Help to write a reading response about Stuart Hall's "The work of Representation"

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Help to write a reading response about Stuart Hall's "The work of Representation"

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S A G PE u b lic a tio n s London.T housand N ewD elhi O akso in a s s o c ia tio w n ith gn? R ?il ''1 :: -: : : '. L if e . . : iio r i . ;- rn - :h c R E P R E S E N T AT IO N i: : "f : u rse . :1 J 1 8 . ":: l. lP . s . ' 'f ^' . : lt r c . . . . . . rI . :- . 1 ,, , t u l 1 . 1 : it o n E dite dby S T U AR TH ALL C IAP T E R T H E W O R ( O I _R E P R E S E N TOANI I5 I n th is c h a p te rw e w ill b e c o n c e n tra tin go n o n e o f th e k e y p ro c e s s e in s th e 'c u ltu ra l c irc u it' ( s e ed u G a y ,H a ll e t a l. , 1 9 9 7 ,a n d th e I n tro d u c tio nto th is vo lu m e ) - th e p ra ctice so f re p re sen ta tio n . T h e a im o f th is ch a p te ris to in tro d u c ey o u to th is to p ic , a n d to e x p ia in w h a t it is a b o u ta n d w h y w e g iv e it su ch im p o rta n ce in cu ltu ra l stu d ie s. T h e c o n c e p to f re p re s e n ta tio hn a s c o m e to o c c u p va n e w a n d im p o rta n tp la c e in th e s tu d y o f c u ltu re . R e p re s e n ta tiocno n n e c tsm e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eto c u ltu re . B u t w h a t e x a c tlyd o p e o p le m e a nb y it? W h a t d o e sre p re s e n ta tio n h a ve to d o r,r'ithcu ltu re a n d m e a n in g ? O n e co m m o n - se n seu sa g eo f th e te rm n e a n su s in g la n g u a g eto s a y s o m e th in g is a s fo llo w s : 'R e p re s e n ta tiom m e a n in g fu la b o u t,o r to re p re s e n t,th e w o rld m e a n in g fu lly to , o th e r p e o p le . ' Y o u m a y w e ll a s k , 'I s th a t a ll? ' W e ll, y e s a n d n o . R e p re s e n ta tiois n an e s s e n tia pl a rt o f th e p ro c e s sb y w h ic h m e a n in gis p ro d u c e da n d e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e nm e m b e rso f a c u ltu re . I I d o e sin v o lv e th e u s e o f la n g u a g eo, f s ig n s a n d im a g e sw h ich sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth in g s. B u t th is is a fa r fro m sim p le o r s tra ig h tfo rw a rdp ro c e s sa, s y o u w ill s o o n d is c o v e r. H o w d o e sth e c o n c e p to f re p re s e n ta tio cn o n n e c tm e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eto c u ltu re ? I n o rd e rto e x p lo reth is c o n n e c tio nfu rth e r,w e w ill lo o k a t a n u m b e r o f d iffe re n tth e o rie sa b o u th o w ia n g u a g eis u s e d to re p re s e n th t e w o rld . H e re w e w ill b e d ra w in g a d is tin c tio nb e tw e e nth re e d iffe re n ta c c o u n tso r th e o rie s : Ih e re fle ctive ,th e in te n tio n a l a n d Ih e co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a ch e sto re p re s e n ta tio nD. o e sla n g u a g es im p ly re fle c ta m e a n in gw h ic h a lre a d ye x is ts o u t th e re in th e w o rld o f o b je cts,p e o p le a n d e ve n ts ( re fle ctive ) ?D o e s la n g u a g ee xp re sso n ly w h a t th e sp e a ke ro r w rite r o r p a in te r w a n ts to sa y.h is o r h e r p e rso n a lly in te n d e d m e a n in g ( in te n tio n a l) ? O r is m e a n in g co n stru cte d in a n d th ro u g h la n g u a g e( co n stru ctio n isf) ?Y o u w ill le a rn m o re in a m o m e n t a b o u tth e s eth re e a p p ro a c h e s . M o s t o f th e c h a p te rw ill b e s p e n te x p lo rin gth e c o n s tru c tio n isaf p p ro a c h . b e c a u s eit is th is p e rs p e c tiv ew h ic h h a s h a d th e m o s t s ig n ific a n tim p a c t o n c u ltu ra l s tu d ie sin re c e n ty e a rs . T h is c h a p te rc h o o s e sto e x a m in etw o m a jo r v a ria n tso r m o d e lso f th e c o n s tru c tio n isat p p ro a c h- th e s e m io lica p p ro a c h , g re a tlyin flu e n c e db y th e g re a tS w is slin g u is t, F e rd in a n dd e S a u s s u rea, n d th e d iscu rsivea p p ro a ch ,a sso cia te dr,riithth e F re n ch p h ilo so p h e r a n d h is to ria n ,M ic h e l F o u c a u it. L a te rc h a p te rsin th is b o o k w ill ta k e u p th e s etw o th e o rie sa g a in ,a m o n go th e rs ,s o V o u w iil h a v e a n o p p o rtu n ityto c o n s o lid a te yo u r u n d e rsta n d in go f th e m , a n d to a p p ly th e m to d iffe re n t a re a so f a n a lysis. O th e r ch a p te rsw ill in tro d u ce th e o re tica lp a ra d ig m sw h ich a p p ly c o n s tru c tio n isat p p ro a c h e sin d iffe re n tw a y s to th a t o f s e m io tic sa n d F o u c a u lt. A ll, h o w e v e r,p u t in q u e s tio nth e v e ry n a tu re o f re p re s e n ta tio n . W e tu rn to th is o u e stio n first. |5 : - - r iE lI T A T o N : C U L T U P . ARLF P R E S E N T A T TAONNDSs tG N r F y r NPGR A CI r c E S w h a t d o e sth e w o rd re p re se n ta tio nre a lly m e a n , in th is co n te xt? w h a t d o e s th e p ro c e s so f re p re s e n ta tio in n v o lv e ? H o w d o e sre p re s e n ta tio w n o rk ? T o p u t it b rie fly, re p re se n ta tio nis th e p ro d u ctio n o f m e a n in g th ro u g h la n g u a g e . T h e sfio rfe r o xfo rd E n g lish D ictio n a ry su g g e ststw o re le va n t m e a n in g sfo r th e w o rd ; 1 2 T o re p re s e n st o m e th in gis to d e s c rib eo r d e p ic t it, to c a ll it u p in th e m in d b y d e s c rip tio no r p o rtra y a lo r im a g in a tio n to ; p la c e a lik e n e s so f it b e fo re u s in o u r m in d o r in th e s e n s e sa; s ,fo r e x a m p le ,in th e s e n te n c e,,T h is p ic tu re re p re s e n tsth e m u rd e r o f A b e l b y C a in . ' T o re p re s e n at ls o m e a n sto s y m b o liz e s, ta n d fo r, to b e a s p e c im e no f, o r to su b stitu tefo r; a s in th e se n te n ce ,'In ch ristia n ity, th e cro ssre p re se n tsth e su fT e rin ga n d cru cifixio n o f C h rist.' T h e fig u re s in th e p a in tin g sta n d in th e p la ce o f, a n d a t th e sa m e tim e , sfo n d fo r rh e sto ry o f ca in a n d A b e l. L ike w ise , th e cro sssim p ly co n sistso f tw o w o o d e n p la n k s n a ile d to g e th e r;b u t in th e c o n te x to f c h ris tia n b e lie f a n d te a c h in g ,it ta k e so n , s y m b o liz e so r c o m e sto s ta n d fo r a w id e r s e t o f m e a n in g sa b o u tth e c ru c ifix io n o f th e s o n o f G o d , a n d th is is a c o n c e p tw e c a n p u t in to w o rd s a n d p ic tu re s . H e re is a sim p le e xe rcisea b o u t re p re se n ta tio n L. o o k a t a n y fa m ilia r o b je ctin th e ro o m . Y o u w ill im m e d ia te ly re co g n iz ew h a t it is. B u t h o w d o y o u k n o w w h a t th e o b je c tis ? W h a t d o e s're c o g n iz em ' e a n? N o w try to m a ke yo u rse lf co n scio u so f w h a t yo u a re d o in g - o b se rvew h a t is g o in g o n a s yo u d o it. Y o u re co g n iz ew h a t it is b e ca u seyo u r th o u g h tp ro c e s s e ds e c o d ey o u r v is u a l p e rc e p tio no f th e o b je c tin te rm s o f a c o n c e p to f it w h ic h y o u h a v e in y o u r h e a d .T h is m u s t b e s o b e c a u s eif, yo u lo o k a w a y fro m th e o b je ct,yo u ca n still tfrin k a b o u t it b y co n ju rin g it u p , a s w e s a y ,'in y o u r m in d 's e y e '. G o o n - try to fo llo w th e p ro c e s sa s it h a p p e n s T: h e re is th e o b je c t. . . a n d th e re is th e c o n c e p tin y o u r h e a d w h ic h te lls y o u w h a t it is , w h a t y o u r v is u a l im a g eo f it m e o n s . N o w , te ll m e w h a t it is . S a y it a lo u d :'I t's a la m p ' - o r a ta b le o r a b o o k o r th e p h o n e o r w h a te v e r.T h e c o n c e p to fth e o b je c th a s p a s s e dth ro u g h y o u r m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio no f it to m e via th e w o rd fo r it w h ich yo u h a ve ju st u s e d ,T h e w o rd s ta n d sfo r o r re p re s e n tsth e c o n c e p t,a n d c a n b e u s e d to re fe re n c eo r d e s ig n a tee ith e r a 're a l' o b je c tin th e w o rld o r in d e e d e v e n s o m e im a g in a ryo b je c t,lik e a n g e isd a n c in go n th e h e a d o f a p in , w h ic h n o o n e h a s e v e ra c tu a llys e e n . T h is is h o w yo u g ive m e a n in g to th in g s th ro u g h la n g u a g e T. h is is h o w yo u 'm a k e s e n s eo f'th e w o rld o f p e o p le ,o b je c tsa n d e v e n ts ,a n d h o w y o u a re a b le to e x p re s sa c o m p le xth o u g h ta b o u tth o s eth in g s to o th e rp e o p le ,o r C I A P I T _ R T I ]E W O R < O F R E P I T . E S E NOTNA I 17 co m m u n ica tea b o u t th e m th ro u g h la n g u a g ein w a ys w h ich o th e r p e o p ie a re a b le to u n d e rs ta n d . W h y d o w e h a v e to g o th ro u g hth is c o m p le r p ro c e s sto re p re s e n ot u r th o u g h ts ?I f y o u p u t d o w n a g la s sy o u a re h o ld in g a n d rna lk o u t o f th e ro o m , v o u c a n s till / h in k a b o u tth e g la s s ,e v e nth o u g h it is n o lo n g e rp h y s ic a llv th e re .A c tu a lly ,y o u c a n 't th in k w ith a g la s s .Y o u c a n o n lv th in k w ith tfte c o n c e p to / th e g la s s A . s th e lin g u is tsa re fo n d o f s a y in g ,'D o g sb a rk . B u t th e c o n c e p to f "d o g " c a n n o tb a rk o r b ite . ' Y o u c a n 't s p e a kr, r- ithth e a c tu a lg la s s , e ith e r. Y o u ca n o n ly sp e a kw ith th e w o rd fo r g la ss- G L A S S - rnh ich is th e lin g u is tic s ig n w h ic h w e u s e in E n g lis hto re fe rto o b je c tsrnh ic h y o u d rin k w a te r o u t o f. T h is is w h e re re p re se n ta tio nco m e sin . R e p re se n ta tio nis th e p ro d u c tio no f th e m e a n in go f th e c o n c e p tsin o u r m in d s th ro u g hla n g u a g eI.t is th e lin k b e tw e e n co n ce p tsa n d la n g u a g ew h ich e n a b le su s to re le r fo e ith e r th e 're a i' w o rld o f o b je c ts p, e o p ie o r e v e n ts ,o r in d e e d to im a g in a ryr, r. o rld os f fic tio n a l o b je c ts p, e o p le a n d e v e n ts . S o th e re a re tw o p ro c e s s e st., , t'os y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio n ,in v o lv e d .F irs t, th e re is th e 's y s te m ' b y - , t'h ic ha ll s o rtso f o b je c ts p, e o p le a n d e v e n tsa re co rre la te dw ith a se t o f co n ce p tso r m e n fa l re p re se n ta tio n sr,t'h ichw e ca rry a ro u n d in o u r h e a d s .W ith o u t th e m , w e c o u ld n o t in te rp re tth e w o rld m e a n in g fu llya t a ll. in th e firs t p la c e ,th e n , m e a n in gd e p e n d so n th e s y s te mo f c o n c e p tsa n d im a g e sfo rm e d in o u r th o u g h tsw h ic h c a n s ta n d fo r o r 're p re s e n t'th e w o rld , e n a b lin gu s to re fe rto th in g sb o th in s id e a n d o u ts id e our he a ds. ', e B e fo rew e m o v e o n to lo o k a t th e s e c o n d's y s te mo f re p re s e n ta tio nw s h o u ld o b s e rv eth a t w h a t r. r'eh a v e ju s t s a id is a v e ry s im p le v e rs io no f a ra th e r c o m p le xp ro c e s sI.t is s im p le e n o u g hto s e eh o - a u, , e m ig h t fo rm c o n c e p tsfo r th in g s w e c a n p e rc e iv e- p e o p le o r m a te ria lo b je c ts lik , e c h a irs ,ta b le sa n d t in g s . d e s k s . B u t'"r'ea ls o fo rm c o n c e p tso f ra th e ro b s c u rea n d a b s tra c th ra y to u c h . T h in k , fo r w h ic h w e c a n 't in a n y s im p le \ s e e ,fe e l o r e x a m p le ,o f o u r c o n c e p tso f w a r, o r d e a th ,o r frie n d s h ipo r lo v e . A n d , a s u , 'eh a v e re m a rk e d w , e a ls o fo rm c o n c e p tsa b o u tth in g s \ v e n e v e rh a v e s e e n ,a n d p o s s ib lyc a n 't o r w o n 't e v e r s e e ,a n d a b o u tp e o p le a n d p la c e sw e h a v e p la in ly m a d e u p . W e m a y h a v e a c le a rc o n c e p to f, s a v ,a n g e ls m , e rm a id s ,G o d , th e D e v il, o r o f H e a v e na n d H e il, o r o f M id d le m a rc h( th e fic tio n a l p ro v in c ia l to w n in G e o rg eE lio t'sn o v e l) ,o r E liz a b e thfth e h e ro in e o f fa n e A u s te n 'sP rid e a n d P re ju d ice ) . W e h a v e c a lle d th is a 's y s / e m o f re p re s e n ta tio nT'. h a t is b e c a u s eit c o n s is ts , n o t o f in d iv id u a l c o n c e p tsb, u t o f d iffe re n tw a y s o f o rg a n iz in g c, lu s te rin g . a rra n g in ga n d c la s s ify in gc o n c e p ts a, n d o f e s ta b lis h in gc o m p le xre la tio n s b e tw e e nth e m . F o r e x a m p le ,w e u s e th e p rin c ip le so f s im ila rity a n d d iffe re n c eto e s ta b lis hre la tio n s h ip sb e tw e e nc o n c e p tso r to d is tin g u is hth e m fio m o n e a n o th e r.T h u s I h a v e a n id e a th a t in s o m ere s p e c tsb ird s a re lik e p la n e sin th e s k y ,b a s e do n th e fa c t th a t th e y a re s im ila r b e c a u s eth e v b o th flv - b u t I a ls oh a v e a n id e a th a t in o th e rre s p e c tsth e y a re d iffe re n t.b e c a u s eo n e is p a rt o f n a tu rew h ils t th e o th e r is m a n - m a d e T. h is m ix in g a n d m a tc h in g, , 1 I8 R E P R E S E N T A T CI oUNL T U R A L R E P R E S E N T A T I o N S A N D S I G N I F Y I N G P R A C T I C E S re la tio n s b e tw e e n co n ce p tsto fo rm co m p le x id e a s a n d th o u g h ts is p o ssib le b e ca u seo u r co n ce p tsa re a rra n g e din to d iffe re n t cla ssifyin gsyste m s.In th is e xa m p le ,th e first is b a se do n a d istin ctio n b e tw e e n flyin g /n o t flyin g a n d th e se co n dis b a se do n th e d istin ctio n b e tw e e nn a tu ra l/m a n - m a d e T. h e re a re o th e r p rin c ip le so f o rg a n iz a tio nlik e th is a t w o rk in a ll c o n c e p tu a sl y s te m s : fo r e xa m p le ,cla ssifyin ga cco rd in gto se q u e n ce- w h ich co n ce p tfo llo w s w h ich - o r ca u sa lity- w h a t ca u se sw h a t - a n d so o n . T h e p o in t h e re is th a t w e a re ta lk in g a b o u t,n o t ju s t a ra n d o m c o lle c tio no f c o n c e p tsb, u t c o n c e p ts o rg a n iz e d ,a rra n g e da n d cla ssifie d in to co m p le x re la tio n s w ith o n e a n o th e r. T h a t is w h a t o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a ctu a lly is like . H o w e ve r,th is d o e s n o t u n d e rm in e th e b a sic p o in t. M e a n in g d e p e n d so n th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th in g s in th e w o rid - p e o p le ,o b je c tsa n d e v e n ts ,re a l o r fic tio n a l- a n d th e co n ce p tu a lsyste m ,w h ich ca n o p e ra tea s m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio n so f th e m . N o w it co u ld b e th e ca seth a t th e co n ce p tu a lm a p w h ich I ca rry a ro u n d in m y h e a d is to ta lly d iffe re n t fro m yo u rs, in w h ich ca seyo u a n d I w o u ld in te rp re t o r m a ke se n seo f th e w o rld in to ta lly d iffe re n t w a ys. W e w o u ld b e in ca p a b le o f sh a rin g o u r th o u g h ts o r e xp re ssin gid e a s a b o u t th e w o rld to e a ch o th e r. In fa ct, e a ch o f u s p ro b a b ly d o e su n d e rsta n da n d in te rp re t th e w o rld in a u n iq u e a n d in d ivid u a l w a y, H o w e ve r,w e a re a b le to co m m u n ica teb e ca u sew e sh a re b ro a d ly th e sa m e co n ce p tu a lm a p s a n d th u s m a ke se n seo f o r in te rp re t th e w o rld in ro u g h ly sim ila r w a ys. T h a t is in d e e d w h a t it m e a n sw h e n w e sa y w e 'b e lo n g to th e sa m e cu ltu re '. B e ca u sew e in te rp re t th e w o rld in ro u g h ly sim ila r w a ys, w e a re a b le to b u ild u p a sh a re dcu ltu re o f m e a n in g sa n d th u s co n stru cta so cia lw o rld w h ich w e in h a b it to g e th e r.T h a t is w h y 'cu ltu re ' is so m e tim e sd e fin e d in te rm s o f 'sh a re dm e a n in g so r sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p s' ( s e ed u G a y ,H a ll e t a l. , 1 9 9 7 ) . H o w e ve r,a sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p is n o t e n o u g h . W e m u st a lso b e a b le to re p re se n to r e xch a n g em e a n in g sa n d co n ce p ts,a n d w e ca n o n ly d o th a t w h e n w e a lso h a ve a cce ssto a sh a re dla n g u a g e L. a n g u a g eis th e re fo reth e se co n d syste m o f re p re se n ta tio nin vo lve d in th e o ve ra ll p ro ce sso f co n stru ctin g m e a n in g .O u r sh a re dco n ce p tu a lm a p m u st b e tra n sla te din to a co m m o n Ia n g u a g e so , th a t w e ca n co rre la teo u r co n ce p tsa n d id e a s w ith ce rta in w ritte n l rm w e u s e fo r w o rd s , w o rd s , s p o k e ns o u n d so r v is u a l im a g e s T. h e g e n e ra te so u n d s o r im a g e sw h ich ca rry m e a n in g is s1 g n s.T h e se sig n s sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth e co n ce p tsa n d th e co n ce p tu a lre la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m w h ich w e ca rry a ro u n d in o u r h e a d s a n d to g e th e rth e y m a ke u p th e m e a n in g - syste m os f o u r cu ltu re . S ig n s a re o rg a n iz e din to la n g u a g e sa n d it is th e e xiste n ceo f co m m o n la n g u a g e sr,r,h iche n a b le u s to tra n sla te o u r th o u g h ts ( co n ce p ts)in to r,to rd s, , e x p re s s s o u n d so r im a g e s a, n d th e n to u s e th e s e ,o p e ra tin ga s a la n g u a g eto m e a n in g sa n d co m m u n ica teth o u g h ts to o th e r p e o p le . R e m e m b e rth a t th e ' b e in g u s e d h e re in a v e ry b ro a d a n d in c lu s iv e w a y . T h e te rm 'la n g u a g eis w ritin g syste m o r th e sp o ke n syste m o f a p a rticu la r la n g u a g ea re b o th , h e th e rp ro d u c e db v h a n d . o b v io u s ly'la n g u a g e s '.B u t s o a re v is u a l im a g e s w m e c h a n ic a l,e le c tro n ic ,d ig ita l o r s o m e o th e r m e a n s ,w h e n th e y a re u s e d to e x p re s sm e a n in g . A n d s o a re o th e rth in g s w h ic h a re n 't'lin g u is tic 'in a n v C .IAP IE R T IE W O R ,( O F R E P R ,E S E N IAT IO N I9 o rd in a ry s e n s e :th e 'la n g u a g e ' o f fa c ia l e x p re s s io n s o r o f g e s tu re , fo r e x a m p le , o r th e 'la n g u a g e ' o f fa s h io n , o f c lo th e s , o r o f tla ffic lig h ts . E v e n m u s ic is a 'la n g u a g e ', w ith c o m p le r re la tio n s b e t'"t'e e nd iffe re n t s o u n d s a n d c h o rd s , th o u g h it is a v e ry s p e c ia l c a s e s in c e it c a n 't e a s ilv b e u s e d to re f'e re n c ea c tu a l th in g s o r o b je c ts in th e w o rld {a p o in t fu rth e r e ia b o ra te d in d u G a y , e d . , rg g z , a n d M a c k a y , e d . , 1 9 9 7 ) . A n y s o u n d , w o rd , im a g e o r o b je c t w h ic h fu n c tio n s a s a s ig n , a n d is o rg a n iz e d w ith o th e r s ig n s in to a s y s te m rv h ic h is c a p a b le o f c a rry in g a n d e x p re s s in g m e a n in g is , fro m th is p o in t o f v ie w , 'a la n g u a g e '. I t is in th is se n se th a t th e m o d e l o f m e a n in g r, r, h ich I h a ve b e e n a n a lysin g h e re is o fte n d e s c rib e d a s a 'lin g u is tic ' o n e ; a n d th a t a ll th e th e o rie s o f m e a n in g w h ic h fo llo r, r,th is b a s ic m o d e l a re d e s c rib e d a s b e lo n g in g to 'th e lin g u is tic tu rn ' in th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e sa n d c u ltu ra l s tu d ie s . A t th e h e a rt o f th e m e a n in g p ro c e s s in c u ltu re , th e n , a re tw o re la te d 's y s te m s o f re p re s e n ta tio n '. T h e firs t e n a b le s u s to g iv e m e a n in g to th e w o rld b y c o n s tru c tin g a s e t o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e so r a c h a in o f e q u iv a le n c e sb e tw e e n th in g s - p e o p le , o b je c ts , e v e n ts , a b s tra c t id e a s , e tc . - a n d o u r s y s te m o f c o n c e p ts , o u r c o n c e p tu a l m a p s . T h e s e c o n d d e p e n d s o n c o n s tru c tin g a s e t o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e sb e tw e e n o u r c o n c e p tu a l m a p a n d a s e t o f s ig n s , a rra n g e d o r o rg a n iz e d in to va rio u s la n g u a g e s w h ich sta n d fo r o t re p re se n t th o se c o n c e p ts . T h e re la tio n b e tw e e n 'th in g s ', c o n c e p ts a n d s