leadership assignment

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Part 1 - Amy Cuddy and Communication-Leadership Communication

Watch the video above and then address the following: Discuss how your non-verbal behaviors tell a story about you (e.g., attitudes, views, emotions, etc.). You might include facial expressions, body language, and symbolic behaviors (e.g., type of clothing you wear, artifacts in your office, the car you drive, brands you like, etc.). Ask at least one person for feedback.

Identify at least 2 ideas from Amy's video that want to change to become more effective in your nonverbal communication. Include desired results for your communication - how would you like others to respond to you? Describe with these results would look like in behavioral and attitudinal terms.

1. With whom do you need to build (or repair) relationships at work?

2. What do you need to share (hidden quadrant) with others to be more open and productive? In other words, what would cause people to say "wow, that guy/gal is awesome?

3. Think of an example in which you regularly engage in negative self-talk (permanent, personal, and/or pervasive messages about events/situations). Describe the event, the negative self-talk and what you are going to do to become more optimistic (temporary, behavior-based, specific to a situation).

Part 2- Leading Teams

1. Discuss the pros/cons of the three types of teams profiled in Chapter 10: functional, cross-functional, self-directed (self-managed).

2. Describe your experience at work with one of these three types of teams. What elements made this team effective? What caused problems? Provide examples to support your assessment of the team’s effectiveness.

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Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. YOUR CHALLENGE After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Turn a group of individuals into a collaborative team that achieves high performance through a shared mission and collective responsibility. • Identify challenges associated with teamwork, and explain why people sometimes have negative feelings about working in a team. • Lead a team to high performance by providing a compelling purpose and clear objectives, clarifying roles and responsibilities, designing the team in terms of size and diversity, giving team members decision authority, and providing support and coaching. • Understand and handle the stages of team development, and know how to promote cohesiveness and shape productive team norms. • Understand the challenges and benefits of virtual teams and the team leader behaviors that contribute to virtual team effectiveness. • Handle conflicts that inevitably arise among members of a team. CHAPTER 292 296 295 298 302 300 304 306 309 299 307 316 297 305 313 317 319 C hris Rufer, the founder of Morning Star, a tomato processor with three factories that produce products for companies such as Heinz and Campbell Soup Company, believes if people can manage the complexities of their own lives without a boss, there is no reason they can’t manage themselves in the workplace. Rufer founded Morning Star based on self-directed teamwork, but as the company grew from the original 24 colleagues (as employees are called) to around 400, problems occurred. Some people had trouble working in an environment with no bosses and no hierarchy. Handling the inevitable conflicts that arise in any workplace was a particular challenge. Thus, Rufer created the Morning Star Self-Management Institute to provide training for people in the principles and systems of self-management. Every colleague now goes through training, in small groups of 10 to 15 people, to learn how to work effectively as part of a team; how to handle the responsibilities of “planning, organizing, leading, and controlling” that are typically carried out by managers; how to balance freedom and accountability; how to understand and effectively communicate with others; and how to manage 291 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 292 conflicts. Response to and results of the program have been positive, but Rufer knows it will take ongoing effort and training to keep the wheels of self-directed teamwork rolling smoothly.1 Teams are becoming the basic building block of organizations, but teams present greater leadership challenges than does the traditional hierarchical organization. This chapter explores teams and team leadership. We define various types of teams, look at the dilemma of teamwork, and investigate what makes a high-performing team. The chapter then examines how teams develop, explores topics such as cohesiveness and team norms, and considers the various roles that team members must carry out for the team to function well. The new challenge of leading virtual teams is also discussed. The final part of the chapter looks at how to manage team conflict, including using negotiation. Teams are not right for every situation, but much work in organizations is interdependent, which means that individuals and departments rely on other individuals and departments for information or resources in order to accomplish their work. When tasks are highly interdependent, a team can be the best approach for ensuring the level of coordination, information sharing, and exchange of materials necessary for successful task accomplishment. When they are effective, teams can provide benefits for both organizations and employees through higher productivity, quality improvements, greater flexibility and speed, a flatter management structure, increased employee involvement and satisfaction, and lower turnover.2 Team a unit of two or more people who interact and coordinate their work to accomplish a shared goal or purpose A team is a unit of two or more people who interact and coordinate their work to accomplish a shared goal or purpose for which they are committed and hold themselves mutually accountable.3 Several key features distinguish a team. For