RES 500 Academic Writing and Research Skills
1
WEEK 6
RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Research Planning
2
Terms used in research
Concepts,
Constructs,
Definitions,
Variables,
Propositions/Hypotheses, Theory, Reasoning, Models
Scientific Method
Sound reasoning for useful answers
Deduction
Induction
Combining induction and deduction
Keywords, References
Learning Objectives
3
Understand . . .
The terminology used by professional researchers
employing scientific thinking.
What you need to formulate a solid research
hypothesis.
The need for sound reasoning to enhance research
results.
Terms used in research → Language of Research
4
Terms used in research
Concepts
Constructs
Operational definitions
Variables
Propositions/Hypotheses
Theory
Reasoning
Models
Terms used in research → Concepts
5
A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated
with certain concrete, unambiguous events, objects, conditions,
or situations.
To Achieve Success of Research
Clear conceptualization of concepts
Shared understanding of concepts among researchers
If concepts are not clearly conceptualized and measured, we will
receive confusing answers.
Terms used in research → Construct
6
A construct is an abstract phenomena for
a given research project.
Terms used in research → Operational Definition
7
An operational definition defines a variable in
terms of specific measurement and testing criteria.
How can we define the variable
“class level of students”?
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
< 30 credit hours
30-50 credit hours
60-89 credit hours
> 90 credit hours
Terms used in research → Variables
8
Variable is a property being studied.
It is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or
attribute that can be measured and to which we
assign categorical values.
Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables
9
Dichotomous: Male/Female, Employed/ Unemployed
Discrete:
Ethnic background, Educational level,
Religious affiliation
Continuous: Income, Temperature, Age
Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables
10
An independent variable is the variable manipulated by the
researcher to cause an effect on the dependent variable.
The dependent variable is the variable expected to be
affected by the manipulation of an independent variable.
Moderating variables are variables that are believed to
have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the
originally stated IV-DV relationship.
Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as a
moderating variable depends on the hypothesis.
Example: The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead
to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger
workers (MV).
Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables
11
• Extraneous variables are variables that could affect a
given relationship.
• Intervening Variables (IVV) are factors that affect the
observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or
manipulated. It is a conceptual mechanism through which the
IV and MV might affect the DV.
Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables
12
Extraneous Variables (EV)
• With new customers (EV-control), a switch to commission
from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to increased
sales productivity (DV) per worker, especially among younger
workers (MV).
Intervening Variables (IVV)
A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity
(DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly
among smaller savers (EV-control). The results come from
enhancing the motivation to save (IVV).
Terms used in research → Propositions/Hypotheses
13
A proposition: a statement about observable phenomena
that may be judged as true or false.
A hypothesis: a proposition formulated for empirical testing.
A case: is the entity or thing the hypothesis talks about. When
the hypothesis is based on more than one case, it would be a
generalization.
Terms used in research → Propositions/Hypotheses
14
Example: Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than-
average achievement motivation (variable).
Example: Brand managers in Company Z (Generalized
cases) have a higher-than-average achievement motivation
(variable).
Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats
15
A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence,
size, form, or distribution of a variable. Researchers often use
a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis.
Example:
Descriptive Hypothesis
In Riyadh, our dates market share stands at 33%.
Research Question
What is the market share for our dates in Riyadh?
Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats
16
Descriptive hypothesis versus research question.
Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive hypothesis has
three advantages over the research question.
1. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to crystallize
their thinking about the likely relationships.
2. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to think
about the implications of a supported or rejected finding.
3. Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical
significance.
Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats
17
A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship
between two variables with respect to some case. Relational
hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal).
A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that
variables occur together in some specified manner without
implying that one causes the other.
A causal (explanatory) hypothesis is a statement that
describes a relationship between two variables in which one
variable leads to a specified effect on the other variable.
Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats
18
Example:
Correlational
Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product
than
women
who
are
older
than
35.
