Government Polices to control the fishing market

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The paper is about why the government started to lunch the policies to control the share and how it affects the demand and supply in the fish market. Moreover, try to read about the quota or tragedy of commons, see how it affects the market conditions and that may help you write this paper more “Economics”.

First, try to discuss common goods and the tragedy of the commons first and how it related to the fish market. Not the general introduction of the fish market (not a history or a management class). Explain why government needs to intervene the market.

The second part should talk about the opportunity cost, marginal benefit, and cost of not having this kind of polices such as over-fishing and more risks for the fisherman. Why this issue needs attention and how it is affecting the market.

The last part would be how the new quota” Catch share” system affects the demand and supply; consumers and suppliers. Just give you an idea of the last results here. The market quantity should decrease as the government limits the overall quantity and the price for consumers will increases. But why the government wishes to do so? How it affects the different suppliers? Drawing a diagram would help you understand the changes in market much better.

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ECO2023 GEA Rubric Learning Outcome Component 4 3 2 1 Economic Concepts Appropriate use of economic terminology critical/analytical thinking ‘like an economist’. Theoretical analysis Applies a supply and demand diagram to the policy issue Terminology relevant to the assignment is used appropriately throughout the commentary. Terminology relevant to the assignment is used appropriately in the bulk of the commentary. (1 or fewer mistakes). (2 or fewer mistakes). Terminology relevant to the assignment is used inappropriately throughout the much of commentary. Terminology relevant to the assignment is used inappropriately throughout the commentary. (4 or greater). (3 or fewer mistakes). Clearly presents and fully explains the impact of the proposed change in terms of a supply and demand diagram Presents and explains the impact of the proposed change in terms of a supply and demand diagram, but explanation is unclear Presents and explains the impact of the proposed change in terms of a supply and demand diagram, but presentation contains factual errors Does not present the impact of the proposed change in terms of a supply and demand diagram or the presentation contains serious factual errors Correct explanation of the existing policy. The effects of the policy are clearly stated. Clearly identifies and summarizes main problem, question or issue. Identifies secondary or implicit issues. If applicable, notes relationships between factors in the situation and how they relate to each other. Some effects are stated but are not complete or are partially incorrect. Summary of issue is mostly accurate but some aspects are incorrect or confused; nuances and critical details are absent or glossed over. Some effects are stated but are incorrect. Summary of issue is partly accurate and many aspects are incorrect or confused; nuances and critical details are absent or glossed over. There is no explanation and evaluation of the policy Does not attempt to or fails to identify and summarize the problem accurately Evaluation Description And Explanation of the existing policy Problem Solving Finds solutions to difficult or complex issues. Actively seeks and suggests solutions to problems. Proposed solutions is correctly outlined Actively seeks and suggests solutions to problems. Proposed solution is slightly flawed (when applying economic concepts). And/or Does not offer and new solution however, Improves on previously existing solutions Solution offered is extremely flawed. And/or Does not try to offer new solutions or defend existing/defense is flawed. Does not offer new/improved solutions, but sufficiently argues current regulations are sufficient Writing Well organized, demonstrates logical sequence and sentence structure. Grammar, spelling, and punctuation are correct (3 or fewer mistakes). Well organized but demonstrates illogical sequencing or sentence structure. Few grammar, spelling, and punctuation mistakes (6 or fewer mistakes) Well organized, but demonstrates illogical sequencing and sentence structure. Several grammar, spelling, and punctuation mistakes (9 or fewer mistakes) Weakly/unorganized Many grammar, spelling, and punctuation mistakes (10 or greater) ____________ Subtotal ____________ 2 point penalty for incomplete/incorrect/missing citations and references ____________ 2 point penalty per incomplete/late assignment (#GEA2 only) ____________ 5 point penalty if assignment does not meet length and formatting requirements but reasonable (10 point penalty if unreasonable) ____________ 5 point penalty for late submissions (additional 5 point deduction per 24 hours past due date/time) ____________ TOTAL out of 20 (multiply by 2 for #GEA2 – out of 40) 6/7/2018 How to stop fishermen fishing | The Economist Fishing and rights How to stop fishermen fishing Of all the sea’s many problems, overfishing should be the most fixable. Here’s how Feb 25th 2012 ACIDIFICATION, warming, the destruction of coral reefs: the biggest problems facing the sea are as vast, deep and seemingly intractable as the oceans themselves. So long as the world fails to cut its emissions of greenhouse gases, cause of the global warming behind these troubles, they will grow. By comparison, overfishing, another great curse, should be easier to put right, especially in the coastal waters where most fishing occurs. And yet it goes on, year after year. Fishermen have every reason to do something. Many fisheries are hurtling towards collapse; stocks of large fish have been reduced by up to 90%. When stocks are overfished, they yield a smaller catch. The cost of mismanagement, in lost economic output, is huge: some $50 billion a year, according to the World Bank. One reason why the pillage continues is that knowledge of fish stocks is poor, especially in developing countries. A new statistical attempt at estimating the remaining shoals (see article (http://www.economist.com/node/21548212) ), from the University of California, Santa Barbara, is therefore welcome—even if that is not true of its findings, that stocks are even more ravaged than previously thought. The study found that better-understood fisheries are likelier to be healthy. Another reason for overfishing is new technology (developed, aptly enough, for battlefields), which makes shoals easier to detect. As large boats and refrigeration have spread, fishing fleets have covered greater distances and hoovered up larger catches. Because technology lets fishermen fish with less effort, it disguises just how fast the stocks are depleting. Fishermen generally understand the risks of overfishing. Yet still they flout quotas, where they exist. That is often because they take a short-term view of the asset—they would rather cash in now and invest the money in something else. And it is invariably compounded by a commons-despoiling feeling that if they don't plunder, others will. https://www.economist.com/node/21548240/print 1/2 6/7/2018 How to stop fishermen fishing | The Economist In most fisheries, the fishermen would make more money by husbanding their resource, and it should be possible to incentivise them to do so. The best way is to give them a defined, long-term right to a share of the fish. In regulated industrial fisheries, as in Iceland, New Zealand and America, this has taken the form of a tradable, individual share of a fishing quota. Developing countries, where law enforcement is weak, seem to do better when a group right over an expanse of water is given to a cooperative or village fleet. The principle is the same: fishermen who feel like owners are more likely to behave as responsible stewards. The new statistical study confirms that rights-based fisheries are generally healthier. The rights stuff Yet only a few hundred of the oceans' thousands of fisheries are run this way, mainly because such schemes are hard to get right. Limiting access to a common resource creates losers, and therefore discord. Cultural differences affect success rates; not everyone is as law-abiding as Icelanders. Almost everywhere it takes time to convince fishermen, the last hunter-gatherers, to change their habits. But, barnacled by caveats though it may be, the rights-based approach is the best available. In rich countries, satellite imagery will increasingly help, by making monitoring cheaper and better. In many poor ones, devolution is making it easier to form local organisations. Another promising idea is to incorporate rights-based fisheries with no-catch zones. These safeguard breeding-stocks and are easier to monitor than individual catches. Where stocks are recovering, as a result of these reforms, fishermen are likelier to see scientifically determined quotas as in their self-interest. In the end, that may be the only hope. This article appeared in the Leaders section of the print edition Our site uses cookies to deliver relevant messages during your visit, such as presenting our latest offers and allowing easier access for subscribers. To receive the best experience, please allow cookies. View our cookie policy or manage your cookies. https://www.economist.com/node/21548240/print