ig n s lie s a t th e h e a rt o f th e p ro d u c tio n o f m e a n in g in la n g u a g e .T h e p ro c e s s w h ic h lin k s th e s e th re e e le m e n ts to s e th e r is w h a t w e c a ll 're o re s e n ta tio n '. J u s t a s p e o p le w h o b e lo n g to th e s a m e c u ltu re m u s t s h a re a b ro a d ly s im ila r c o n c e p tu a l m a p , s o th e y m u s t a ls o s h a re th e s a m e w a y o f in te rp re tin g th e sig n s o f a la n g u a g e , fo r o n ly in th is w a y ca n m e a n in g s b e e ffe ctive ly e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n p e o p le . B u t h o w d o w e k n o w w h ic h c o n c e p t s ta n d s fo r w h ic h th in g ? O r w h ic h w o rd e ffe c tiv e ly re p re s e n ts w h ic h c o n c e p t? H o w d o I kn o w w h ich so u n d s o r im a g e s w ill ca rrv, th ro u g h la n g u a g e , th e m e a n in g o f m y co n ce p ts a n d w h a t I w a n t to sa y u 'ith th e m to yo u ? T h is m a y se e m re la tiv e ly s im p le in th e c a s e o f v is u a l s ig n s , b e c a u s e th e d ra w in g , p a in tin g , ca m e ra o r T V im a g e o f a sh e e p b e a rs a re se m b la n ce to th e a n im a l w ith a w o o lly c o a t g ra z in g in a fie ld to w h ic h I w a n t to re fe r. E t'e n s o , w e n e e d to re m in d o u rs e lv e s th a t a d ra w n o r p a in te d o r d ig ita l v e rs io n o f a s h e e p is n o t e x a c tly lik e a 're a l' s h e e p . F o r o n e th in g , m o s t im a g e s a re in tw o d im e n s io n s w h e re a s th e 're a l' s h e e p e x is ts in th re e d im e n s io n s . V is u a l s ig n s a n d im a g e s , e v e n w h e n th e y b e a r a c lo s e re s e m b la n c e to th e th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r, a re still sig n s: th e v ca rry m e a n in g a n d th u s h a ve to b e in te rp re te d . I n o rd e r to in te rp re t th e m , w e m u s t h a v e a c c e s sto th e tw o s y s te m s o f re p re s e n ta tio n d is c u s s e d e a rlie r: to a c o n c e p tu a l m a p w h ic h c o rre la te sth e s h e e p in th e fie ld w ith th e c o n c e p t o f a 's h e e p '; a n d a la n g u a g e s y s te m w h ic h in v is u a l la n g u a g e ,b e a rs s o m e re s e m b la n c e to th e re a l th in g o r 'lo o k s lik e it' in s o m e w a y . T h is a rg u m e n t is c le a re s tif w e th in k o f a c a rto o r. r d ra w in g o r a n a b s tra c t p a in tin g o f a 's h e e p ', w h e re w e n e e d a v e rv 20 R�PRESFNTATION CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS AND SIGNIFYING PRACTICES FIGURE I.I William Holman Hunt, Our English Coasts ('Strayed Sheep'), 1852. sophisticated conceptual and shared linguistic system to be certain that we are all 'reading' the sign in the same way. Even then we may find ourselves wondering whether it really is a picture of a sheep at all. As the relationship between the sign and its referent becomes less clear-cut, the meaning begins to slip and slide away from us into uncertainty. Meaning is no longer transparently passing from one person to another ... So, even in the case of visual language, where the relationship between the concept and the sign seems fairly straightforward, the matter is far from simple. It is even more difficult with written or spoken language, where words don't look or sound anything like the things to which they refer. In part, this is because there are different kinds of signs. Visual signs are what are called iconic signs. That is, they bear, in their form, a certain resemblance to the object, person or event to which they refer. A photograph of a tree reproduces some of the actual conditions of our visual perception in the visual sign. Written or spoken signs, on the other hand, are what is called indexical. FIGURE 1.2 Q: When is a sheep not a sheep? A: When it's a work of art. (Damien Hirst, Away from the Flock, 1994). C I I A P T E R T H E W O R . KO F R E P R E S E N T A T I O N 2 I T h e y b e a r n o o b vio u s re la tio n sh ip a t a ll to th e th in g s to w h ich th e y re fe r.T h e le tte rsT , R , E , Ed, o n o t lo o k a n y th in glik e tre e sin N a tu re ,n o r d o e sth e w o rd 'tre e 'in E n g lis hs o u n d lik e 're a l' tre e s( if in d e e d th e y m a k e a n y s o u n d a t a ll!) . T h e re la tio n s h ipin th e s es y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio bn e tw e e nth e s ig n ,th e c o n c e p t a n d th e o b je c tto w h ic h th e y m ig h t b e u s e d to re fe ris e n tire ly a rb itra ry. B y 'a rb itra ry' w e m e a n th a t in p rin cip le a n v co lie ctio n o f le tte rs o r a n y so u n d in a n y o rd e r w o u ld d o th e trick e q u a lly w e ll. T re e sr,vo u ldn o t m in d if w e u s e d th e w o rd S E E R T- 'tre e s 'w ritte n b a c k w a rd s- to re p re s e n t th e co n ce p t o f th e m . T h is is cle a r fro m th e fa ct th a t, in F re n ch , q u ite d iffe re n t le tte rs a n d a q u ite d iffe re n t so u n d is u se d to re fe r to w h a t, to a ll a p p e a ra n ce s, is th e sa m eth in g - a 're a l' tre e - a n d , a s fa r a s w e ca n te ll, to th e sa m e co n ce p t - a la rg e p la n t th a t g ro w s in n a tu re . T h e F re n ch a n d E n g lish se e mto b e u sin g th e s a m ec o n c e p t.B u t th e c o n c e p tw h ic h in E n g lis his re p re s e n te db y th e w o rd , T R E E ,is re p re s e n te din F re n c hb y th e w o rd , A R B R E . E t. l H o lm a n 'r E n g lish S vo ye d T h e q u e s tio n th , e n , is : h o w d o p e o p lew h o b e lo n gto th e s a m ec u ltu re ,w h o sh a reth e sa m e co n ce p tu a im a p a n d w h o sp e a ko r w rite th e sa m e la n g u a g e ( E n g lish )kn o w th a t th e a rb itra ry co m b in a tio n o f le tte rs a n d so u n d sth a t m a ke su p th e w o rd , T R E E , w ill sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tth e co n ce p t 'a la rg e p la n t th a t g ro w sin n a tu re '? O n e p o s s ib ilityw o u ld b e th a t th e o b je c tsin th e w o rld th e m s e lv e se m b o d ya n d fix in s o m ew a y th e ir'tru e 'm e a n in g .B u t it is n o t a t a ll cle a r th a t re a l tre e skn o w th a t th e y a re tre e s,a n d e ve n le ss cle a r th a t th e y kn o w th a t th e w o rd in E n g lish w h ich re p re se n tsth e co n ce p to f th e m se lve sis w ritte n T R E E w h e re a sin F re n ch it is w ritte n A R B R E I A s fa r a s th e y a re c o n c e rn e dit, c o u ld ju s t a s w e ll b e w ritte n C O W o r V A C H E o r in d e e d X Y Z . T h e m e a n in gis n o f in th e o b je c to r p e rs o no r th in g , n o r is it in th e w o rd . It is w e w h o fix th e m e a n in g so firm ly th a t, a fte r a w h ile , it co m e sto se e m n a tu ra l a n d in e vita b le . T h e m e a n in g is co n stru cte db y th e syste m o f re p re se n ta tio nIt . is co n stru cte da n d fixe d b y th e co d e ,w h ich se tsu p th e co rre la tio nb e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a n d o u r la n g u a g esyste m in su ch a w a y th a t, e v e rytim e w e th in k o f a tre e ,th e c o d e te lls u s to u s e th e E n g lis h w o rd T R E E ,o r th e F re n c hw o rd A R B R E .T h e c o d e te lls u s th a t, in o u r c u ltu re - th a t is , in o u r c o n c e p tu a al n d la n g u a g ec o d e s- th e c o n c e p t'tre e 'is re p re s e n te db y th e le tte rsT , R , E , Ea, rra n g e din a c e rta ins e q u e n c eju , s t a s in M o rse co d e , th e sig n fo r V ( w h ich in W o rld W a r II C h u rch ill m a d e 'sta n d fo r' o r re p re s e n 'V t ic to ry ')is D o t, D o t, D o t, D a s h ,a n d in th e 'la n g u a g eo f tra ffic I ig h ts ',G re e n= G o ! a n d R e d = S to p ! O n e w a y o f th in k in g a b o u t'c u ltu re ',th e n , is in te rm s o f th e s es h a re d co n ce p tu a lm a p s, sh a re dla n g u a g esyste m sa n d th e co d e s w h ich g o ve rn th e re la tio n sh ip s o f tra n sla tio n b e tw e e nf.h e m .C o d e sfix th e re la tio n sh ip s b e tw e e n co n ce p tsa n d sig n s.T h e y sta b iliz e m e a n in g w ith in d iffe re n t la n g u a g e sa n d cu ltu re s. T h e y te ll u s w h ich la n g u a g eto u se to co n ve y w h ich id e a .T h e re v e rs eis a ls o tru e . C o d e ste ll u s w h ic h c o n c e p tsa re b e in g re fe rre d to w h e n w e h e a r o r re a d u ,h ich sig n s.B y a rb itra rily fixin g th e re la tio n rh ip t,n ,* t , 22 R EPR ESEN TATC I oUNL: T U R ARL E P R E S E N To A N TS A N D S G N I r y I N GP R A C] C E S b e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tu a lsyste m a n d o u r lin g u istic syste m s( re m e m b e r, 'lin g u is tic 'in a b ro a d s e n s e )c, o d e sm a k e it p o s s ib lefo r u s to s p e a ka n d to h e a r in te llig ib ly, a n d e sta b lishth e tra n sla ta b ility b e tw e e n o u r co n ce p tsa n d o u r la n g u a g e sw h ich e n a b le sm e a n in g to p a ssfro m sp e a ke rto h e a re ra n d b e e ffe ctive ly co m m u n ica te dw ith in a cu ltu re . T h is tra n sla ta b ility is n o t g ive n b y n a tu re o r fix e d b y th e g o d s .I t is th e re s u lt o f a s e t o f s o c ia lc o n v e n tio n sI.t is fixe d so cia lly,fixe d in cu ltu re . E n g lish o r F re n ch o r H in d i sp e a ke rsh a ve , o v e r tim e , a n d w ith o u t c o n s c io u sd e c is io no r c h o ic e ,c o m e to a n u n w ritte n a g re e m e n t,a so rt o f u n w ritte n cu ltu ra l co ve n a n tth a t, in th e ir va rio u s la n g u a g e s,ce rta in sig n s w ill sta n d fo r o r re p re se n tce rta in co n ce p ts.T h is is w h a t c h ild re n le a rn ,a n d h o w th e y b e c o m e n, o t s im p ly b io lo g ic a lin d iv id u a ls b u t cu ltu ra l su b je cts.T h e y le a rn th e syste m a n d co n ve n tio n so f re p re se n ta tio n th , e co d e so f th e ir la n g u a g ea n d cu ltu re , w h ich e q u ip th e m w ith cu ltu ra l 'kn o w - h o w ' e n a b lin g th e m to fu n ctio n a s cu ltu ra lly co m p e te n t s u b je c tsN. o t b e c a u s es u c h k n o w le d g eis im p rin te d in th e ir g e n e s b, u t b e c a u s eth e y le a rn its c o n v e n tio