example, a team made up of linguists, psychologists, statisticians, and software engineers at Facebook had a clear purpose (shared goal) of redesigning Facebook’s ineffective search engine so it could better understand human (not just computer) language. Team members had to coordinate their efforts and work interdependently to investigate, design, test, and develop a new search engine. The development team was a distinct unit with membership separate from other teams. Members of the team worked together for a period of more than a year to complete the early coding and testing of a new search tool and are continuing their work to perfect the new search engine, which Facebook hopes can be competitive with search leader Google.4 A team is a group of people, but the two are not one and the same. People who do not interact regularly, such as those waiting in line at the company cafeteria or riding together in the elevator, do not compose a team. Even a group of employees whose work is related is not a team unless the members share a common purpose that requires them to depend on each other. In addition, the concept of teamwork implies that people sublimate their individual needs, desires, and egos and synthesize their knowledge, skills, and efforts toward accomplishing a common goal. A professor, coach, or employer can put together a group of people and never build a team. Consider the Miami Heat basketball team. In the spring of 2010, LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh were the top scorers on their respective basketball teams. The next year, they were all playing for the Miami Heat. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 293 With that kind of talent, the team should have been tough for anyone to beat, but the Heat’s dream team opened with a humiliating loss and stumbled through the early weeks of the season. Star players who were used to being in charge at crunch time found themselves working at cross-purposes. Discussing the Heat’s loss to the New York Knicks, former Chicago Bulls player Steve Kerr said, “It was a total meltdown. It was, ‘I’m so talented, I’ll take over.’ They looked awful.”5 Individual stars don’t necessarily make a great team, in sports or in business. The Miami Heat struggled with issues that teams in all organizations face: How to get star performers to sublimate their egos and sacrifice their individual goals? How to bring together the right set of specialties and skills? How to define roles? How to promote cohesiveness and norms of collaboration? and How to create a team that is united in a common mission?6 This chapter’s Consider This illustrates the spirit and power of teamwork. Consider Fact 1: As each goose flaps its wings, it creates an “uplift” for the birds that follow. By flying in a “V” formation, the whole flock adds 71 percent greater flying range than if each bird flew alone. Lesson: People who share a common direction and sense of community can get where they are going quicker and easier because they are traveling on the thrust of one another. Fact 2: When a goose falls out of formation, it suddenly feels the drag and resistance of flying alone. It quickly moves back into formation to take advantage of the lifting power of the bird immediately in front of it. Lesson: If we have as much sense as a goose, we stay in formation with those headed where we want to go. We are willing to accept their help and give our help to others. Fact 3: When the lead goose tires, it rotates back into the formation and another goose flies to the point position. Lesson: It pays to take turns doing the hard tasks and sharing leadership. Like geese, people are interdependent on each other’s skills, capabilities, and unique arrangement of gifts, talents, or resources. Fact 4: The geese flying in formation honk to encourage those up front to keep up their speed. Lesson: We need to make sure our honking is encouraging. In groups where there is encouragement, the production is much greater. The power of encouragement (to stand by one’s heart or core values and encourage the heart and core values of others) is the quality of honking we seek. Fact 5: When a goose gets sick, wounded, or shot down, two geese drop out of the formation and follow it down to help and protect it. They stay until it dies or is able to fly again. Then they launch out with another formation or catch up with the flock. Lesson: If we have as much sense as a goose, we will stand by each other in difficult times as well as when we are strong. Source: 1991 Organizational Development Network. Original author unknown. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 294 Teams are found at every level of today’s organizations. At Cirque du Soleil, the CEO, chief operating officer, chief financial officer, and vice president of creation function as a top management team to develop, coordinate, and oversee acrobatic troupes that travel to approximately 100 cities on four continents a year. Google assembles teams of three or four employees to assess new ideas and recommend whether they should be implemented. IBM uses teams formed of people specializing in hardware, software, research, and sales to solve specific problems for clients such as Walmart, Charles Schwab, and the Mayo Clinic.7 And at Tasty Catering, a family owned business in Chicago, teams of front-line employees from across the company— chefs and accountants, clerical workers and drivers, supervisors and servers—make all strategic decisions.8 Organizations use various types of teams to meet internal needs or external challenges. Exhibit 10.1 illustrates three types of teams used in organizations: functional, cross-departmental, and self-directed. Functional team a team made up of a supervisor and subordinates in the formal chain of command Cross-departmental team team made up of members from different functional departments within an organization A functional team is part of the traditional vertical hierarchy. This type of team is made up