Allow 2/2 6/7/2018 Study: Program To Protect Fish Is Saving Fishermen's Lives, Too : The Salt : NPR Pick Your NPR Station There are at least two stations nearby the salt L CU QA?QR JGTC P?BGM QFMU Q DMMB DMP RF MSEF R Study: Program To Protect Fish Is Saving Fishermen's Lives, Too February 16, 2016 · 7:00 AM ET CLARE LESCHIN-HOAR https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/16/466612148/study-program-to-protect-fish-is-saving-fishermens-lives-too 1/8 6/7/2018 Study: Program To Protect Fish Is Saving Fishermen's Lives, Too : The Salt : NPR The captain and crew of the Moriah Lee pose with sablefish caught off the coast of Half Moon Bay, Calif. A new study found that fishermen in the West Coast sablefishery were much less likely to engage in risky behavior — like sailing out in stormy weather — after catch share quotas were implemented. Courtesy of Ethan Righter A program used in many U.S. fisheries to protect the marine environment and maintain healthy fish populations may have an immensely important added benefit: preserving the lives of American fishermen. That's according to a new study published Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Researchers found that catch share programs (where fishermen are allotted a set quota of the catch) reduce some of the notoriously risky behavior fishermen are known for, such as fishing in stormy weather, delaying vessel maintenance, or heading out to sea in a boat laden with too much heavy fishing gear. Traditional fishery-management programs open and close fishing seasons on specific days. By contrast, catch shares work on a quota system, under which fishermen have a longer window to harvest their predetermined share. That gives fishermen the luxury (and perhaps the life-saving option) of time. The findings don't surprise Scott Campbell Sr., who spent most of his 35-year career fishing the Bering Sea for king crab the way it used to be done: derby-style. Crab season would open, and regardless of weather, Campbell and his crew would be on the water, hoping to nab enough crab during the season's brief window to keep his business afloat. Article continues after sponsorship https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/16/466612148/study-program-to-protect-fish-is-saving-fishermens-lives-too 2/8 6/7/2018 Study: Program To Protect Fish Is Saving Fishermen's Lives, Too : The Salt : NPR "If you can picture a four-day season for crab — and that's the only four days you're going to get — and a 50-knot storm blows in for 24 to 48 hours of that four days, well, a lot of boats didn't stop fishing, because that was their only revenue stream for the whole year," says Campbell. "It forced us to take unnecessary risks for financial survival." (His son, Scott Campbell Jr., is a former star of Discovery Channel's Deadliest Catch, about the hazards of the fishing industry.) That kind of risk-taking has historically made fishing one of the nation's most dangerous professions, with a fatality rate more than 30 times the U.S. average, according to the new report. Today there are approximately two dozen state and federal catch share programs in the U.S. Most launched in the last decade. However, derby-style fishing still exists in many U.S. regions, including the Pacific and Atlantic swordfish fisheries, the Northeast's monkfish and herring fisheries, and the West Coast dungeness crab fishery. Plenty of studies have looked at the environmental benefits of catch share programs — such as the reduction of bycatch, the ability to maximize the value of the catch, and direct impacts on the way fisheries are managed. But what makes this paper innovative is that it's looking at actual risk-taking data, says the study's author, Lisa Pfeiffer, an economist at the Northwest Fisheries Science Center. Pfeiffer examined the impact a catch share management program had on fishing safety by looking at the particularly data-rich West Coast sablefish fishery. In 1994, the fishery had a nine-day season and was managed with traditional commercial fishing licenses. In 2001, it transitioned to a catch share management system, with a set quota divided among fishermen and a season that now lasted seven months. Pfeiffer crunched data pulled from fishing records with information from the National Weather Service. She tracked high wind days — where fishermen would face rough waves and stormy conditions. And she found that, under the catch share https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/16/466612148/study-program-to-protect-fish-is-saving-fishermens-lives-too 3/8 6/7/2018 Study: Program To Protect Fish Is Saving Fishermen's Lives, Too : The Salt : NPR program, fishermen were far more likely to keep their boats docked than risk their lives at sea — fishing trips on high wind days dropped by 79 percent. Tim Fitzgerald, director of impact at the Environmental Defense Fund (which supports and promotes catch share programs), says that dramatic jump in safe fishing behavior makes sense. "Usually, catch share programs are implemented for environmental or economic reasons. Safety is probably not the goal at the outset, but it's one of those things that gets realized almost immediately, whether you're fishing in tropical waters like the Gulf of Mexico or in the cold waters of Alaska," says Fitzgerald. But can Pfeiffer's findings be applied broadly to the other 23 U.S. catch share programs? If a catch share program replaces derby-style fishing seasons, then yes, she says. But she warns that catch share programs may not reduce risk in fisheries where derby-style fishing didn't previously exist. Not everyone is convinced that catch share programs help all fishermen equally. Many worry that these programs push small fishermen out of the market. That includes Niaz Dorry, coordinating director for the Northwest Atlantic Marine Alliance, a fishermenled nonprofit that focuses on marine biodiversity. She says fisheries that operate under catch share quotas "probably have [fewer] incidents because there are fewer boats involved and fewer fishermen. When fleet consolidation from catch shares happens, and you go from 200 smaller boats to five large boats, you're going to have fewer deaths because you have fewer fishermen at sea," Dorry says. Indeed, the study did note a 30 percent reduction of the sablefish fishery's fleet size. But Pfeiffer, the study's author, suggests that more boats in the water would have buoyed the safety findings. "If there's a change in the size of the vessels fishing, that could be a contributing factor," she says, because larger ships may withstand stormy weather better. "But in this case, the boats fishing for sablefish aren't the huge processing vessels you may imagine. Here they have a two- or three-member crew on board," says Pfeiffer. https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/16/466612148/study-program-to-protect-fish-is-saving-fishermens-lives-too 4/8 6/7/2018 Study: Program To Protect Fish Is Saving Fishermen's Lives, Too : The Salt : NPR But Dorry says that there are other ways to protect the lives of fishermen without pushing small fishermen out of the market. She points to community supported fishery programs, which create a ready-made market for what fishermen are able to catch, regardless of weather. "Finding markets that understand fishermen better gives them more control over when they should go fishing and other means of staying safe at sea," she says. Clare Leschin-Hoar is a journalist based in San Diego who covers food policy and sustainability issues. fishing industry fishing Stay On Top Of The News Keep up to date on the day's top headlines from NPR, delivered to your inbox once daily. What's your email? QS@QAPG@C By subscribing, you agree to NPR's terms of use and privacy policy. More Stories From NPR https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/16/466612148/study-program-to-protect-fish-is-saving-fishermens-lives-too 5/8 A rising tide - Fishing and conservation 1 of 4 https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2008/09/18/a-rising-tide Sign up now 8/24/2018, 11:20 AM A rising tide - Fishing and conservation 2 of 4 https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2008/09/18/a-rising-tide 8/24/2018, 11:20 AM A rising tide - Fishing and conservation 3 of 4 https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2008/09/18/a-rising-tide 8/24/2018, 11:20 AM A rising tide - Fishing and conservation 4 of 4 https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2008/09/18/a-rising-tide 8/24/2018, 11:20 AM Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol “Overarching sustainability objectives overcome incompatible directions in the Common Fisheries Policy” T ⁎ Leyre Goti-Araluceaa,b, , Mike Fitzpatrickc, Ralf Döringa, David Reidd, John Mumforde, Anna Rindorff a Thünen Institute of Sea Fisheries, Palmaille 9, 22767 Hamburg, Germany Department of Applied Economics I, University of the Basque Country, Faculty of Economics and Business, Lehendakari Agirre 83, 48015 Bilbao, Spain c Irish Observer Network Ltd, 3 Burton Place, Gardiners Hill, Cork, Ireland d Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co.Galway, Ireland e Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Ascot, Berkshire SL57PY, UK f Technical University of Denmark, DTU Aqua, Jægersborg allé 1, 2920 Charlottenlund, Denmark b A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Common Fisheries Policy High level objective Sustainability goal Participatory method EU fisheries management Impact assessment The lack of clarity in the objectives of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) must be addressed to create a more efficient balance across diverse ecological, economic and social dimensions. Particularly economic and social objectives present at an overarching level must be made explicit and addressed in lower level management measures, in order to link them to biological objectives and allow policy to build a balance across types of objectives. Selecting clear objectives is essential, particularly for policy impact assessment. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how more specific high level objectives to managing fisheries can be derived from stakeholders. The paper first reviews the definition of objectives, from a historical and conceptual perspective. Secondly, it discusses the issues of manageability and acceptability, and finally describes an articulation of the high level objectives derived from extensive stakeholder consultations at European and regional level. The results from workshops at the European level to identify objectives were further examined at regional level for the Baltic and North Seas in additional individual consultations. The German case addresses two seas (Baltic and North Seas), has a complex governance structure (due to federalism) and significant roles for the three types of actors (industry, government and environmental NGOs). The analysis suggests that establishing higher level sustainability objectives within the CFP can help diverse interest groups to develop a consensus on management actions to meet complex social goals. 1. Introduction Article 2 of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) [1] contains a series of overarching objectives. These tend to focus on core fisheries management issues, such as Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and the Landing Obligation (LO), but also include very high level objectives for sustainability in an ecological, economic and social context – the three pillars of sustainability. Across the different framework regulations for fisheries issued in Europe since 1983 the description of objectives has changed from the conservation of fishing grounds to the restructuring of the sector or the conservation of the resource, and in the same way the scope of the policy has been modified to include fisheries, aquaculture and EU registered vessels fishing abroad. Little prioritization between objectives can be discerned in the latest policy, which includes all three aspects of sustainability. It ranges from high level, and quite vague, objectives covering all three aspects, to specific objectives, such as for coastal activities (Article 2.5i). Prioritization has been demanded at the higher level, for example setting conservation over other goals and also creating a distinction between principles and technical implementation to avoid micro-management and a short term focus [2]. Clear objectives are critically important for the evaluation of the impact and success of any proposed management measure [3,4]. This includes the outcomes in terms of changes in the fishery and incentives for that, changes in the ecosystem (for example, progress towards Good Environmental Status (GES) under the MSFD [5]), and changes in the social and economic indicators chosen to represent those two pillars. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how clear high level ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: leyre.goti@thuenen.de (L. Goti-Aralucea), mike@irishobservernet.com (M. Fitzpatrick), ralf.doering@thuenen.de (R. Döring), David.Reid@Marine.ie (D. Reid), j.mumford@imperial.ac.uk (J. Mumford), ar@aqua.dtu.dk (A. Rindorf). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.02.006 Received 5 October 2017; Received in revised form 5 February 2018; Accepted 6 February 2018 Available online 16 February 2018 0308-597X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. Regarding social and economic aspects, Article 1.2 refers to human health and “legitimate uses of the sea”. Another aim of the MSFD is to coherently integrate environmental aspects into other policies affecting the marine environment,1 most pertinently, the CFP, whose first objective is specified in the current regulation Article 2.1 [1] as “The CFP shall ensure that fishing and aquaculture activities are environmentally sustainable in the long-term and are managed in a way that is consistent with the objectives of achieving economic, social and employment benefits, and of contributing to the availability of food supplies”. Therefore, the objective includes sustainability and the three pillars concept (environmental, economic and social) in an explicit way. The history of the CFP provides an alternative way to understand how objectives have evolved. A framework regulation on the European fisheries sector dates back to 1983, with successive reforms in 1992 and 2002. In the first framework regulation for fisheries [12] the first element of the statement of objectives was “the protection of fishing grounds”, mirroring the discussion at the time over the sovereignty of territorial waters. In the second framework regulation in 1992 [13], the scope was increased to include aquaculture, processing and marketing, as well as to EU vessels operating beyond EU waters. The preamble of the regulation mentions the existence of new fishing opportunities and a need to restructure the sector, increasing the complexity as new issues shift the focus beyond the original objectives. The third framework regulation from 2002 [14] introduced the integrative concept of ecosystem management. An analysis of the implementation of ecosystem based management in the CFP can be found in [15]. The most recent reform process (completed in 2013) has also gone through several stages of development, with a corresponding evolution of objectives. The Green Paper on the reform of the CFP [2] mentions the lack of prioritization of objectives in the previous regulations, considering that the three types of objectives are compatible in the long term, but not in the short term. At the same time, and in more practical terms, the document highlights the fact that in the CFP both principles and instruments to achieve them are decided at the same level (the Council of Ministers), promoting inappropriate high level micro-management as issues that could be managed at a lower level need to go through the Council of Ministers and in many cases also the European Parliament.2 The communication from the European Commission on the reform of the CFP from 2011 [16] includes a broad section on objectives, many of which can be categorized as social. In addition to a first objective on improved status of the stocks, the other proposed objectives include “a future for fisheries and aquaculture industry and jobs”, “thriving coastal communities”, “satisfying the real needs of informed consumers” and “better governance through regionalization”. A summary of the evolution of the objectives in the different versions of the CFP is given below (see Table 1). The objectives of the CFP and MSFD cover most Member States and regional differences, for example between the Baltic and Mediterranean areas, are critically important for the discussion of objectives. The context here includes the different economic, social and cultural importance of fishing for areas that are considered “most fishery dependent regions”. There are also regional objectives outside of EU regulations that affect fisheries, such as the environmental objectives in regional organizations (such as the Helsinki Commission or the Barcelona Convention) or economic and social objectives (such as in the Bergen Statement of the OSPAR Commission). At a more local level there will objectives [6] can be derived with stakeholders to effectively and efficiently manage fisheries across a range of sustainability criteria. The paper addresses this first by reviewing the definition of sustainability objectives, from a historical and conceptual perspective. Secondly, we discuss the issues of manageability and uncertainty and finally describe an articulation of the high level objectives derived from extensive stakeholder consultations at European, regional and local levels from two research projects, as described in Marchal et al. [7] and Rindorf et al. [8]. 