n sa n d s o g ra d u a llyb e c o m e , c u ltu re d p e rs o n s -r i. e . m e m b e rso f th e ir c u ltu re .T h e y u n c o n s c io u s lyin te rn a liz eth e c o d e sw h ic h a llo w th e m to e x p re s sc e rta inc o n c e p tsa n d id e a sth ro u g h th e ir s y s te m so f re p re s e n ta tio -n w ritin g , s p e e c h g, e s tu re v, is u a liz a tio n ,a n d s o o n - a n d to in te rp re t id e a s w h ich a re co m m u n ica te dto th e m u sin g th e sa m e s y s te m s . Y o u m a y fin d it e a sie rto u n d e rsta n d ,n o w , w h y m e a n in g ,la n g u a g ea n d re p re se n ta tio na re su ch critica l e le m e n tsin th e stu d y o f cu ltu re . T o b e lo n g to a cu ltu re is to b e lo n g to ro u g h ly th e sa m e co n ce p tu a la n d lin g u istic u n ive rse , to kn o w h o w co n ce p tsa n d id e a s tra n sla te in to d iffe re n t la n g u a g e s,a n d h o w la n g u a g eca n b e in te rp re te d to re fe r to o r re fe re n ceth e w o rld . T o sh a reth e se th in g s is to se eth e w o rld fro m w ith in th e sa m e co n ce p tu a lm a p a n d to m a ke se n seo f it th ro u g h th e sa m e la n g u a g esyste m s.E a rly a n th ro p o lo g istso f la n g u a g e ,like sa p ir a n d w h o rf, to o k th is in sig h t to its lo g ica l e xtre m e w h e n th e y a rg u e dth a t w e a re a ll, a s it w e re , lo cke d in to o u r cu ltu ra l p e rsp e ctive so r 'm in d - s e ts ',a n d th a t la n g u a g eis th e b e s tc lu e w e h a v e to th a t c o n c e p tu a l u n ive rse .T h is o b se rva tio n ,w h e n a p p lie d to a ll h u m a n cu ltu re s, lie s a t th e ro o t o f w h a t, to d a y, w e m a y th in k o f a s cu ltu ra l o r lin g u istic re la tivism . Y o u m ig h t like to th in k fu rth e r a b o u t th is q u e stio n o f h o w d iffe re n t cu ltu re s co n ce p tu a lly cla ssify th e w o rld a n d w h a t im p lica tio n s th is h a s fo r m e a n in g a n d re p re se n ta tio n , T h e E n g lish m a ke a ra th e r sim p le d istin ctio n b e tw e e n sle e ta n d sn o w . T h e In u it ( E skim o s)w h o h a ve to su rvive in a ve ry d iffe re n t, m o re e xtre m e a n d h o stile clim a te , a p p a re n tly h a ve m a n y m o re w o rd s fo r sn o w a n d sn o w y w e a th e r.C o n sid e rth e list o f In u it te rm s fo r sn o w fro m th e S co ttP o la r R e se a rchIn stitu te in T a b le 1 .1 . T h e re a re m a n y m o re th a n in E n g lish , m a kin g m u ch fin e r a n d m o re co m p le x d istin ctio n s. T h e In u it h a ve a co m p le x cla ssifica to ryco n ce p tu a lsyste m fo r th e w e a th e r co m p a re dw ith th e E n g lish . T h e n o ve list P e te rH o e g ,fo r e xa m p le ,w ritin g C - iA P I H L . 4 O R r O i R T P R L S L NA I I O N TL R 23 a b o u t G re e n la n din h is n o ve l, M iss S m illa 's F e e lin gF o r S n o w ( 1 9 9 4 , p p , 5 - 6 ) , g ra p h ica lly d e scrib e s'fta z z il ice ' w h ich is 'kn e a d e dto g e th e rin to a so a p ym a sh ca lle d p o rrid g e ice , w h ich g ra d u a lly fo rm s fre e - flo a tin g p la te s ,p a n c a k eic e , w h ic h o n e ,c o ld , n o o n d a yh o u r, o n a S u n d a y fre , ezes in to a s in g le s o lid s h e e t'.S u c h d is tin c tio n sa re to o fin e a n d e la b o ra te e ve n fo r th e E n g lish w h o a re a lw a ys ta lkin g a b o u t th e w e a th e r!T h e q u e stio n ,h o w e ve r,is - d o th e In u it a ctu a lly e xp e rie n cesn o w d iffe re n tly fro m th e E n g lish ?T h e ir la n g u a g esyste m su g g e ststh e y co n ce p tu a liz eth e w e a th e r d iffe re n tly. B u t h o w fa r is o u r e xp e rie n cea ctu a lly b o u n d e d b y o u r lin g u is tic a n d c o n c e p tu a ul n iv e rs e ? T a b le l. I ln u itte rm sfo r s n o wa n dic e ic e snow b lo w in g p iq tu lu k rss n o w s to rm rn g p r q tu lu K tu q fa llin g ir) - p a n ,b r o k e n s iq u m n iq ic e w a te r m m iu g a q rm m ru q ru a q q a n ik { . ili^^, r a ilil r E , - i- . ^^. . , i^^ r ) ) r r v v v il q a n rK ru q rg lig h t- 94r is fa llin g firs t la y e ro f - in fa ll L u ! -_ l LU ilr d ( g s lz 6p qua sa q - rvu n rt a p ilr a u n m a uya anu V V dLgr lig h ts o ft a q u lu r a q 661 16[ - tu g iu s h o re fa s-t tu v a q s u g a r- puKa K S IU S N m a sa k y o u n g- is tu r n in gin to m o s c k m a qa ya K rnrs a k wet q a n ik k u k w e t fa llin g - is fa llin g q a n ik k u k tu q n a tiru v ik d r if t_in '5 *o- a ln n o a s r r r la r c - i- r r A - . + - r > u r ilL i^^. '^^^ 15dur . Bd)ur - , "{ .r-d -L L ly in go n a s u rfa c e d r if ic r l n a trrrlv rk tu a q a pun q a n lk snow ,fla ke r < h e in o quna s ik u lia q m a s a g u q tu a q w a te ry - wet - I W Ut sh o re w a te rlo g g e dm , usny - illa u y in q q a ir n iq il4 r o ! ^+r , d 9 q^-d^ir - -ild d e e p s o ft - c a n d le- ^- ^; - - . ^ lig h tfa llin g- P dLN gU - s ik u n rrcr u , it h - a p iy u a q O n e im p lica tio n o f th is a rg u m e n ta b o u t cu ltu ra l co d e sis th a t, if m e a n in g is th e re su lt, n o t o f so m e th in gfixe d o u t th e re , in n a tu re ,b u t o f o u r so cia l,cu ltu ra l a n d lin g u istic co n ve n tio n s,th e n m e a n in gca n n e ve rb e fin a llyfixe d . W e ca n a ll 'a g re e 'to a llo w w o rd s to ca rry so m e w h a td iffe re n t m e a n in g s- a s w e h a ve fo r e x a m p le w , ith th e w o rd 'g a y ',o r th e u s e ,b y y o u n g p e o p le ,o f th e w o rd 'w ic k e d !' a s a te rm o f a p p ro v a l.O f c o u rs e th , e re m u s t b e s o m efix in g o f 24 R EPR ESEN TATC I oUNL: T U B , ARLE P R E S E N TOANI S A N D 5 G N I F Y I N G P R A CI I C E S m e a n in g in la n g u a g e o, r w e w o u ld n e ve r b e a b le to u n d e rsta n do n e a n o th e r. w e c a n 'tg e tu p o n e m o rn in g a n d s u d d e n lyd e c id eto re p re s e nth t e c o n c e p to f a 'tre e ' w ith th e le tte rso r th e w o rd v Y x z , a n d e x p e c tp e o p leto fo llo w w h a t w e a re sa yin g .o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re is n o a b so lu teo r fin a l fixin g o f m e a n in g .s o c ia l a n d lin g u is tic c o n v e n tio n sd o c h a n g eo v e rtim e . I n th e la n g u a g eo f m o d e rnm a n a g e ria lis mw, h a t w e u s e dto c a il 's tu d e n ts ',, c lie n ts , , 'p a tie n ts 'a n d 'p a s s e n g e rsh'a v e a ll b e c o m e'c u s to m e rs '.L in g u is ticc o d e sv a ry sig n ifica n tly b e tw e e no n e la n g u a g ea n d a n o th e r.M a n y cu ltu re s d o n o t h a ve w o rd s fo r c o n c e p tsw h ic h a re n o rm a l a n d w id e lv a c c e p ta b leto u s . w o rd s c o n s ta n tlyg o o u t o f c o m m o nu s a g e a, n d n e w p h ra s e sa re c o in e d .th : in k , fo r e x a m p le ,o f th e u s e o f 'd o w n - s iz in g to ' re p re s e nth t e p ro c e s so f firm s la y in g p e o p le o ff w o rk . E v e n w h e n th e a c tu a lw o rd s re m a in s ta b le th , e ir co n n o ta tio n ssh ift o r th e y a cq u ire a d iffe re n t n u a n ce .T h e p ro b le m is e s p e c ia llya c u tein tra n s la tio n F. o r e x a m p ie ,d o e sth e d iffe re n c ein E n g lis h b e tw e e nkn o w a n d u n d e rsta .n dco rre sp o n de xa ctly to a n d ca p tu re e xa ctly th e sa m e co n ce p tu a ld istin ctio n a s th e F re n ch m a ke b e tw e e nsa vo ir a n d co n n a itre ?P e rh a p s;b u t ca n w e b e su re ? T h e m a in p o in t is th a t m e a n in g d o e sn o t in h e re in th in g s, in th e w o rld . It is c o n s tru c te dp, ro d u c e d .I t is th e re s u lto f a s ig n ify in gp ra c tic e- a p ra c tic eth a t p ro d u ce sm e a n in g ,th a t m o ke s th in g s m e o n . T h e re a re b ro a d iys p e a k in gth re e a p p ro a c h e to s e x p la in in gh o w re p re s e n ta tio n o f m e a n in gth ro u g h la n g u a g ew o rks. w e m a y ca ll th e se th e re fle ctive ,th e in te n tio n a la n d th e c o n s tru c tio n isot r c o n s tru c tiv is at p p ro a c h e sy.o u m ig h t th in k o f e a cha s a n a tte m p tto a n sw e rth e q u e stio n s,'w h e re d o m e a n in g sco m e fro m ? 'a n d 'h o w c a n w e te ll th e "tru e " m e a n in go f a w o rd o r im a g e ? ' In th e re fle ctive a p p ro a ch , m e a n in g is th o u g h t to lie in th e o b je ct,p e rso n ,id e a o r e ve n t in th e re a l w o rld , a n d la n g u a g efu n ctio n s like a m irro r , ro re fle ctrh e tru e m e a n in ga s it a lre a d ye x is tsin th e w o rld . A s th e p o e t G e rtru d eS te in o n c e s a id ,'A ro s eis a ro s e is a ro s e '. I n th e fo u rth c e n tu ryB C ,th e G re e k su s e dth e n o tio n o f m im e sisto e xp la in h o w la n g u a g e e, ve n d ra w in g a n d p a in tin g , m irro re d o r im ita te d N a tu re ;th e y th o u g h t o f H o m e r'sg re a tp o e m , T h e llia d , a s 'im ita tin g ' a h e ro ic se rie so f e ve n ts.so th e th e o ry w h ich sa ysth a t la n g u a g e w o rks b y sim p iy re fle ctin g o r im ita tin g th e tru th th a t is a lre a d yth e re a n d fixe d in th e w o rld , is s o m e tim e sc a lle d 'm im e tic '. O f c o u rs eth e re is a c e rta ino b v io u stru th to m im e tic th e o rie so f re p re s e n ta tio n a n d la n g u a g eA. s w e 'v e p o in te d o u t, v is u a i s ig n sd o b e a rs o m ere la tio n s h ipto th e sh a p ea n d te xtu re o f th e o b je ctsw h ich th e y re p re se n t.B u t, a s w a s a lso p o in te d o u t e a rlie r,a tr, r, o - d im e n s io nvaisl u a l im a g eo f a ro s e is a s ig n - it s h o u ld n o t b e c o n fu s e dw ith th e re a l p la n t w ith th o rn sa n d b lo o m sg ro w in gin th e g a rd e n .R e m e m b e ra lso th a t th e re a re m a n y w o rd s, so u n d sa n d im a g e s w h ich w e fu lly w e il u n d e rsta n db u t w h ich a re e n tire ly fictio n a l o r fa n ta sya n d re fe r to w o rld s w h ich a re w h o lly im a g in a ry - in clu d in g , m a n y p e o p le n o w C H APTER T H E W O R ( O F R E P R E S EI N A I 'I O N th in k , m o s t o f T h e I lia d ! O f c o u rs e I, c a n u s e th e w o rd 'ro s e 'to re le rto re a l, a c tu a lp la n tsg ro w