of a supervisor and his or her subordinates in the formal chain of command. Sometimes called a vertical team or a command team, the functional team can include three or four levels of hierarchy within a department. Typically, a functional team makes up a single department in the organization. For example, the quality control department at Blue Bell Creameries in Brenham, Texas, is a functional team that tests all incoming ingredients to make sure only the best products go into the company’s ice cream. A financial analysis department, a human resources department, and a sales department are all functional or vertical teams. Each is created by the organization within the vertical hierarchy to attain specific goals through members’ joint activities. A cross-departmental term is made up of members from different departments within the organization. These teams are often called cross-functional teams. Cross-departmental teams are typically used for projects Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 295 that affect several departments and therefore require that many views be considered. Cross-departmental teams facilitate information sharing across functional boundaries, generate suggestions for coordinating the departments represented, develop new ideas and solutions for existing organizational problems, and assist in developing new practices or policies. One type of cross-departmental team is the special-purpose team, sometimes called a project team. Special-purpose teams focus on a specific purpose and disband once the project is completed. They are created outside the formal organization structure to undertake a project of special importance or complexity or to develop a new product or service. The team working on a new search engine at Facebook, described earlier, is a special-purpose team. Leaders at Ford Motor Company created a specialpurpose team to solve a problem related to the supply chain. NEW LEADER As a leader, you can create a cross-departmental team to handle a project that requires coordination across functional boundaries. Use a specialpurpose team for a project of special importance, such as developing a new product or service. Tony Brown and Alan Mulally, Ford Motor Company The Big Three U.S. automakers (General Motors (GM), Chrysler, and Ford) weren’t the only organizations in the auto industry on the brink of bankruptcy by the fall of 2008. Most of their suppliers were also struggling to stay alive, and some had already gone out of business. Leaders at Ford knew that without parts, nothing else they did to save the company would matter. Tony Brown, Ford’s vice president of global purchasing, suggested creating a specialpurpose team to monitor parts manufacturers, prevent supply chain disruptions, and speed up Ford’s plan to narrow its base of suppliers. CEO Alan Mulally quickly agreed, and Project Quark (named after the family dog in the movie “Honey, I Shrunk the Kids”) came into being. The team included people from all of Ford’s divisions and functional departments—manufacturing, human resources, engineering, finance, information technology, legal, and others. Time was of the essence, so the team started out in high gear—meeting every day, sometimes gathering before 7:00 A.M. and working late into the night, and providing regular reports to the CEO every Thursday. The team’s meeting room walls were covered with printouts listing each supplier, the specific parts it provided, its financial condition, the plants it supported, and its other customers. A risk profile was created for each supplier, and the team narrowed the list down to 850 critical suppliers that Ford wanted to keep. Making sure these companies survived was Project Quark’s top priority. The team and Ford executives knew Ford couldn’t save the global supply base on its own, so they began reaching out to other automakers. GM wasn’t interested, perhaps because its managers had even bigger problems to worry about, but Toyota and Honda quickly jumped on board, realizing that the web of interconnected suppliers was in danger of collapsing. In some cases, the three companies agreed to share the costs of keeping a particular supplier in business.9 This special-purpose team played a critical role in helping Ford prevent a supply breakdown—and ultimately in helping leaders revive the company. Cross-departmental teams may gradually evolve into self-directed teams. Self-directed teams, such as those at Morning Star, described in the chapter opening example, are made up of employees who work with minimum supervision and rotate jobs to produce an entire product or service, or at least one complete aspect or portion of a product or service.10 Special-purpose team team that focuses on a specific purpose of high importance and disbands once the project is completed; sometimes called a project team Self-directed teams teams made up of members who work with minimum supervision and rotate jobs to produce a complete product or service Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 296 NEW LEADER As a leader, you can use a selfdirected team when members are capable of working together without active supervision. Give the team access to the money, equipment, supplies, and information needed to perform its project or task, and empower the team with decision-making authority. Exhibit 10.1 illustrates the evolution of teams and team leadership. The functional team groups individuals by common skill and activity within the traditional structure. Leadership is based on the vertical hierarchy. In cross-departmental teams, members have more freedom from the hierarchy, but the team typically is still leader-centered and leader-directed. The leader is most often assigned by the organization and is usually a supervisor or manager from one of the departments represented on the team. In the next stage of evolution, team members work together without the ongoing direction of managers, supervisors, or assigned team leaders. Empirical studies have