2. The problem of defining objectives 2.1. Sustainability objectives in context The sustainability objectives of the Common Fisheries Policy cannot be considered in isolation, as they exist under a wider suite of global and European objectives. The most widely used definition of a sustainability objective promoted by the United Nations at a global level was developed by the Brundtland Commission in 1987 [9], stating that “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This statement is completed by an emphasis on its two main elements. The “needs”, with priority given to the needs of the poor, representing a social objective, and the “limitations” imposed by the need to maintain a healthy environment, representing an ecosystem objective. With respect to fisheries, the United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea in its Article 61 states that conservation measures should be designed to “maintain or restore populations of harvested species at levels which can produce the maximum sustainable yield, as qualified by relevant environmental and economic factors, including the economic needs of coastal fishing communities and the special requirements of developing States”. This qualifies a primarily technical indicator (maximum sustainable yield, MSY) to include social, economic and ecological factors, in a very similar fashion to Article 2.1 of the CFP. This demonstrates how the objectives of conservation and social and economic development are tightly connected in international policies. Finally, Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) were also defined by the UN [10], and in particular SDG 14 - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. In terms of fisheries SDG 14 states: “By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, IUU and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics”, again focusing on MSY, but with a wider scope. SDG 14 further states: “By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing” which can be seen as a specific governance measure. SDG 14 also emphasizes social and economic sustainability, especially for developing countries, but in very general terms. The UN Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14 in New York, 2017, set out a “Draft call for action” but without stating any specific objectives beyond those from 2015. At the European level, the fundamental aim of the European Union is asserted in the Treaty of Lisbon where, in Article 2, it is formulated as “to promote peace, its values and the well-being of its peoples”. The same Article states sustainability as an aim of the internal market, detailing aspects of economic growth, employment and social progress and, finally, protection and even improvement of the environment. Within the European legislative framework fisheries are included under the same section as agriculture, both using similar economic measures such as subsidies and price support mechanisms, despite having objectives that differ substantially [4]. Again, all three pillars of sustainability are represented, but without detail. Further at the European level, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive MSFD [5,11] refers to “enabling the sustainable use of marine goods and services by present and future generations” (Article 1.3). 1 This is a slightly different approach than fulfilling the three pillars of sustainability equally in every sector or activity. It hopefully gives clearer priorities as the MSFD defines ecosystems with good environmental status as a necessary basis for every activity. 2 In the new CFP a co-decision process was introduced for certain decisions while in some other cases regionalization is a priority. For some issues, like discard plans, Member States in a certain region can agree on measures, which after approval by the EC clarifying whether the proposals fulfill the requirements, go into force without a decision in Council or Parliament (delegated acts). 50 Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. Table 1 Sustainability objectives in the CFP across time. Definition of ecological, economic and social sustainability objectives Additional objectives CFP version reference “conservation of the biological resources […]in appropriate economic and social conditions” “protect […] living marine aquatic resources […] in appropriate economic and social conditions for the sector” “ensure exploitation of living aquatic resources that provides sustainable economic, environmental and social conditions” “environmentally sustainable in the long-term and […] consistent with the objectives of achieving economic, social and employment benefits” “the protection of fishing grounds” (EEC) No 170/83 of 25 January 1983, Art.1 (EEC) No 3760/92 of 20 December 1992, Art.2 (EC) No 2371/2002 of 20 December 2002, Art.2 (EU) No 1380/2013 of 11 December 2013, Art. 2 “implications for the marine ecosystem” “the needs of both producers and consumers” “providing a fair standard of living for those who depend on fishing activities and taking into account the interests of consumers.” “ and of contributing to the availability of food supplies” point [23]). The pillar of economic sustainability is often not a high priority in conventional fisheries management. But economic factors can still act as a clear limit or constraint that needs to be given some consideration even in what appears, at first glance, to be a simple conservation issue (e.g. [24]). Fisheries are an economic activity and there may be market constraints that make fishing economically difficult or impossible under some conservation measures. The price and availability of fish, together with the dependence on the processing industry as the main market, are issues that may bring economic sustainability to the forefront. This was the case for the closure of the anchovy fishery in the Bay of Biscay in 2005. Most of the catch was used in the processing industry and the closure of the fishery created the risk that the processing industry would look for another source of supply [25]. Fishers may thus prefer to reduce their catches to a minimum TAC for a faster re-opening of the fishery so that they can more effectively serve the needs of the processing industry [25]. They may also introduce individual daily limits to influence prices [26]. In this way the market (the processing industry in this case) may set the speed of the stock recovery. Therefore, a temporal and a sectoral scale are used to emphasize the economic pillar. Finally, social objectives could also alter the equilibrium of the three pillars model. A possible social objective might be ensuring the survival of local fish processing firms. A good, if negative, example of this was the gradual disappearance of the filleting industry on the German Baltic Sea coast since the 1990s [27]. Only one firm now remains, and the catches of herring are generally trucked to other countries due to the lack of processing capacity. Fishing cooperatives in such areas can employ in fishing and processing in a ratio of 4:3. This added social value to the local community is lost when most of the catch is exported [27]. Demographic factors may be a clear limiting factor in certain fisheries, especially where fishing is a part-time occupation. In these cases, a closure in certain fisheries breaks the income stability of a community, causing emigration of the young and loss of training of local fishermen [28]. The breakdown of social sustainability can thus have irreversible consequences, which may make it worthwhile to reconsider alternative management targets when dealing with the biological pillar. In general, however, social objectives are not strongly emphasized in fisheries management [29] and yet, understanding of social and economic dimensions can impact on the success or failure of a simple conservation policy [30]. be regional and sub-regional differences in the importance of small scale coastal fisheries, in attitudes of those fishing, and in Member State choices of GES indicators and targets. More specifically, some multiannual management plans include similar, but not identical, objectives to the high level aims in the CFP. For example, the management plan for Baltic cod mentions social and economic incentives only implicitly by stating that sustainability will be attained by “gradually reducing and maintaining fishing mortality rates” [17], thus allowing industry to adapt and plan in the longer term. 2.2. Priorities between the three pillars of sustainability The three pillars of sustainability were introduced in the 2002 Johannesburg Declaration [18] “the interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars of sustainable development - economic development, social development and environmental protection - at the local, national, regional and global levels”. The interdependence of those pillars is clear, but with regard to fisheries objectives, it is less clear that these have equal priority or importance. The assumption of three equal pillars is that no priority exists between them and the text avoids explicit statements about that balance [19]. However, some approaches to objective prioritization have been carried out [6,20,21]. In the case of fisheries objectives, there can be different levels of importance attached to each of the pillars, either due to specific social values or due to practical constraints. We detail examples of this below. The pillar of ecological sustainability in some cases constitute a clear priority in fisheries management. In the Green Paper on the CFP Reform [2], it states “Ecological sustainability is therefore a basic premise for the economic and social future of European fisheries”, which implies a long time horizon, long enough for ecological feedback processes. Conservation of stocks, while a clear ecological objective, is also important for a sustainable industry, and hence has both economic and indeed social connotations, suggesting a sequential priority between pillars. The stock conservation advice is provided by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), dating from 1902. This advice is further refined by the EC Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF), which may add an economic context. STECF was not founded until 2002, again suggesting the evolving importance of the economic pillar catching up with the ecological pillar. Further, there are particular situations where there is a clear asymmetry towards conservation objectives, such as where stocks are managed under an explicit recovery plan. An example of a recovery plan is that for the stock of Irish Sea cod [22], among many other European stocks. In these cases, the ecological pillar is given priority, but again, with expected benefits under the other two pillars. The Green Paper formulates it as “the economic and social viability of fisheries can only result from restoring the productivity of fish stocks”. Sometimes this asymmetry is incorporated into harvest control rules, as for example in the Baltic Sea long term management plan for cod, where higher restrictions in fishing mortality are foreseen in cases of particular danger for the stock (when stock spawning biomass is below the stock specific reference 3. Managing fisheries to meet the overarching principles of the CFP 3.1. The problem: Manageable and acceptable objectives A common description for a good objective in management is expressed by the acronym SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound [31,32]. However, in the case of fisheries this may not be so simple to achieve. Fisheries management is largely based on objectives for stock biomass (B) achieved by controlling fishing mortality (F). So, while an objective can be specific, for example, to 51 Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. recordings from onboard cameras. Finally, while the enforcement of the management system is already very expensive, it is still considered insufficient [2,4,34]. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive is an example of a related policy that is more recent than the original CFP and is more management-oriented. It incorporates many of the elements described above. The directive uses the DPSIR (Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response) framework and sets a series of descriptors with associated indicators, where particular values can be considered as objectives [5]. In this way the objectives are intrinsically linked to the management measures, as they have been designed based on those criteria. The CFP, on the other hand, tends to describe objectives that lack manageability. For example, the CFP suggests that “Measures are needed to reduce the current high levels of unwanted catches and to gradually eliminate discards”. But despite the specificity of the discard policy in some respects, other components are not clearly prescribed and remain difficult to manage. For example, how to proceed with choke species (those whose quota is exhausted already when there is still quota for other species that are caught together), what to do with the landed fish that are not allowed to be used for human consumption (from storage in port to allowed options for use of the fish), or how to determine the survival rate of discarded fish in order to benefit from an exception to the obligation to land. Such an objective is likely to be very difficult to manage, or needs further careful specification in order to be manageable [35,36]. In addition to being manageable, the objectives of the CFP need to be acceptable to fishers simply because the cost in terms of compliance of not being so is too high. If an objective, and the measures adopted to achieve it, lack acceptability, legitimacy and credibility, it is highly unlikely there will be full compliance. Lack of compliance will lead to conflict between fishers and managers and indeed between different groups of fishers who view the measures as more or less acceptable [37–39]. On one side, there is the cost of conflict, with cases such as the strikes in the brown shrimp fishery in Germany due to low product prices in 2011 or the blocking of the port of La Rochelle in France in 2008 due to high fuel costs. On the other, there are the particularly high costs of enforcement, due to the complexity of surveillance of many vessels, across wide areas and throughout the year. Participation (in the objective setting and measures process) has been reported to improve compliance [40,41]. Nevertheless, there are critics of the value of participation in improving social outcomes of fisheries management, based on its potential to allow powerful vested interest to further entrench inequality in management regimes [42]. Overall, manageability and acceptability are two clear requisites for objectives when dealing specifically with fisheries management. Manageability is necessary, given the perspective of fishing as an economic activity dealing with a highly variable resource and with an already over-complex fisheries management system. Acceptability is also a requirement, as this should lead to better compliance and a reduced control and enforcement burden. Manageability should thus be taken into account when designing management actions to meet objectives and acceptability, to have those management actions successfully implemented. recover a stock to a given biomass, a measure to achieve the objective may not be. This would be most obvious in mixed fisheries where a measure specific to one species, say reduce F, could also impact on many other species via food web interactions, but also fishing opportunities where fish are caught together. Equally, while we can estimate fish stocks, monitoring them is more difficult, and often lags by one or more years behind the current situation in the ocean. Whether an objective is achievable depends on many factors in addition to fisheries management, most obviously those factors that affect recruitment. Even the best management is ineffective in the face of a persistent stock recruitment failure, such as that of North Sea herring in the early 2000s [33]. F and biomass (B) objectives can probably always be seen as relevant, as B is the ecologically relevant objective and F is relevant for economic and social dimensions. F may also affect other species through ecological interaction with the target species. Finally, it is very difficult to have time bound objectives in a complex ecosystem where many factors interact to drive fish abundance over different time scales. As an example, the target of the Johannesburg Summit, which set 2015 as a time limit for reaching MSY, was already postponed by the Green Paper of the CFP to 2020 to allow more time to develop management. While recognizing the value of SMART objectives, we would suggest evaluating the objectives for the Common Fisheries Policy in terms of two key characteristics: manageability and acceptability. Policy objectives clearly need to be manageable. However, there will be complex environmental, ecosystem, technical, geographical and cultural factors that make manageability in fisheries a complex issue. An additional difficulty is the existence of elements outside human control, illustrated by the use of biomass as an objective. Biomass is something that cannot be tightly controlled by management due to the diverse array of uncontrolled natural environmental and ecosystem factors that interact, so management needs to be adaptable and resilient. Objectives of fisheries management regulations have consequently moved from highly dynamic and hard to measure biomass objectives (e.g. the Bay of Biscay plaice long term management plan) to fishing mortality targets (e.g. the Baltic Sea cod long term management plan), a variable that can be directly influenced by management. This is not the only source of complexity of fisheries that makes manageability a key issue. Fisheries regulations need to devise mechanisms to manage a wide array of fishing techniques, from artisanal gillnets to the latest satellite technology used by high sea trawlers. Geography is an issue when we consider the different areas where European fisheries occur, and the implications of spatial issues and climate, for example for seasonal or area closures. Finally, setting up the needed governance mechanisms is a challenge when we consider the cultural diversity of the EU, which also faces different time horizons from international framework policies, the activity of a commercial sector or the life of a fishing community. A set of objectives needs to consider these factors, at least at a later stage of development, if it is to be manageable. Management of fisheries comprises four basic stages; policy design, implementation, monitoring and enforcement. All of these phases present challenges that should be foreseen when drafting the objective of the policy. First, in the design phase, information is needed, in at least the three basic aspects of biological, economic and social data. None of these data will be simple to obtain. As an example, economic data for fishing firms or individual fishers is not readily available, as there are confidentiality issues in many fleets, an informal economy in subsistence sectors with low data availability and in general a fear of control that often creates an incentive to misreport. Second, in the implementation phase there are elements that create costs both to the management and to the fishers, and this can create negative incentives towards these objectives. Examples include changes in mesh size, which for the fishers means buying new nets, or the setup of a license system, which entails administrative costs for the management authority involved. Thirdly, monitoring progress towards the objectives is costly, from creating and using Vessel Monitoring Systems VMS (both for the vessel owners and for the management authority) to analyzing the vast 3.2. Management under lack of clear objectives The above discussion illustrates the need for careful consideration in the setting of objectives, and in the measures taken to achieve them. One further critical factor that should be considered is