in gin a g a rd e n ,a s w e h a v e s a id b e fo re .B u t th is is b e c a u s eI k n o w th e c o d ew h ic h lin k s th e c o n c e p t w ith a p a rtic u la rw o rd o r im a g e .I ca n n o t th in k o r sp e a k o r d ra w w ith a n a ctu a lro se .A n d if so m e o n esa ysto m e th a t th e re is n o s u c h w o rd a s 'ro s e 'fo r a p la n t in h e r c u ltu re ,th e a c tu a lp la n t in th e g a rd e nca n n o tre so lve th e fa ilu re o f co m m u n ica tio nb e tw e e nu s. W ith in th e co n ve n tio n so f th e d iffe re n t la n g u a g eco d e sw e a re u sin g , w e a re b o th rig h t - a n d fo r u s to u n d e rsta n de a ch o th e r, o n e o f u s m u st le a rn th e co d e lin kin e th e flo w e r w ith th e w o rd fo r it in th e o th e r'scu ltu re , T h e s e c o n da p p ro a c hto m e a n in gin re p re s e n ta tio an rg u e sth e o p p o s itec a s e . It h o ld s th a t it is th e sp e a ke r,th e a u th o r, w h o im p o se sh is o r h e r u n iq u e m e a n in g o n th e w o rld th ro u g h la n g u a g e W . o rd s m e a n r,r'h a th t e a u th o r in te n d s th e y sh o u ld m e a n . T h is is th e in te n tio n a l a p p ro a ch . A g a in , th e re is s o m ep o in t to th is a rg u m e n ts in c e w e a ll, a s in d iv id u a ls ,d o u s e la n g u a g eto co n ve y o r co m m u n ica teth in g s w h ich a re sp e cia lo r u n iq u e to u s, to o u r w a y o f s e e in gth e w o rld . H o w e v e r,a s a g e n e ra th l e o ry o f re p re s e n ta tio th n ro u g h la n g u a g eth , e in te n tio n a la p p ro a c his a ls o fla w e d .W e c a n n o tb e th e s o le o r u n iq u e s o u rc eo f m e a n in g sin la n g u a g es, in c e th a t w o u id m e a n th a t w e c o u id e x p re s so u rs e lv e sin e n tire ly p riv a te la n g u a g e sB. u t th e e s s e n c eo f la n g u a g eis co m m u n ica tio n a n d th a t, in tu rn , d e p e n d so n sh a re dlin g u istic co n ve n tio n s a n d s h a re dc o d e s L. a n g u a g ec a n n e v e rb e w h o lly a p riv a te g a m e .O u r p rirra te in te n d e dm e a n in g sh, o w e v e rp e rs o n a to l u s , h a v e I o e n te rin to th e ru le s ,c o d e s a n d c o n v e n tio n so f la n g u a g e lob e s h a re da n d u n d e rs to o d L. a n g u a g eis a so cia lsyste mth ro u g h a n d th ro u g h . T h is m e a n sth a t o u r p riva te th o u g h tsh a ve to n e g o tia tew ith a ll th e o th e r m e a n in g sfo r w o rd s o r im a g e sw h ich h a ve b e e n sto re d in la n g u a g ew h ich o u r u se o f th e la n g u a g esyste mw ili in e vita b ly trig g e r in to a c tio n . T h e th ird a p p ro a c hre c o g n iz e th s is p u b lic , s o c ia lc h a ra c te or fla n g u a g e I.t a ckn o w le d g e sth a t n e ith e r th in g s in th e m se lve sn o r th e in d ivid u a l u se rs o f Ia n g u a g eca n fix m e a n in g in la n g u a g e T. h in g s d o n 't m e cn : w e co n stru ct m e a n in g ,u s in g re p re s e n ta tio n asly s te m s- c o n c e p tsa n d s ig n s .H e n c eit is ca lle d th e co n stru ctivisto r co n stru ctio n ista p p ro a ch to m e a n in g in la n g u a g e . A cco rd in g to th is a p p ro a ch ,w e m u st n o t co n fu se lh e m a te ria l w o rld , w h e re th in g s a n d p e o p le e xist, a n d th e sym b o lic p ra ctice sa n d p ro ce sse sth ro u g h w h ic h re p re s e n ta tio nm, e a n in ga n d la n g u a g eo p e ra te C . o n s tru c tiv is tsd o n o t d e n y th e e x is te n c eo f th e m a te ria lw o rld . H o w e v e r,it is n o t th e m a te ria l w o rld w h ich co n ve ysm e a n in g :it is th e la n g u a g esyste m o r w h a te ve r syste m w e a re u s in g to re p re s e n ot u r c o n c e p ts .I t is s o c ia la c to rsw h o u s e th e c o n c e p tu a sl y s te m so f th e ir c u ltu re a n d th e lin g u is tic a n d o th e r re p re s e n ta tio n asly s te m sto c o n s tru c tm e a n in g ,to m a k e th e w o rld m e a n in g fu la n d to co m m u n ica tea b o u tth a t w o rld m e a n in g fu lly to o th e rs. O f c o u rs e s, ig n sm a y a ls oh a v e a m a te ria ld im e n s io n .R e p re s e n ta tio n a l s y s te m sc o n s is to f th e a c tu a ls o u n d sw e m a k e w ith o u r v o c a l c h o rd s ,th e im a g e sw e m a ke o n lig h t- se n sitivep a p e r w ith ca m e ra s,th e m o rks w e m a ke w ith p a in t o n ca n va s,th e d ig ita l im p u lse s w e tra n sm it e le ctro n ica lll,. R e p re s e n ta tiois n a p ra c tic e ,a k in d o f 'w o rk ', w h ic h u s e sm a te ria lo b je c tsa n d 26 R E P R E S F N T A T oCNt_: . lL T U RR;\ELp R E S E N T A T O N S AsNGDN lF y tN Gp R A C tc ts e ffe c tsB . u t th e m e o n in gd e p e n d s n, o t o n th e m a te ria lq u a lity o f th e s ig n ,b u t o n its sym b o licfu n ctio n It is b e ca u sea p a rticu la r so u n d o r w o rd sta n d sfo r, syn b o liz e s o r re p re se n tsa co n ce p tth a t it ca n fu n ctio n , in la n g u a g e ,a s a sig n a n d c o n v e ym e a n in g- o r, a s th e c o n s tru c tio n is tss a y ,s ig n ify ( s ig n - i- fy ) . T h e s im p le s te x a m p leo f th is p o in t, rn h ic h is c ritic a l fo r a n u n d e rs ta n d in go f h o w la n g u a g e fu s n c tio n a s re p re s e n ta tio n asly s te m sis , th e fa m o u stra ffic lig h ts e xa m p le .A tra ffic tig h t is a m a ch in e w h ich p ro d u ce sd iffe re n t co lo u re d lig h ts in se q u e n ce T. h e e ffe ct o f lig h t o f d iffe re n t w a ve le n g th so n th e e ye - r,vh ichis a n a tu ra l a n d m a te ria l p h e n o m e n o n- p ro d u ce sth e s e n s a tio no f d iffe re n tc o io u rs .N o w th e s eth in g s c e rta in lyd o e x is t in th e m a te ria l w o rld . B u t it is o u r cu ltu re w h ich b re a ksth e sp e ctru m o f lig h t in to d iffe re n tc o lo u rs ,d is tin g u is h e sth e m fro m o n e a n o th e ra n d a tta c h e sn a m e sR e d , G re e n ,Y e llo w , B Iu e - to th e m . W e u se a w a y o f cla ssifyin gth e co lo u r sp e ctru m to cre a te co lo u rs '"r,h icha re d iffe re n t fro m o n e a n o th e r.W e re p re se n to r sym b o liz e th e d iffe re n t co lo u rs a n d cla ssify th e m a cco rd in gto d iffe re n tc o lo u r- c o n c e p tsT.h is is th e c o n c e p tu a cl o lo u r s y s te mo f o u r c u ltu re .w e s a y 'o u r c u ltu re 'b e c a u s eo, f c o u rs e ,o th e r c u ltu re sm a y d iv id e th e co lo u r sp e ctru m d iffe re n tly.w h a t's m o re , th e y ce rta in iy u se d iffe re n t a ctu a l w o rd s o r |e tte rsto id e n tify d iffe re n t co lo u rs:w h a t e ca ll 're d ', th e F re n ch ca ll - "t 'ro u g e 'a n d s o o n . T h is is th e lin g u is tic c o d e- th e o n e w h ic h c o rre la te sc e rta in ) 'ithc e rta inc o lo u rs( c o n c e p ts )a, n d th u s e n a b le su s to w o rd s ( s ig n s rn c o m m u n ic a tea b o u tc o lo u rsto o th e r p e o p le ,u s in g 'th e la n g u a g eo f c o lo u rs '. B u t h o w d o w e u s e th is re p re s e n ta tio n aolr s y m b o lics y s te mto re g u la teth e tra ffic? C o lo u rs d o n o t h a ve a n y 'tru e ' o r fixe d m e a n in g in th a t se n se .R e d d o e sn o t m e a n 'S to p 'in n a tu re ,a n y m o re th a n G re e nm e a n s'G o ', I n o th e r s e ttin g sR , e d m a y s ta n d fo r, s y m b o liz eo r re p re s e n 'B t lo o d ' o r 'D a n g e r'o r 'C o m m u n is m ';a n d G re e nm a y re p re s e n 'It re ia n d 'o r'T h e C o u n try s id e o' r 'E n v iro n m e n ta lis m E '. v e n th e s em e a n in g sc a n c h a n g e I. n th e 'la n g u a g eo f e ie c tricp lu g s ',R e d u s e d to m e a n 'th e c o n n e c tio nw ith th e p o s itiv e c h a rg e ' b u t th is n a s a rb itra rily a n d w ith o u t e xp la n a tio n ch a n g e dto B ro w n ! B u t th e n fo r m a n y y e a rsth e p ro d u c e rso f p lu g s h a d to a tta c ha s lip o f p a p e rte llin g p e o p le th a t th e c o d e o r c o n v e n tio nh a d c h a n g e d o, th e rw is eh o w w o u ld th e y k n o w ? R e d a n d G re e nw o rk in th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts b e c a u s e, S to p ,a n d 'G o 'a re th e m e a n in g sw h ic h h a v e b e e na s s ig n e dto th e m in o u r c u ltu re b y th e c o d e o r c o n v e n tio n sg o v e rn in gth is la n g u a g ea, n d th is c o d e is w id e ly k n o w n a n d a im o st u n ive rsa llv o b e ye din o u r cu ltu re a n d cu ltu re s like o u rs - th o u g h w e c a n w e ll im a g in e o th e r c u ltu re s. 'r. h ic hd id n o t p o s s e s sth e c o d e ,in w h ic h th is la n g u a g ew o u id b e a c o m p le tem y s te ry . L e t u s sta y w ith th e e xa m p le fo r a m o m e n t, to e xp lo re a little fu rth e r h o w , a c c o rd in gto th e c o n s tru c tio n isat p p ro a c hto re p re s e n ta tio nc,o lo u rsa n d th e 'la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts' w o rk a s a sig n ifyin g o r re p re se n ta tio n a syste l m. R e ca ll rh e tw o re p re se n ta tio n a syste l m sw e sp o ke o f e a rlie r.F irst, th e re is th e c o n c e p tu a m l a p o f c o lo u rsin o u r c u ltu re - th e w a y c o lo u rsa re d is tin g u is h e d C H A P T E R T H E W O R KO F R E P R E S F N T A T I O N 2 7 fio m o n e a n o th e r,cla ssifie da n d a rra n g e din o u r m e n ta l u n ive rse .se co n d ly, th e re a re th e w a ys w o rd s o r im a g e sa re co rre la te dw ith co lo u rs in o u r la n g u a g e- o u r Iin g u istic co lo u r- co d e s.A ctu a lly, o f co u rse ,a la n g u a g eo f co lo u rs co n sistso f m o re th a n ju st th e in d ivid u a l w o rd s fo r d iffe re n t p o in ts o n th e co lo u r sp e ctru m .It a lso d e p e n d so n h o w th e y fu n ctio n in re la tio n to o n e a n o th e r- th e so rts o f th in g s w h ich a re g o ve rn e db y g ra m m a ra n d syn ta x in w ritte n o r sp o ke n la n g u a g e s,w h ich a llo w u s to e xp re ssra th e r co m p le x id e a s. In th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts, it is th e se q u e n cea n d p o sitio n o f th e co lo u rs, a s w e ll a s th e co lo u rs th e m se lve s,w h ich e n a b leth e