shown that self-directed teams are associated with higher job satisfaction.11 Job satisfaction increases partly because working in self-directed teams enables people to feel challenged, find their work meaningful, feel more control over their work lives, and develop a stronger sense of identity with the organization.12 Self-directed teams have access to information and resources needed to perform a complete task and are empowered with decision-making authority to take over duties such as selecting new members, scheduling work or vacations, and evaluating performance. Self-directed teams are typically not completely autonomous, in that organizational leaders set overall direction and monitor the team’s work on a regular basis. However, these teams are effectively trained to work with minimum supervision, and members are jointly responsible for making decisions and solving problems. At Lockheed Martin’s Missiles and Fire Control division’s Pike County Operations in Troy, Alabama, all employees work in selfdirected teams that set performance goals and make decisions related to assembling and testing advanced missile systems. Self-directed teams at Pike County Operations have contributed to 100 percent on-time delivery with zero customer rejects for the division.13 Self-directed teams typically elect one of their own to serve as team leader, and the leader may change each year. Some teams function without a designated leader, so anyone may play a leadership role depending on the situation. For example, the emergency trauma team at Massachusetts General Hospital performs so smoothly that the team switches leaders seamlessly, depending on the crisis at hand. With each new emergency, direction may come from a doctor, intern, nurse, or technician—whoever is particularly experienced with the problem at hand.14 NEW LEADER Do you enjoy working as part of a team, or do you prefer to do your work individually? Complete Leader’s Self-Insight 10.1 to get an idea of your feelings toward teamwork and whether team leadership might present a problem for you. Free rider a team member who attains benefits from team membership but does not actively participate in and contribute to the team’s work When leaders at ICU Medical Products announced that the company was shifting to a structure based entirely on teams, the CFO quit.15 Some people love the idea of teamwork, others hate it, and many people have both positive and negative emotions about working as part of a team. Leaders can be more effective when they understand three primary reasons teams present a dilemma for people: We Have to Give Up Our Independence. When people become part of a team, their success depends on the team’s success; therefore, they are dependent on how well other people perform, not just on their own individual initiative and actions. In addition, whereas most people are comfortable with the idea of making sacrifices in order to achieve their own individual success, teamwork demands that they make sacrifices for group success.16 The idea is that each person should put the team first, even if at times it hurts the individual. We Have to Put Up with Free Riders. Teams are sometimes made up of people who have different work ethics. The term free rider refers to a team member Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. C Complete this aassignment online with CCengageNOW. Instructions: Respond to the statements below with your preferences for working on your job or school assignments. Please answer whether each item below is Mostly False or Mostly True for you. Mostly False 1. I prefer to work on a team rather than do tasks individually. 2. Given a choice, I try to work by myself rather than face the hassles of group work. 3. I enjoy the personal interaction when working with others. 4. I prefer to do my own work and let others do theirs. 5. I get more satisfaction from a group victory than an individual victory. 6. Teamwork is not worthwhile when people do not do their share. 7. I feel good when I work with others even when we disagree. 8. I prefer to rely on myself rather than others to do a job or assignment. Mostly True 9. I find that working as a member of a team increases my ability to perform well. 10. It annoys me to do work as a member of a team. Scoring and Interpretation For odd-numbered items give yourself 1 point for each Mostly True answer and for even-numbered items give yourself 1 point for each Mostly False answer. Total Score . Your score indicates your preference for working as part of a team versus working as an individual. A score of 8–10 suggests a clear preference for working with others on a team. Teams can accomplish tasks far beyond what an individual can do, and working with others can be a major source of satisfaction. A score of 0–3 suggests a clear preference for working alone rather than on a team. On a team you will lose some autonomy and have to rely on others who may be less committed than you. On a team you have to work through other people and you lose some control over work procedures and outcomes. A score of 4–7 suggests you are satisfied either working on a team or alone. How do you think your preference will affect your career choices and your potential role as a leader? who attains benefits from team membership but does not actively participate in and contribute to the team’s work. You might have experienced this frustration in a student project team, where one member put little effort into the project but benefited from the hard work of others when grades were handed out. Free riding is sometimes called social loafing because some members do not exert equal effort.17 The potential for free riding might be one reason a survey found that 40 to 60 percent of people (depending on gender and age) like working in teams to learn from others, but no more than 36 percent report they like working in teams to complete tasks.18 Teams Are Sometimes Dysfunctional. Some companies have had great success with teams, but