Causal
An increase in family income leads to an increase in the
percentage of income saved.
Terms used in research → Hypothesis → Role of Hypothesis
19
Guide the direction of the study
Identify relevant facts
Suggest most appropriate research design
Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions
Terms used in research → Hypothesis → A Strong Hypothesis
20
A Strong Hypothesis has the following characteristics:
1.
Adequate
2.
Testable
3.
Better than rivals
Terms used in research → Theory
21
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts,
definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or
predict phenomena.
To the degree that our theories are sound and fit the situation,
we are successful in our explanations and predictions.
Theories versus hypotheses?
•
•
Theories tend to be complex, abstract, and involve multiple
variables.
Hypotheses tend to be simple, limited-variable statements
involving concrete instances.
Terms used in research → Reasoning
22
Terms used in research → Reasoning
23
inductive and deductive reasoning.
A model may originate from empirical observations about
market behavior based on researched facts and
relationships among variables.
Inductive reasoning allows the modeler to draw
conclusions from the facts or evidence in planning the
dynamics of the model.
Terms used in research → Model
24
A model is a representation of a system constructed to study
some aspect of that system or the system as a whole.
Models versus Theories
•
•
a model’s role is to represent or describe
A theory’s role is to explain.
Terms used in research → Model → Types of Models
25
Models may be descriptive, predictive, and normative:
1.
2.
3.
Descriptive models used for complex systems as they allow
for the visualization of numerous variables and relationships.
Predictive models forecast future events and facilitate
business planning.
Normative models are used for control, because they indicate
necessary actions.
Models allow researchers to specify hypotheses that
characterize present or future conditions.
Example: Study the effect of advertising on consumer
awareness or intention to purchase.
Scientific Method
26
Good research has the following characteristics:
Direct observation
Clearly defined variables
Clearly defined methods
Empirically testable
Elimination of alternatives
Statistical justification
Self-correcting process
Scientific Method
27
Good Research is based on sound reasoning because
reasoning is essential for producing scientific results.
Empirical testing denotes observations and propositions
based on sensory experiences and/or derived from such
experience by methods of inductive logic, including
mathematics and statistics.
Researchers using empirical testing attempt to describe,
explain, and make predictions by relying on information
gained through observation.
Scientific method is described as a puzzle-solving activity.
Scientific Method → Role of Researchers
28
•Encounter problems
•State problems
•Propose hypotheses
•Deduce outcomes
•Formulate rival hypotheses
•Devise and conduct empirical tests
•Draw conclusions
Scientific Method → Curiosity
29
Important discoveries in research to a common trait of
entrepreneurs: curiosity.
Where the world would be without curiosity?
Curiosity is “what makes us tick.”
Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning
30
Types of Discourse
Exposition
Deduction
Argument
Induction
Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning
31
Exposition consists of statements that describe without
attempting to explain.
• Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge,
and explore meaning.
• Types of argument:
•
•
Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion
must necessarily follow from the premises given.
Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a conclusion
from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.
Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning → Deductive Reasoning
32
Example:
Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult and
expensive
This survey involves substantial inner-city household
interviewing
The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and
expensive
Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning → Inductive Reasoning
33
Example:
Why did not sales increase during our promotional event?
Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill
customer requests during the promotional period
A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time
for promotion to be effective
A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days
during the promotion
Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning → Deduction and
Induction
34
Research Planning→ Key Terms
35
Argument
Case
Concept
Conceptual scheme
Construct
Deduction
Empiricism
Exposition
Hypothesis
Correlational
Descriptive
Explanatory
Relational
• Hypothetical construct
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Induction
Model
Operational definition
Proposition
Sound reasoning
Theory
Variable
Control
Dependent (DV)
Extraneous (EV)
Independent (IV)
Intervening (IVV)
Moderating (MV)
References
36
Business Research Methods by Donald R Cooper,
12th Edition.
1.
Chapter 3 - Thinking Like a Researcher, PP 48-73
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