m to ca rrv m e a n in e a n d th u s fu n ctio n a s sig n s. D o e sit m a tte r w h ich co lo u rs w e u se ?N o , th e co n stru ctio n istsa rg u e .T h is is b e ca u sew h a t sig n ifie s is n o t th e co lo u rs th e m se lve sb u t ( a ) th e fa ct th a t th e y a re d iffe re n t a n d ca n b e d istin g u ish e dfro m o n e a n o th e r;a n d ( b ) th e fa ct th a t th e y a re o rg a n iz e din to a p a rticu la r se q u e n ce- R e d fo llo w e d b y G re e n ,w ith so m e tim e sa w a rn in g A m b e r in b e tw e e nw h ich sa ys,in e ffe ct, 'G e t re a d y! L ig h ts a b o u t to ch a n g e .'co n stru ctio n istsp u t th is p o in t in th e fo llo w in g w a y. w h a t sig n ifie s,w h a t ca rrie sm e a n in g - th e y a rg u e- is n o t e a ch co lo u r in itse lf n o r e ve n th e co n ce p to r w o rd fo r it. It is th e d iffe re n ceb e tw e e n R e d a n d G re e nw h ich sig n ifie s.T h is is a ve ry im p o rta n t p rin cip le , in g e n e ra l,a b o u t re p re se n ta tio na n d m e a n in g ,a n d w e sh a ll re tu rn to it o n m o re th a n o n e o cca sio nin th e ch a p te rsw h ich fo llo w T h in k a b o u tit in th e se te rm s. If yo u c o u ld n 't d iffe re n tia teb e tw e e nR e d a n d G re e n ,y o u c o u ld n 't u s e o n e to m e a n 'S to p 'a n d th e o th e rto m e a n 'G o '.I n th e s a m ew a y , it is o n ly th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e nth e le tte rs P a n d T w h ich e n a b leth e w o rd sH E E p to b e lin ke d , in th e E n g lish la n g u a g eco d e , to th e co n ce p t o f 'th e a n im a l w ith fo u r le g s a n d a w o o lly c o a t',a n d th e w o rd S H E E Tto 'th e m a te ria lw e u s e to c o v e ro u rs e lv e s in b e d a t n ig h t'. In p rin cip le , a n y co m b in a tio n o f co lo u rs - like a n y co lle ctio n o f le tte rs in w ritte n la n g u a g eo r o f so u n d s in sp o ke n la n g u a g e- w o u ld d o , p ro vid e d th e y a re su fficie n tly d iffe re n t n o t to b e co n fu se d .co n stru ctio n ists e xp re ssth is id e a b y s a y in gth a t a ll s ig n sa re 'a rb itra ry '.'A rb itra ry 'm e a n sth a i th e re is n o n a tu ra l re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e sig n a n d its m e a n in g o r co n ce p t.sin ce R e d o n ly m e a n s'S to p 'b e c a u s eth a t is h o w th e c o d e w o rk s , in p rin c ip le a n y co lo u r w o u ld d o , in clu d in g G re e n .It is th e co d e th a t fixe s th e m e a n in g ,n o t th e co lo u r itse lf. T h is a lso h a s w id e r im p lica tio n s fo r th e th e o ry o f re p re se n ta tio na n d m e a n in g in la n g u a g e It . m e a n sth a t sig n s th e m se lve s ca n n o t fix m e a n in g .In ste a d ,m e a n in g d e p e n d so n fh e re la tio n b e tw e e na sig n a n d a c o n c e p tw h ic h is fix e d b y a c o d e .M e a n in g ,th e c o n s tru c tio n is ts w o u ld s a y ,is 'r e la t io n a l'. W h y n o t te st th is p o in t a b o u t th e a rb itra ry n a tu re o f th e sig n a n d th e im p o rta n ce o f th e co d e fo r yo u rse lff C o n stru cta co d e to g o ve rn th e m o ve m e n to f tra ffic u sin g tw o d iffe re n t co lo u rs - Y e llo w a n d B lu e - a s in th e fo llo w in g : 28 R EPR ESEN TATC I OUNLIT U R ARL E P R E S E N To A N TS A N D S I G N ]F Y ]NPGR A C T I C E S W h e n th e y e llo w lig h t is s h o w in g ,. , . N o w a d d a n in s tru c tio na llo w in g p e d e s tria n sa n d c y c lis tso n ly to c ro s s , u sin g P in k. P ro v id e dth e c o d e te lls u s c le a rlyh o w to re a d o r in te rp re te a c hc o lo u r,a n d e ve ryo n ea g re e sto in te rp re t th e m in th is w a y, a n y co lo u r w ill d o . T h e se a re ju s t c o lo u rs ,ju s t a s th e w o rd S H E E Pis ju s t a ju m b le o f le tte rs .I n F re n c hth e sa m e a n im a l is re fe rre dto u sin g th e ve ry d iffe re n t lin g u istic sig n M O U T O N . S ig n s a re a rb itra ry.T h e ir m e a n in g sa re fixe d b y co d e s. A s w e sa id e a rlie r,tra ffic lig h ts a re m a ch in e s,a n d co lo u rs a re th e m a te ria l e ffe ct o f lig h t- w a ve so n th e re tin a o f th e e ye . B u t o b je cts- th in g s - ca n a lso fu n c tio n a s s ig n s ,p ro v id e d th e y h a v e b e e n a s s ig n e da c o n c e p ta n d m e a n in g w ith in o u r c u ltu ra l a n d lin g u is tic c o d e s .A s s ig n s ,th e y w o rk s y m b o lic a llyth e y re p re se n tco n ce p ts,a n d sig n ify. T h e ir e ffe cts,h o w e ve r,a re fe lt in th e m a te ria l a n d so cia l w o rld . R e d a n d G re e n fu n ctio n in th e la n g u a g eo f tra ffic lig h ts a s sig n s,b u t th e y h a ve re a l m a te ria l a n d so cia l e ffe cts.T h e y re g u la te th e so cia lb e h a vio u r o f d rive rs a n d , w ith o u t th e m , th e re w o u ld b e m a n y m o re tra ffic a ccid e n tsa t ro a d in te rse ctio n s. W e h a ve co m e a lo n g w a y in e xp lo rin g th e n a tu re o f re p re se n ta tio n It . is tim e to su m m a riz ew h a t w e h a ve le a rn e d a b o u t th e co n stru ctio n ista n n ro a chto re p re se n ta tio nth ro u g h la n g u a g e . R e p re se n ta tio nis th e p ro d u ctio n o f m e a n in g th ro u g h la n g u a g e In . re p re s e n ta tio nc,o n s tru c tio n is tsa rg u e ,w e u s e s ig n s ,o rg a n iz e din to la n g u a g e s o f d iffe re n t kin d s, to co m m u n ica tem e a n in g fu lly w ith o th e rs.L a n g u a g e sca n u s e s ig n sto s y m b o liz e ,s ta n d fo r o r re fe re n c eo b je c ts p, e o p le a n d e v e n tsin th e so - ca lle d're a l' w o rld . B u t th e y ca n a lso re fe re n ceim a g in a ry th in g s a n d fa n ta syw o rld s o r a b stra ctid e a s w h ich a re n o t in a n y o b vio u s se n sep a rt o f o u r m a te ria l w o rld . T h e re is n o sim p le re la tio n sh ip o f re fle ctio n , im ita tio n o r o n e - to - o n eco rre sp o n d e n ceb e tw e e n la n g u a g ea n d th e re a l w o rld . T h e w o rld is n o t a ccu ra te lyo r o th e rw ise re fle cte d in th e m irro r o f la n g u a g e .L a n g u a g e d o e s n o t w o rk like a m irro r, M e a n in g is p ro d u ce d w ith in la n g u a g e ,in a n d th ro u g h va rio u s re p re se n ta tio n a syste l m sw h ich , fo r co n ve n ie n ce ,w e ca ll 'la n g u a g e s M '. e a n in gis p ro d u c e db y th e p ra c tic e ,th e 'w o rk ', o f re p re se n ta tio n It . is co n stru cte dth ro u g h sig n ifyin g - i.e . m e a n in g - p ro d u cin g - p ra c tic e s . H o w d o e sth is ta ke p la ce ?In fa ct, it d e p e n d so n tw o d iffe re n t b u t re la te d syste m so f re p re se n ta tio n F. irst, th e co n ce p tsw h ich a re fo rm e d in th e m in d fu n ctio n a s a syste m o f m e n ta l re p re se n ta tio nw h ich cla ssifie sa n d o rg a n iz e s th e w o rld in to m e a n in g fu l ca te g o rie s.If w e h a ve a co n ce p tfo r so m e th in g ,w e ca n sa y w e kn o w its 'm e a n in g '. B u t w e ca n n o t co m m u n ica teth is m e a n in g w ith o u t a se co n dsyste m o f re p re se n ta tio n a, la n g u a g e .L a n g u a g eco n sistso f sig n s o rg a n iz e din to va rio u s re la tio n sh ip s.B u t sig n sca n o n ly co n ve y m e a n in g F IG U I . - :- Cl :- , - - ; : 5 ll CHAPTER I THE WORK OF REPRESENTATION 29 if we possess codes which allow us to translate our concepts into language and vice versa. These codes are crucial for meaning and representation. They do not exist in nature but are the result of social conventions. They are a crucial part of our culture - our shared 'maps of meaning' - which we learn and unconsciously internalize as we become members of our culture. This constructionist approach to language thus introduces the symbolic domain of life, where words and things function as signs, into the very heart of social life itself. All this may seem rather abstract. But we can quickly demonstrate its relevance by an example from painting. FIGURE 1.3 Juan Cot.in, Quince, Cabbage, Melon and Cucumber, c. 1602. Look at the painting of a still life by the Spanish painter, Juan Sanchez Cotan (1521-1627), entitled Quince, Cabbage, Melon and Cucumber (Figure 1.3). It seems as if the painter has made every effort to use the • 'language of painting' accurately to reflect these four objects, to capture or 'imitate nature'. Is this, then, an example of a reflective or mimetic form of representation - a painting reflecting the 'true meaning' of what already exists in Cota.n's kitchen? Or can we find the operation of certain codes, r 30 REPRESENTATION CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS AND SIGNIFYING PRACTICES the language of painting used to produce a certain meaning? Start with the question, what does the painting mean to you? What is it 'saying'? Then go on to ask, how is it saying it - how does representation work in this painting? Write down any thoughts at all that come to you on looking at the painting. What do these objects say to you? What meanings do they trigger off? 2 Saussure's legacy The social constructionist view of language and representation which we have been discussing owes a great deal to the work and influence of the Swiss linguist, Saussure, who was born in Geneva in 1857, did much of his work in Paris, and died in 1913. He is known as the 'father of modern linguistics'. For our purposes, his importance lies, not in his detailed work in linguistics, but in his general view of representation and the way his model of language CHAPTER I THE WORK OF REPRESENTATION 31 shaped the semiotic approach to the problem of representation in a wide variety of cultural fields. You will recognize much about Saussure's thinking from what we have already said about the constructionist approach. ',Igll tdJ.