there are also numerous examples of how teams in organizations fail spectacularly.19 A civilian worker at a large U.S. Air Force base tells of an experience in which the team “streamlined” the process of handling mail by changing it from 8 steps to a ridiculous 19, meaning official mail was handled by more people and getting to its intended recipient even later than before.20 Exhibit 10.2 lists five dysfunctions that are common in teams.21 Over the past few decades, a great deal of research and team experience has produced significant insights into what causes teams to succeed or fail. The evidence shows that how teams are managed plays the most critical role.22 297 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 298 Lack of trust People don’t feel safe to reveal mistakes, share concerns, or express ideas Fear of conflict People go along with others for the sake of harmony; don’t express conflicting opinions Lack of commitment People can’t truly commit to decisions because they haven’t contributed their true opinions and ideas Avoidance of accountability People don’t accept responsibility for outcomes; engage in fingerpointing when things go wrong Inattention to results Members put personal ambition or the needs of their individual departments ahead of collective results Source: Based on Patrick Lencioni, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002). Smoothly functioning teams don’t just happen. They are created and shaped by leaders. Harvard Business School professors studying surgery teams, for example, found that the attitude and actions of the team leader, and the quality of the leader’s interactions with team members, are crucial to team effectiveness and the success of the surgery.23 Teamwork is becoming common in health care, but poor coordination and communication among team members has been a real problem, leading to errors and even patient deaths. The U.S. Department of Defense and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality developed a team training program to teach cognitive and interpersonal skills that contribute to better health care teamwork, with significant focus on team leadership. Boston Children’s Hospital reduced medical errors by 40 percent after teams began applying the tools learned from the program.24 To lead any team to high performance, whether in health care, manufacturing, Internet services, or NASCAR racing, leaders incorporate the following elements:25 John Foley, founder and president of John Foley, Inc.; former Marine Corps jet fighter instructor pilot and lead solo pilot of the Blue Angels jet acrobatics team 1. A Compelling Purpose, Clear Objectives, and Explicit Metrics. To succeed, team members have to know what is expected of them and commit to accomplishing it. High-performing teams have a specific, clearly-defined purpose and a well-defined set of goals, enabling people to come together in a shared undertaking. A team cannot succeed if people are floundering around wondering why the team exists, or if people are going in different directions rather than pulling together for a common purpose. Team members also need clear metrics so they know how well they are progressing toward meeting goals. 2. A Diversity of Skills and Unambiguous Roles. Effective teams contain the diverse mix of skills, knowledge, and experience needed to perform all the components of the team’s project.26 In addition, diversity in terms of race, gender, ethnic or cultural background, and other dimensions can contribute to greater innovation and better decision making because the team can draw from wider perspectives.27 Within this diverse mix, however, individual roles and responsibilities are clearly defined. Clear roles and expectations for members lead to enhanced cooperation because people aren’t butting up against one another in confusion over their duties and responsibilities.28 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 299 3. Streamlined Team Size. Although most researchers agree there is no optimal team size, teams function best when they contain just enough members to perform the job, and most experts recommend that teams should err on the side of having too few members rather than too many.29 Much research has shown that small teams (six or fewer members) perform better than large ones.30 Members on small teams typically ask more questions, exchange more opinions, and exhibit more cooperative behavior. In addition, people in small teams report higher motivation, more job satisfaction, and a greater sense of belonging and cohesiveness. A Gallup poll in the United States found that 82 percent of employees agree that small teams are more productive.31 4. Decision Authority Over How to Achieve Goals. Although teams need clearly defined goals spelled out by leaders, the team itself should have the authority to decide how it will reach those goals. Good leaders share power, information, and responsibility and work to build consensus rather than issuing orders.32 Members of high-performing teams determine together how they will work cooperatively to accomplish objectives and achieve the team’s purpose. 