Research Terminology The Scientific Method

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Q1) Write a 1-page report with proper citation about the following terms:

  • Concepts
  • Constructs
  • Definitions
  • Variables
  • Propositions
  • Hypotheses
  • Theory
  • Reasoning
  • Models

For each term above include an example from your area of study.

Q2) Write a 1-page report about the difference between induction and deduction reasoning with an example from your area of research.

NB:

Use appropriate references.

You have to submit all answers in one word file.


Use APA Formate the assignment should be 2 pages in length,

Learning Objective:

In the end of this week students should be able to:

  • Know the terminology related to research and research planning


Learning Resources

Book – Business Research Methods by Donald R Cooper, 12th Edition.

Chapter 3: Thinking Like a Researcher, PP 48-73

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RES 500 Academic Writing and Research Skills 1 WEEK 6 RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Research Planning 2  Terms used in research  Concepts, Constructs, Definitions, Variables, Propositions/Hypotheses, Theory, Reasoning, Models  Scientific Method  Sound reasoning for useful answers Deduction  Induction  Combining induction and deduction   Keywords, References Learning Objectives 3 Understand . . .  The terminology used by professional researchers employing scientific thinking.  What you need to formulate a solid research hypothesis.  The need for sound reasoning to enhance research results. Terms used in research → Language of Research 4 Terms used in research  Concepts  Constructs  Operational definitions  Variables  Propositions/Hypotheses  Theory  Reasoning  Models Terms used in research → Concepts 5 A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events, objects, conditions, or situations. To Achieve Success of Research  Clear conceptualization of concepts  Shared understanding of concepts among researchers If concepts are not clearly conceptualized and measured, we will receive confusing answers. Terms used in research → Construct 6 A construct is an abstract phenomena for a given research project. Terms used in research → Operational Definition 7 An operational definition defines a variable in terms of specific measurement and testing criteria.  How can we define the variable “class level of students”? Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior < 30 credit hours 30-50 credit hours 60-89 credit hours > 90 credit hours Terms used in research → Variables 8  Variable is a property being studied.  It is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to which we assign categorical values. Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables 9  Dichotomous: Male/Female, Employed/ Unemployed  Discrete: Ethnic background, Educational level, Religious affiliation  Continuous: Income, Temperature, Age Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables 10  An independent variable is the variable manipulated by the researcher to cause an effect on the dependent variable.  The dependent variable is the variable expected to be affected by the manipulation of an independent variable.  Moderating variables are variables that are believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship.  Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as a moderating variable depends on the hypothesis.  Example: The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV). Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables 11 • Extraneous variables are variables that could affect a given relationship. • Intervening Variables (IVV) are factors that affect the observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or manipulated. It is a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and MV might affect the DV. Terms used in research → Variables → Types of Variables 12 Extraneous Variables (EV) • With new customers (EV-control), a switch to commission from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to increased sales productivity (DV) per worker, especially among younger workers (MV). Intervening Variables (IVV)  A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV-control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save (IVV). Terms used in research → Propositions/Hypotheses 13  A proposition: a statement about observable phenomena that may be judged as true or false.  A hypothesis: a proposition formulated for empirical testing.  A case: is the entity or thing the hypothesis talks about. When the hypothesis is based on more than one case, it would be a generalization. Terms used in research → Propositions/Hypotheses 14  Example: Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than- average achievement motivation (variable).  Example: Brand managers in Company Z (Generalized cases) have a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable). Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats 15  A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence, size, form, or distribution of a variable. Researchers often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis.  Example: Descriptive Hypothesis In Riyadh, our dates market share stands at 33%. Research Question What is the market share for our dates in Riyadh? Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats 16 Descriptive hypothesis versus research question.  Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive hypothesis has three advantages over the research question. 1. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to crystallize their thinking about the likely relationships. 2. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to think about the implications of a supported or rejected finding. 3. Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical significance. Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats 17  A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two variables with respect to some case. Relational hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal).  A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other.  A causal (explanatory) hypothesis is a statement that describes a relationship between two variables in which one variable leads to a specified effect on the other variable. Terms used in research → Hypothesis Formats 18 Example: Correlational Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product than women who are older than 35. Causal An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved. Terms used in research → Hypothesis → Role of Hypothesis 19  Guide the direction of the study  Identify relevant facts  Suggest most appropriate research design  Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions Terms used in research → Hypothesis → A Strong Hypothesis 20 A Strong Hypothesis has the following characteristics: 1. Adequate 2. Testable 3. Better than rivals Terms used in research → Theory 21  A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomena.  To the degree that our theories are sound and fit the situation, we are successful in our explanations and predictions.  Theories versus hypotheses? • • Theories tend to be complex, abstract, and involve multiple variables. Hypotheses tend to be simple, limited-variable statements involving concrete instances. Terms used in research → Reasoning 22 Terms used in research → Reasoning 23 inductive and deductive reasoning.  A model may originate from empirical observations about market behavior based on researched facts and relationships among variables.  Inductive reasoning allows the modeler to draw conclusions from the facts or evidence in planning the dynamics of the model. Terms used in research → Model 24  A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system or the system as a whole.  Models versus Theories • • a model’s role is to represent or describe A theory’s role is to explain. Terms used in research → Model → Types of Models 25  Models may be descriptive, predictive, and normative: 1. 2. 3. Descriptive models used for complex systems as they allow for the visualization of numerous variables and relationships. Predictive models forecast future events and facilitate business planning. Normative models are used for control, because they indicate necessary actions.  Models allow researchers to specify hypotheses that characterize present or future conditions.  Example: Study the effect of advertising on consumer awareness or intention to purchase. Scientific Method 26 Good research has the following characteristics:  Direct observation  Clearly defined variables  Clearly defined methods  Empirically testable  Elimination of alternatives  Statistical justification  Self-correcting process Scientific Method 27  Good Research is based on sound reasoning because reasoning is essential for producing scientific results.  Empirical testing denotes observations and propositions based on sensory experiences and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics.  Researchers using empirical testing attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions by relying on information gained through observation.  Scientific method is described as a puzzle-solving activity. Scientific Method → Role of Researchers 28 •Encounter problems •State problems •Propose hypotheses •Deduce outcomes •Formulate rival hypotheses •Devise and conduct empirical tests •Draw conclusions Scientific Method → Curiosity 29 Important discoveries in research to a common trait of entrepreneurs: curiosity. Where the world would be without curiosity? Curiosity is “what makes us tick.” Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning 30 Types of Discourse Exposition Deduction Argument Induction Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning 31  Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain. • Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning. • Types of argument: • • Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises given. Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning → Deductive Reasoning 32 Example:  Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult and expensive  This survey involves substantial inner-city household interviewing  The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and expensive Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning → Inductive Reasoning 33 Example:  Why did not sales increase during our promotional event?  Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill customer requests during the promotional period  A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time for promotion to be effective  A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days during the promotion Scientific Method → Sound Reasoning → Deduction and Induction 34 Research Planning→ Key Terms 35 Argument Case Concept Conceptual scheme Construct Deduction Empiricism Exposition Hypothesis  Correlational  Descriptive  Explanatory  Relational • Hypothetical construct • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Induction Model Operational definition Proposition Sound reasoning Theory Variable  Control  Dependent (DV)  Extraneous (EV)  Independent (IV)  Intervening (IVV)  Moderating (MV) References 36 Business Research Methods by Donald R Cooper, 12th Edition. 1.  Chapter 3 - Thinking Like a Researcher, PP 48-73
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