{llinol' ''';:lIi rim\ For Saussure, according to Jonathan Culler (1976, p. 19), the production of meaning depends on language: 'Language is a system of signs.' Sounds, images, written words, paintings, photographs. etc. function as signs within language 'only when they serve to express or communicate ideas ... [To] communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions .. : (ibid.). Material objects can function as signs and communicate meaning too, as we saw from the 'language of traffic lights' example. In an important move, Saussure analysed the sign into two further elements. There was, he argued, the form (the actual word, image, photo, etc.), and there was the idea or concept in your head with which the form was associated. Saussure called the first element. the signifier, and the second element - the corresponding concept it triggered off in your head - the signified. Every time you hear or read or see the signifier (e.g. the word or image of a Walkman, for example), it correlates with the signified (the concept of a portable cassette-player in your head). Both are required to produce meaning but it is the relation between them, fixed by our cultural and linguistic codes, which sustains representation. Thus 'the sign is the union of a form which signifies (signifier) ; .. and an idea signified (signified). Though we may speak ... as if they are separate entities, they exist only as components of the sign ... (which is) the central fact of language' (Culler, 1976, p. 19). Saussure also insisted on what in section 1 we called the arbitrary nature of the sign: 'There is no natural or inevitable link between the signifier and the signified' (ibid.). Signs do not possess a fixed or essential meaning. What signifies, accW'ding to Saussure, is not RED or the essence of 'red-ness', but the difference between RED and GREEN. Signs, Saussure argued 'are members of a system and are defined in relation to the other members of that system.' For example, it is hard to define the meaning of FATHER except in relation to, and in terms of its difference from, other kinship terms, like MOTHER, DAUGHI'ER, SON and so on. This marking of difference within language is fundamental to the production of meaning, according to Saussure. Even at a simple level (to repeat an earlier example), we must be able to distinguish, within language, between SHEEP and SHEET, before we can link one of those words to the concept of an animal that produces wool, and the other to the concept of a cloth that covers a bed. The simplest way of marking difference is, of course, by means of a binary opposition - in this example, all the letters are the same except P and T. Similarly, the meaning of a concept or word is often defined in relation to its direct opposite - as in night/day. Later critics of Saussure were to observe that binaries (e.g. black/white) are only one, rather simplistic, way of establishing difference. As well as the stark difference between black and white, there are also the many other, subtler differences between black and dark grey, dark grey and light grey, grey and cream and off-white, off-white and brilliant white, just as there are between night, dawn, daylight. noon, dusk. 32 REPRESENTATION: CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS AND SIGNIFYING PRACTICES and so on. However, his attention to binary oppositions brought Saussure to the revolutionary proposition that a language consists of signifiers, but in order to produce meaning, the signifiers have to be organized into 'a system of differences'. It is the differences between signifiers which signify. Furthermore, the relation between the signifier and the signified, which is fixed by our cultural codes, is not - Saussure argued - permanently fixed. Words shift their meanings. The concepts (signifieds) to which they refer also change, historically, and every shift alters the conceptual map of the culture, leading different cultures, at different historical moments, to classify and think about the world differently. For many centuries, western societies have associated the word BLACK with everything that is dark, evil, forbidding, devilish, dangerous and sinful. And yet, think of how the perception of black people in America in the 1960s changed after the phrase 'Black is Beautiful' became a popular slogan - where the signifier, BLACK, was made to signify the exact opposite meaning (signified) to its previous associations. In Saussure's terms, 'Language sets up an arbitrary relation between signifiers of its own choosing on the one hand, and signifieds of its own choosing on the other. Not only does each language produce a different set of signifiers, articulating and dividing the continuum of sound (or writing or drawing or photography) in a distinctive way; each language produces a different set of signifieds; it has a distinctive and thus arbitrary way of organizing the world into concepts and categories' (Culler, 1976, p. 23). The implications of this argument are very far-reaching for a theory of representation and for our understanding of culture. If the relationship between a signifier and its signified is the result of a system of social conventions specific to each society and to specific historical moments ­ then all meanings are produced within history and culture. They can never be finally fixed but are always subject to change, both from one cultural context and from one period to another. There is thus no single, unchanging, universal 'true meaning'. 'Because it is arbitrary, the sign is totally subject to history and the combination at the particular moment of a given Signifier and signified is a contingent result of the historical process' (Culler, 1976, p. 36). This opens up meaning and representation, in a radical way, to history and change. It is true that Saussure himself focused exclusively on the state of the language system at one moment of time rather than looking at linguistic change over time. However, for our purposes, the important point is the way I his approach to language unfixes meaning, breaking any natural and inevitable tie between signifier and signified. This opens representation to \Jw constant 'play' or slippage of meaning, to the constant production of new IIwanings, new interpretations. Ilowever, if meaning changes, historically, and is never finally fixed, then it follows thaI 'laking the meaning' must involve an active process of inlm·I,relation. Meaning has to be actively 'read' or 'interpreted'. (:lIl1snqllnnlly. there is a necessary and inevitable imprecision about 11I1I";III1HII. Tho meaning we take, as viewers, readers or audiences, is never !',/ldlv Ihlllllllilning which has been given by the speaker or writer or by other interpretation CHAPTER I THE WORK OF REPRESENTATION a 33 viewers. And since, in order to say something meaningful, we have to 'enter language', where all sorts of older meanings which pre-date us, are already stored from previous eras, we can never cleanse language completely, screening out all the other, hidden meanings which might modify or distort what we want to say. For example, we can't entirely prevent some of the negative connotations of the word BLACK from returning to mind when we read a headline like, 'WEDNESDAY - A BLACK DAY ON THE STOCK EXCHANGE', even if this was not intended. There is a constant sliding of meaning in all interpretation, a margin - something in excess of what we intend to say - in which other meanings overshadow the statement or the text, where other associations are awakened to life, giving what we say a different twist. So interpretation becomes an essential aspect of the process by which meaning is given and taken. The reader is as important as the writer in the production of meaning. Every signifier given or encoded with meaning has to be meaningfully interpreted or decoded by the receiver (Hall, 1980). Signs which have not been intelligibly received and interpreted are not, in any useful sense, 'meaningful'. of ify ~s e Lt 2. I The social part of language 18 Saussure divided language into two parts. The first consisted of the general rules and codes of the linguistic system, which all its users must share, if it is to be of use as a means of communication. The rules are the principles which we learn when we learn a language and they enable us to use language to say whatever we want. For example, in English, the preferred word order is subject-vJlrb-object ('the cat sat on the mat'), whereas in Latin, the verb usually comes at the end. Saussure called this underlying rule-governed structure of language, which enables us to produce well-formed sentences, the langue (the language system). The second part consisted of the particular acts of speaking or writing or drawing, which - using the structure and rules of the langue - are produced by an actual speaker or writer. He called this parole. 'La langue is the system of language, the language as a system of forms, whereas parole is actual speech [or writing], the speech acts which are made possible by the language' (Culler, 1976, p. 29). ,.,to~q'l • ") d ! ,...iT"" ...... 