5. Support and Coaching. Although team leaders have to keep people focused on accomplishing tasks, research shows that the soft leadership skills concerned with building positive relationships are especially important for creating a high-performance team.33 Team effectiveness, productivity, and learning are strengthened when team leaders provide support to team members, reinforce team identity and meaning, work to maintain trusting interpersonal relationships and group cohesiveness, and offer coaching to enhance members’ selfleadership skills. Periodic training that teaches skills such as communication, building relationships, developing productive norms, and resolving conflicts can have a significant impact on team collaboration and performance. These five elements are among the most important guidelines for team leaders. The Leader’s Bookshelf further discusses characteristics of teams that lead to high performance. Assess your team leadership skills by logging in to CengageNOW to complete the interactive questionnaire. NEW LEADER Team processes refer to the dynamics that change over time and can be influenced by leaders. In this section we discuss stages of development, cohesiveness, and norms. The fourth type of team process, conflict, will be covered later in the chapter. It is important for leaders to understand that teams develop over time.34 Research suggests that teams develop over several stages. Exhibit 10.3 shows one model of the stages of team development.35 These stages typically occur in sequence, although there can be overlap. The forming stage of development is a period of orientation and getting acquainted. Team members find out what behavior is acceptable to others, explore friendship possibilities, and determine task orientation. Uncertainty is high because no one knows what the ground rules are or what is expected of them. Members will usually accept whatever power or authority is offered by either formal or informal leaders. The leader’s challenge at this stage of development is to facilitate communication and As a leader, you can articulate a clear and compelling vision for the team to help members see their work as meaningful and important. You can define objectives and clarify roles but give people decision-making authority over how to achieve goals. Make room for everyone to contribute and provide people with the training, support, and coaching they need to excel. Forming stage of team development that includes orientation and getting acquainted Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Great Business Teams: Cracking the Code for Standout Performance by Howard M. Guttman Management consultant and author Howard Guttman believes highperformance organizations begin with great teams. In his book, , Guttman draws on research into the inner workings of several dozen high-performance teams at companies such as Johnson & Johnson, L’Oreal, Novartis, and Mars Drinks. CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT TEAMS Whether it is a top leadership team, a cross-departmental project team, or a self-directed product development team, Guttman says great teams share five key characteristics: • . Leaders of great teams put power and authority in the hands of the team. They see their job as making sure all members are clear about and committed to the business strategy and operational goals, understand NEW LEADER As a leader, you can guide your team through its stages of development. Early on you can help members know one another, and then encourage participation and common purpose, followed by clarifying goals and expectations. Finally, you can concentrate on helping the team achieve high performance. Storming stage of team development in which individual personalities and conflicts emerge Norming stage of team development in which conflicts have been resolved and team unity emerges their roles and responsibilities, and adhere to specific ground rules for decision making and interpersonal behavior. • • • . On a highperformance team, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and continually raising the performance bar are the norm. • Members of great teams act as leaders by embracing responsibility, exerting influence to accomplish tasks, and holding one another accountable for results. Everyone’s performance— even the leader’s—is subject to scrutiny and feedback. . Ambiguity kills effective teamwork, says Guttman. To achieve high performance, everyone on the team needs to be clear about what the team as a whole is going to accomplish, what each individual will contribute, how the team will carry out its tasks, and how members are expected to interact with one another. . To get great teamwork, the organization’s performance management and reward systems have to support the expected team behaviors. WHY TEAMS? Guttman believes today’s organizations and the challenges they face are too complex for formal leaders to make all the decisions. He argues that companies can best succeed with distributed leadership, in which key decisions are made by layers of self-directed teams that are jointly accountable for performance. Source: , by Howard Guttman, is published by John Wiley & Sons. interaction among team members to help them get acquainted and establish guidelines for how the team will work together. It is important at this stage for the leader to make everyone feel comfortable and like a part of the team. Leaders can draw out shy or quiet team members to help them establish relationships with others. During the storming stage, individual personalities emerge more clearly. People become more assertive in clarifying their roles. This stage is marked by conflict and disagreement. Team members may disagree over their perceptions of the team’s mission or goals. The team is characterized by a general lack of unity and cohesiveness. It is essential that teams move beyond this stage or they will never achieve high performance. A recent experiment with student teams confirms the idea that teams that get stuck in the storming stage perform significantly less well than teams that progress to future stages of development.36 The leader’s role during the storming stage is to encourage participation by each team member and help people find their common vision and values. Members need to debate ideas, surface conflicts, disagree with one another, and work through the uncertainties and conflicting perceptions about team tasks and goals. The expression of emotions, even negative ones, helps to build camaraderie and a shared understanding of goals and tasks. 37 At the norming stage, conflict has been resolved and team unity and harmony emerge. Consensus develops as to who the natural team leaders are, and members’ roles are clear. Team members come to understand and accept one another. Differences are resolved, and members develop a sense of cohesiveness. 