid rushing to extreme views Personality • Genetics & environment
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