the lack of clarity in the objectives themselves, and hence in the information needed to evaluate them. The problem of the definition of objectives in an uncertain world has been identified in the literature [2,43] and defining management objectives is one of the key challenges. To improve the clarity on what constitutes an objective we approach the definition by considering the social objective that we want to achieve (such as in the social utility function) as conceptually separated from restrictions (the “resource 52 Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. Another source of confusion when setting the objectives for fisheries management, would be limited knowledge about the real needs of consumers and citizens. On a lower level in the hierarchy of objectives, the available options for management would also be a source of confusion. Meeting the needs of consumers is limited in fisheries policy to one part of the supply chain of fish as a product. For example, the idea that discards need to be minimized or eliminated to achieve stock conservation ignores the fact that more is lost in the distribution and processing of the fish than is discarded; approximately 9% of catch is discarded compared to approximately 13% wasted in distribution and processing [50]. To be consistent with an aim to protect the stock, a proportionate emphasis should be given to avoiding the removal of wasted fish from the sea. Another issue arises with consumption, where increasing consumption of fish is not differentiated from social well-being, considering both real needs for overall food consumption (see for example, [51]) and for a balance in the diet (as has been done with meat, see [52]). Therefore, setting the objective at the level of satisfying human needs fosters a more global view that can reduce fish demand in a greater proportion, by considering the whole food supply and consumption cycle. When considering this, avoiding discards is no longer a high level objective but just a part of a larger objective. In addition to this, limitations of knowledge often constrain management actions where the different levels of targets are more aligned. An example of this would be management measures that foster synergies between objectives, for example practices that improve both production and good environmental effects. Examples for fisheries would include some forms of results based management [53]. In a field where so many external uncertainties exist, aligning economic and conservation outcomes is a way to work towards higher level objectives. Hence, a proposal could be to assign fishing rights to fleets that are more sustainable as suggested by environmental NGOs and small scale fisheries associations [54] and to relate fishing rights concessions to compliance [55]. The gradual and adaptive learning process that occurs during participatory management and research allows time to tackle questions as the in depth definition of objectives, the time horizons required for their achievement and at the same time opens a wider array of management options. constraint”). Objective definitions of the social utility function that fall into this conceptual characterization are sustainable development as in the Brundtland Report (meet the needs of the people) and the overarching objective in the Lisbon Treaty (promote peace and well-being). The study of well-being (for instance [44]) has recently been developed in economics and other social sciences, where it is well known that money has a decreasing influence on feelings of “well-being” above a certain level of income. So the capacity of individuals to work to achieve their goals by their own effort is key to well-being. This provides a guide to why the Brundtland wording of “without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” is quite appropriate. This type of objective was also found in the documents of the CFP reform [16] as “take into account the interests of both consumers and producers” or “projecting the principles of the CFP internationally”. As to the restrictions, those suggested in Section 3.1 above, present circumstances under which social, economic and biological factors can be limiting. Higher level restrictions are not normally considered in fisheries, but an example of such conceptual restrictions can be found in the idea of planet boundaries [45], which are a minimum threshold to keep the biophysical characteristics of the planet, such as marine biodiversity or the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. There is also a confusion between intermediate and final objectives making it unclear what needs to be achieved within particular time frames. In the general hierarchy of objectives of society there is welfare as a very high goal, and the objective of fisheries policy is not to fish, to keep the ecosystem healthy or to provide employment, these become all subordinate objectives or tools to achieve the higher objective of welfare. The difference can be seen, for example, inside the hierarchy of objectives of fisheries policy, when a technical innovation is used to catch more fish in an overfished stock or to improve the working conditions of fishers using a sustainable gear. This distinction is also important because in the last CFP reform discussion there was a tendency to define objectives as the avoidance of a problem, for example to decrease impact on the ecosystem or to reduce overcapacity. These are not objectives per se, but results, either of fishing or of the management process itself, which we then seek to restore by setting these objectives. Effort and resources may also be wasted due to an inappropriate conceptualization of an objective. Overall, the building of a structure composed of clear objectives, from higher goals to management strategy and control measures and further to their incorporation to regulations is key to success [33]. Therefore, once objectives are clear, we need to look at other knowledge limitations, mainly those related to lack of knowledge about the future and the ecosystem and future socioeconomic mechanisms, as for example economic crises (e.g.[46]). From there, it should be possible to try to derive the complementarities between objectives that could be useful for assessing hypotheses, as will be shown in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 below. For the lack of clarity in the time horizon of objectives, there are two main issues, one internal and one external. For internal issues the need to consider time comes from the manageability of objectives: the inherent complexity of resource management systems that, in order to avoid harmful generalizations in management design need a longer period of time for an analysis and learning process [47]. Another cause of this internal need to consider time comes from management implementation. Co-management, defined from a scientific point of view, is a process that requires knowledge acquisition and, as such, is progressive [42] and requires a longer time horizon than other ways of meeting objectives. For external issues the need to consider time comes from the longer time horizons of stock and ecosystem functions themselves, and in a similar way to addressing the likely impacts of climate change, it requires a sequential planning of objectives. As new aspects like ecosystem interactions and new modelling capabilities [48] are being incorporated into management, the target for management may need to be more adaptive. Following Lind [49] the question might be “what should we be doing over the next ten years to position ourselves to act on new information and new technological developments?”. 4. Lessons from participatory research It is the role of scientists to evaluate how well management measures meet objectives with the best scientific and social knowledge available. For this there is a need to design an effective analytical framework, which includes not only appropriate models but also consideration of wider hypotheses about the relevant scenarios, states of the world and management options. 4.1. Participatory definition of management objectives in research projects Investigating the socioeconomic effects of the current Common Fisheries Policy requires targets against which the effects of the policy can be assessed, including the identification of high level policy objectives. The focus in the SOCIOEC project was on objectives that can be dealt with through the use of management measures and which are relevant to stakeholders. To derive the high level objectives the project team used the results of a combined workshop with the MYFISH EU research project held at Vigo, Spain, in 2012 and several interviews (see Section 4.2 below) to test the applicability of the objectives in a regional context. The workshop gathered representatives from different stakeholder groups, geographic regions and potential objective sets [56] and proceeded to identify objectives and prioritise them. These inputs from stakeholders were analysed to produce a narrower set of objectives that could be used in the SOCIOEC project to study the impact of fisheries management measures under the CFP [56]. The results from this process of 53 Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. Table 2 High level objectives for fisheries management developed from the combined SOCIOEC-MYFISH workshop. Sustainability pillar Population level Short/ long term High level objective Ecological Ecological Ecological Ecological Economic Economic