1.. , .. interpretation 11.' For Saussure, the underlying structure of rules and codes (langue) was the social part of language, the part which could be studied with the law-like precision of a science because of its closed, limited nature. It was his preference for studying language at this level of its 'deep structure' which made people call Saussure and his model of language, structuralist. The second part of language, the individual speech-act or utterance (parole), he regarded as the 'surface' of language. There were an infinite number of such possible utterances. Hence, parole inevitably lacked those structural properties - forming a closed and limited set - which would have enabled us to study it 'scientifically'. What made Saussure's model appeal to many later scholars was the fact that the closed, structured character of language at the level of its rules and laws. which, according to Saussure, enabled it to be ]4 REPRESENTATION: CULTURAL REPRESENTATlONS AND SIGNIFYING PRACTICES studied scientifically, was combined with the capacity to be free and unpredictably creative in our actual speech acts. They believed he had offered them, at last, a scientific approach to that least scientific object of inquiry - culture. In separating the social part of language (langue) from the individual act of communication (parole), Saussure broke with our common-sense notion of how language works. Our common-sense intuition is that language comes from within us - from the individual speaker or writer; that it is this speaking or writing subject who is the author or originator of meaning. This is what we called, earlier, the intentional model of representation. But according to Saussure's schema, each authored statement only becomes possible because the 'author' shares with other language-users the common rules and codes of the language system - the langue - which allows them to communicate with each other meaningfully. The author decides what she wants to say. But she cannot 'decide' whether or not to use the rules of language, if she wants to be understood. We are born into a language, its codes and its meanings. Language is therefore, for Saussure, a social phenomenon. It cannot be an individual matter because we cannot make up the rules of language individually, for ourselves. Their source lies in society, in the culture, in our shared cultural codes, in the language system - not in nature or in the individual subject. We will move on in section 3 to consider how the constructionist approach to representation, and in particular Saussure's linguistic model. was applied to a wider set of cultural objects and practices, and evolved into the semiotic method which so influenced the field. First we ought to take account of some of the criticisms levelled at his position. 2.2 Critique of Saussure's model Saussure's great achievement was to force us to focus on language itself, as a social fact; on the process of representation itself; on how language actually works and the role it plays in the production of meaning. In doing so, he saved language from the status of a mere transparent medium between things and meaning. He showed, instead, that representation was a practice. However, in his own work, he tended to focus almost exclusively on the two aspects of the sign - signifier and signified. He gave little or no attention to how this relation between signifier/signified could serve the purpose of what uarlier we called reference - i.e. referring us to the world of things, people and events outside language in the 'real' world. Later linguists made a II istinction between, say, the meaning of the word BOOK and the use of the word to refer to a specific book lying before us on the table. The linguist, (:lllIrlus Sanders Pierce, whilst adopting a similar approach to Saussure, paid ~nllllllr allnntion to the relationship between signifiers/signifieds and what he t:llllmlllwir /l'lferents. What Saussure called signification really involves both IIIl1illlill~ IIlld ruforence. but he focused mainly on the former. CHAPTER I ~ THE WORK OF REPRESENTATION 3S Another problem is that Saussure tended to focus on the formal aspects of language - how language actually works. This has the great advantage of making us examine representation as a practice worthy of detailed study in its own right. It forces us to look at language for itself, and not just as an empty, transparent, 'window on the world'. However, Saussure's focus on language may have been too exclusive. The attention to its formal aspects did divert attention away from the more intemctive and dialogic features of language -language as it is actually used, as it functions in actual situations, in dialogue between different kinds of speakers. It is thus not surprising that, for Saussure, questions of power in language - for example, between speakers of different status and positions - did not arise. As has often been the case, the 'scientific' dream which lay behind the structuralist impulse of his work, though influential in alerting us to certain aspects of how language works, proved to be illusory. Language is not an object which can be studied with the law-like precision of a science. Later cultural theorists learned from Saussure's 'structuralism' but abandoned its scientific premise. Language remains rule-governed. But it is not a 'closed' system which can be reduced to its formal elements. Since it is constantly changing, it is by definition open-ended. Meaning continues to be produced through language in forms which can never be predicted beforehand and its 'sliding', as we described it above, cannot be halted. Saussure may have been tempted to the former view because, like a good structuralist, he tended to study the state of the language system at one moment, as if it had stood still, and he could halt the flow of language-change. Nevertheless it Is the case that many of those who have been most influenced by Saussure's radical break with all reflective and intentional models of representation. have built on his work; not by imitating his scientific and 'structuralist' approach, but by applying his model in a much looser, more open-ended - Le. 'post­ structumlist' - way. 2.3 Summary How far, then, have we come in our discussion of theories of representation? We began by contrasting three different approaches. The reflective or mimetic approach proposed a direct and transparent relationship of imitation or reflection between words (signs) and things. The intentional theory reduced representation to the intentions of its author or subject. The constructionist theory proposed a complex and mediated relationship between things in the world, our concepts in thought and language. We have focused at greatest length on this approach. The correlations between these levels - the material, the conceptual and the Signifying - are governed by our cultural and linguistic codes and it is this set of interconnections which produces meaning. We then showed how much this general model of how systems of representation work in the production of meaning owed to tho work of Ferdinand de Saussure. Here, the key point was the link provided hy the codes between the forms of expression used by language (whether spooch. [ 36 REPRESENTATION; CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS AND SIGNIFYING PRACTICES writing, drawing, or other types of representation) - which Saussure called the signifiers - and the mental concepts associated with them - the signifieds. The connection between these two systems of representation produced signs; and signs, organized into languages, produced meanings, and could be used to reference objects, people and events in the 'real' world. 3 From language to culture: linguistics to semiotics Saussure's main contribution was to the study of linguistics in a narrow sense. However, since his death, his theories have been widely deployed, as a foundation for a general approach to language and meaning, providing a model of representation which has been applied to a wide range of cultural objects and practices. Saussure himself foresaw this possibility in his famous lecture-notes, collected posthumously by his students as the Course in General Linguistics (1960), where he looked forward to 'A science that studies the life of signs within society ... I shall call it semiology, from the Greek semeion "signs" ...• (p. 16). This general approach to the study of signs in culture, and of culture as a sort of 'language'. which Saussure foreshadowed, is now generally known by the term semiotics. The underlying argument behind the semiotic approach is that, since all cultural objects convey meaning, and all cultural practices depend on meaning, they must make use of signs; and in so far as they do, they must work like language works, and be amenable to an analysis which basically makes use of Saussure's linguistic conceptsle.g. the signifier/signified and langue/ parole distinctions. his idea of underlying codes and structures, and the arbitrary nature of the sign). Thus, when in his collection of essays, Mythologies (1972), the French critic, Roland Barthes, studied 'The world of wrestling', 'Soap powders and detergents', 'The face of Greta Garbo' or 'The Blue Guides to Europe', he brought a semiotic approach to bear on 'reading' popular culture. treating these activities and objects as signs, as a language through which meaning is communicated. For example, most of us would think of a wrestling match as a competitive game or sport designed for one wrestler to gain victory over an opponent. Barthes, however, asks, not 'Who won?' but 'What is the meaning of Ihis nvent?' He treats it as Ii text to be· mud. lin 'reads' the exaggerated J.:l!shlWS or wrestlers as a grandiloquent 1""HIIIIH" or what he calls the pure spm:lm:11! of IlX(;(lSS. somiotics FIGURE 1.4 Wrestling as a language of 'excess'. Core Seminar 1 Due: Wk 7 Reading Response 5 Hall, “The work of Representation” Assignment Make notes on the text — in the margins, underlining, etc. — and bring to class. Underline what you find important, write your thoughts in the margins, mark what you don’t understand. Reading Response Remember that whenever you make a claim you need to support it with a reference. All that is needed here is a page number, since we know the reading you’re referring to. So: page number in parenthesis whenever you quote, paraphrase, or claim an author’s statement. In responding to and using the text, generate questions that fit this system: 1. Why is ______________ important? 2. What is another way to look at _______________? 3. What are the implications of ___________? Explain your questions and try to answer them. Responses should be around 300 words. Deliverables 1. Upload your reading response on Canvas in the relevant assignment submission by Sunday noon (a day prior to our next class meeting). 2. Bring a print-out of your reading response 2 to class on Monday to hand in. 3. Bring the text printed out with notes and markings to class.
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Stuart Hall's "The work of Representation.”
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Stuart Hall's "The work of Representation.”

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In “The work of Representation”, language plays a significant role in production and exchange in
culture. It is important to note that representation can be explained in three theories; the intentional...

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