Economic Social Social Social Society Society Society Society Society Society Firm/Individual Society Society Individual Long term Long term Long term Long term Long term Short term Short term Long term Long term Long term Maximize yield in tonnes of commercial species Gradually eliminate discards on a case-by-case basis Minimizing bycatch of vulnerable and protected species Minimizing negative impact on seabed habitats Maximization/optimization of present value Maximization/optimization of gross value added (or rent) Maximization of profits (within ecological and social constraints) Ensure viable coastal communities Improve policy and decision making through improved inclusive governance structures Ensure fair living standard, improved working and security conditions on board of fishing vessels measures to protect seabirds and harbour porpoises across the DanishGerman border. In the German Baltic coast gillnets are seen as harmful for harbour porpoises and seabirds and therefore suffer restrictions, whereas in the close by Danish coast gillnets are seen as sustainable and harmless and they are not restricted due to bycatch of those species. This is also influenced by the different objectives of environmental NGOs in both countries [60]. An economically efficient way to achieve this objective would be to promote sustainable seasonal consumption of regional fish to foster ecological values, such as avoiding certain fish consumption in some periods to allow for undisturbed seasonal presence of seabirds. Finally, the fishing activities that have low seabed impact could be encouraged through targeted management measures based on detailed knowledge of fishing operations, including high definition spatial and temporal data on gear operation, as well as through support for operational (like real-time feedback mechanisms) and technical innovation (which also supports the auxiliary industries through the development of new types of more sustainable gear). There are also management measures that meet economic objectives as well as ecological and social sustainability objectives. To increase the net present value of fisheries aspects such as food quality, leisure value (fisheries attractive to tourism [61]), and environmental values (programmes such as “fish for litter” or scientific cooperation) should be promoted. This can be done by identifying the fleet segments that have significant contributions to these values and taking them into account when proposing closures or quota or effort restrictions. Profits can be enhanced through the promotion of higher value through certification, regional product status, higher quality fish through optimized operations and technological improvements. Ecological sustainability is therefore indirectly improved by measures that avoid higher catches, with an objective that lies at a higher level than, for example, overcapacity reduction. In a shorter term perspective, maximization of gross value added (GVA) could be pursued through cost reduction, as well as through policies that optimize employment according to fair living standards and improved working and security conditions on board. This has special importance when referring to international fisheries (see Section 4.2 below). At the firm level, improvement of profits subject to ecological and social constraints is encouraged through the reduction of inefficiency costs (as fuel costs of gear operation, vessel steaming to and from fishing areas and final product transportation). A cost benefit approach that reduces negative externalities by minimizing fuel use could reduce societal expenditure in the current implicit subsidy (as tax exemption [4]) for fuel. To maximize long term net present value in a cost benefit approach the reduction of fuel use would not only reduce subsidies, but also minimize the environmental cost in CO2 from the catch sector and from the transport sector from imported fish. Some management measures may meet both the high level social sustainability objectives and ecological sustainability goals, despite often being blamed for not meeting one of them. For example, measures to soften TAC reductions to keep local employment have been blamed for jeopardizing stock recovery [2]. To contribute to the viability of identification of objectives are shown below (Table 2). As with any objective in fisheries, the chosen examples (see Table 2 below) present challenges when defining associated indicators. To achieve MSY it is judged more convenient to set fishing mortality as a management target instead of stock biomass, as, in contrast to fishing mortality, the stock level is driven by many factors outside the control of management. Target species discard as well as bycatch still present challenges with respect to reliable data collection, while the impact on bottom habitat requires a combined indicator that maps fishing effort (including gear and size) to habitat types through empirical and modelled relationships. The economic objectives also present challenges, such as showing the difference between societal and company interests, or including externalized costs in the net present value to be optimized for the whole society. Finally, the social objectives require the collection of composite indicators (employment and opportunities, hours at work and number of accidents, etc.) and an evaluation of not only the presence or absence of co-management processes, but also their inclusiveness. More relevant with respect to the management of fisheries policy objectives is the study of how objectives influence each other, in order to avoid unintended effects due to policy [47]. A practical way to do this is to identify management measures for each objective that are compatible (at least partially) with the other objectives. There might be a negative effect from some measures on some objectives and this should be clearly shown [57]. Ideally the partial or complete fulfillment of other objectives would be reinforced, or the effect should be neutral. Examples of how objectives are compatible within various management measures are given below. A first example would be to move towards MSY in a socially proactive way by promoting (through quota or marketing incentives) the fishing gears that have a catch composition appropriate to a relevant multispecies MSY. This may imply social decisions, like deciding on trade-offs between species: consume more cod or more pelagic species [58,59]. Another socially and economically compatible measure to implement this objective would be to promote responsible consumption patterns, regarding for example the minimization of fish waste across the supply chain [50] to raise awareness on excess catch. The elimination of discards can also be promoted by fostering fishing techniques that have sustainable catch composition, to then promote the marketing of those less valued discard species [50] either as standard or sub-standard products. The reduction of bycatch is compatible with using socially acceptable management measures specific to each case, as short temporary closures that enable the fishers to have other sources of rent and therefore allow for viable coastal communities [28]. Another way to improve management measures to reach the bycatch objective is to benchmark different management measures employed in nearby areas, and reach an agreement to implement similar measures regionally. This can prevent potential problems of social acceptance due to a perception of unfairness when implementing different measures in close by areas that share a bycatch problem. An example of this is the different 54 Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. actors (industry, governments and environmental NGOs). For the ecological sustainability objectives there was agreement on MSY as a high level objective, with the exception of an environmental organization representative that expressed the need to consider a higher biomass value to provide an additional buffer for ecosystem and climate change effects. The issue of manageability came across in a very clear manner in a statement by a producer representative who said: “I want the objective, but I think it is not achievable”. An environmental representative also related objectives to the means to achieve them by saying “When this is the objective, but the capacity to reach it is not given, then it is a political error”. Additionally, other high level objectives in relation to ecological sustainability included the reduction of ghost nets (nets lost by fishing boats [66]) and the consideration of fuel consumption per unit of fish, which bring a wider perspective (ecosystems and economic efficiency) that can be better grasped by many actors. These measures could make different objectives compatible, as seen in the previous Section 4.1, but note the fact that, as many objective delivered by policy makers and stakeholders, they imply defining a “consequence” of the fishing activity (losing nets or consuming fuel) as an “objective”. Economic sustainability was judged by at least one representative of each group to be closely connected to the other types of objectives. A fisheries manager related it to regional development and jobs (objective of viable coastal communities) and with the carbon footprint of the fishing industry (ecological sustainability). The importance of fishing as an activity despite its environmental effects was also highlighted by an NGO representative: “The question is where they fish, how and how much. This must be regulated, but it does not mean to say that there should not be any fisheries”. A fisheries manager suggested that a more targeted approach through the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF, an EU structural fund promoting sustainability and employment in fisheries) would strengthen both economic and social sustainability of the CFP. Finally, the discussion on social sustainability objectives of fisheries also produced some ideas that simultaneously support (or do not hinder) other sustainability objectives. A producer representative proposed that management use cooperation and search for shared incentives instead of fines, while a fisheries manager suggested making regulations compatible with other regulations. These approaches could improve policy making and governance structures without necessarily reducing profitability or stocks, by incorporating more than one pillar in a single objective and through gains in efficiency of implementation. Education of both fish producers (on sustainability) and consumers (on effects of the whole fish supply chain) were also suggested by a representative of an environmental NGO to achieve high level objectives such as reducing discards. A summary of useful inputs to the manageability of the objectives and the synergy between objectives can be found in the following quote from an environmental NGO representative, who pleaded to ensure that “the fisher that goes fishing every day, is sustainable and works for the region, is the one that receives most advantage from the CFP”. This outlook offers a useful cue to the application of Article 17 of the CFP. In relation to the allocation of quotas, it calls for “transparent and objective criteria” which may include “the impact of fishing on the environment, the history of compliance, the contribution to the local economy”, in addition to historic catch levels. Without specifically asking for it, all stakeholders came up with relationships between the objectives presented, as well as other objectives at a higher conceptual level (such as ecosystem effects or supply chain aspects). This shows how clear it is that objectives of fisheries management should not be considered in isolation, and that high level perspectives can help to bring both consensus and practical inputs for policy. coastal communities there should be an evaluation prior to any management measure of the total economic value of sustainable fisheries, to avoid spatial developments that reduce the net value creation in a community [61]. Monitoring potential problems with succession of fishers [28], building realistic mid-term expectations for the return to fishing activity and investigating of alternative sources of income [27,62] through longer term policy coordination should also be incorporated into policy design, especially during fishery closures and adaptation periods. To improve policy and decision making processes it is important to identify the governance level at which the objectives above can be more effectively implemented, referring to location of resources, including knowledge, and incentives for action [63,64]. To promote fair living standards and improved working and safety conditions on board it is necessary to study the social impact of combined management measures at the stage of design, for example in cases where combined effort and quota limits drive fishers in small-scale fisheries to fish in bad weather conditions. Social objectives are also important, for example during fishery closures or gear bans, where policy coordination with other non-fishery policies becomes especially relevant. Finally, a current issue is to monitor living conditions of non-EU workers in EU vessels, especially outside EU waters through international agreements. Ecological and economic sustainability goals could also be met in accordance with social objectives if special attention would be paid to the whole fish supply chain. This would include living standards related to the provision of imported fish products as in life cycle analysis for the full environmental and economic impacts of manufacturing processes. Relating to the lack of clarity in models brought about by the existence of intermediate (even implicit) and final objectives, further workshops and modelling exercises in the MYFISH project show a clear example. The decision support tables resulting from the project within the example of the North Sea [56] maximized the fleet catches or their revenue from fishing. Referring to the catch maximization, a step following the approach described in our study would entail the analysis of food security objectives in the area of origin and of consumption of the catches [65]. Beyond enhancement of revenues, the overarching objectives approach would imply considering the fair conditions of work in the area of origin of the catches including outside the EU as a minimum constraint (as in the social utility function objective of “projecting the principles of the CFP internationally”) or tackling the distributional aspects of optimized revenue from catches beyond distribution between fleet segments (e.g. inside the affected fishing community, through social capital that allows for participation and succession in the industry for future generations, see [41]). Kempf et al. [56] also show the distinction between objectives (e.g. promoting inclusive governance) and restrictions (e.g. respecting good environmental status according to the MSFD) as already assumed in our study. These perspectives on the definition of objectives open new options for the design of indicators and modelling approaches, and would make the management conceptually more coherent. 4.2. Adapting overarching objectives to regional context: A case study The SOCIOEC project involved stakeholders in several different ways, from analyzing incentives in management measures to feedback on impact of measures to the participants who suggested them. Stakeholders were consulted on both high level objectives and their implications at regional level, giving them a unique opportunity to participate in a research exercise. This work on high level objectives includes both group consultation (as presented in Section 4.1 above) and also additional individual consultation by means of semi-structured interviews. Five semi-structured interviews were performed, with two fishing sector representatives, two environmental NGOs and one fisheries manager. The case of Germany was found to be useful because it includes two seas (Baltic and North Seas), it has a complex governance structure (due to federalism) and has a significant roles of three types of 5. Conclusion Working on policy objectives at a high level and observing the 55 Marine Policy 91 (2018) 49–57 L. Goti-Aralucea et al. hierarchy among objectives both from a research perspective allows the perception of synergistic effects that may get lost when looking only at subordinate objectives. These effects are fundamental, given the ineffectiveness of the existing complex regulatory and micro-management approach, especially when facing the current poor state of some fishing communities and stocks. Nevertheless, manageability and acceptability must be kept in mind when considering high level objectives in fisheries. Manageability is a prerequisite if the objectives are to be met, given the complexity of fisheries in the EU. Otherwise they will only be a paragraph in a regulation. On the other hand acceptability is a key factor for compliance, if the management actions are to be successfully implemented. The results of the workshop and interviews show objectives to which stakeholders can agree, indicating the acceptability of management measures in the CFP. The approach presented here is useful because it allows the analysis of objectives in relative terms with respect to the time perspective over which risks occur. Issues such as the scale at which an objective is to be reached or the relative risk of disappearance (in terms of urgency of action) of a particular species, specific fishing community, ecosystem or industry, should be incorporated into the policy design discussion. The extension of the objectives to food security [65,67], ecosystems [68] and community livelihoods would imply more coordination between policies outside the fisheries area (including international relations and regional development in the EU) and a more adaptive approach to take advantage of bottom up participatory arrangements, e.g. those started from fishing communities. As discussed by Kempf et al. [56], “inclusive governance can be seen as an essential part of fisheries management because of the need for a balanced and stable outcome on all three dimensions of sustainability – ecological, economic and social”. The policy design process would benefit from a deeper conceptual analysis of objectives, and this study shows not only how this conceptual analysis is useful for the design of management measures, but also how certain processes of participation from stakeholders can contribute to deliver more coherent, manageable and acceptable fisheries management. Australia, and new Zealand, Fish Fish. 17 (2016) 803–824. [8] A. Rindorf, J. Mumford, P. Baranowski, L.W. Clausen, D. García, N.T. Hintzen, et al., Moving beyond the MSY concept to reflect multidimensional fisheries management objectives, Mar. Policy 85 (2017) 33–41. [9] World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). 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