300 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 301 Sources: Based on the stages of small group development in Bruce W. Tuckman, “Developmental Sequence in Small Groups,” Psychological Bulletin 63 (1965), pp. 384–399; and B.W. Tuckman and M.A. Jensen, “Stages of Small Group Development Revisited,” Group and Organizational Studies 2 (1977), pp. 419–427. This stage typically is of short duration and moves quickly into the next stage. The team leader should emphasize openness within the team and continue to facilitate communication and clarify team roles, values, and expectations. During the performing stage, the major emphasis is on accomplishing the team’s goals. Members are committed to the team’s mission. They interact frequently, coordinate their actions, and handle disagreements in a mature, productive manner. Team members confront and resolve problems in the interest of task accomplishment. At this stage, the team leader should concentrate on facilitating high task performance and helping the team self-manage to reach its goals. Performing stage of team development in which the major emphasis is on accomplishing the team’s goals The adjourning stage occurs in committees and teams that have a limited task to perform and are disbanded afterward. During this stage, the emphasis is on wrapping up and gearing down. Task performance is no longer a top priority, and leaders frequently focus on team members’ social and emotional needs. People may feel heightened emotionality, strong cohesiveness, and depression or regret over the team’s disbandment. At this point, the leader may wish to signify the Adjourning stage of team development that occurs in committees and teams that have a limited task to perform; the emphasis is on wrapping up, gearing down, and signifying closure Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 302 team’s disbanding with a ritual or ceremony, perhaps giving out certificates or awards to signify closure and completeness. When teams are under time pressure, these stages might occur quite rapidly and even overlap. Stages may also be accelerated for virtual teams. For example, at a large consumer goods company with a virtual team of engineers working in the United States and India, leaders started the project with a couple of days of team building to help the team move rapidly through the forming and storming stages. Spring Company When top leaders at Spring Company decided to move some aspects of supply chain process development to one of the company’s Indian facilities, one of their key concerns was making sure the engineers in the United States and the ones in India came together quickly around a shared mission and a focus on key performance goals, putting the success of the team ahead of individual interests. To take the team to the performing stage as quickly as possible, leaders and consultants held a series of team-building activities during which team members together created a shared vision, developed specific team norms and agreements, built virtual relationships, and clarified roles and responsibilities. Cultural education and exercises on virtual communication were also part of the process. By the end of the team-building activities, members were laughing together and eager to get on with their work. A follow-up by webinar and phone found that the team was on track toward meeting its goals; moreover, everyone was still having a good time working together.38 The team building process at Spring Company not only helped people reach the performing stage quickly, it also contributed to building cohesiveness, which is generally considered an attractive feature of teams. NEW LEADER As a leader, you can facilitate team cohesiveness by providing members with opportunities to interact and know one another. You can use friendly competition with other teams to increase cohesiveness, and work with top leaders to develop high-performance norms for the team. team cohesiveness the extent to which members are attracted to the team and motivated to remain in it Team cohesiveness is defined as the extent to which members are attracted to the team and motivated to remain in it.39 Members of highly cohesive teams are committed to team activities, attend meetings, and are happy when the team succeeds. Members of less cohesive teams are less concerned about the team’s welfare. Leaders typically want to encourage high cohesiveness in teams. Leaders can use several characteristics of team structure and context to influence cohesiveness. First is team interaction. When team members have frequent contact, they get to know one another, consider themselves a unit, and become more committed to the team.40 Second is the concept of shared goals. When team members agree on purpose and direction, they will be more cohesive. The most cohesive teams are those that feel they are involved in something immensely relevant and important. An aerospace executive, recalling his participation in an advanced design team, put it this way, “We even walked differently than anybody else. We felt we were way out there, ahead of the whole world.”41 Third is personal attraction to the team, meaning that members have similar attitudes and values and enjoy being together. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 303 Two factors in the team’s context also influence group cohesiveness. The first is the presence of competition. When a team is in moderate competition with other teams, its cohesiveness increases as it strives to win. Finally, team success and the favorable evaluation of the team by outsiders add to cohesiveness. When a team succeeds in its task and others in the organization recognize the success, members feel good, and their commitment to the team will be high. The outcome of team cohesiveness can fall into two categories—morale and performance. As a general rule, morale is higher in cohesive teams because of increased communication among members, a friendly team climate, maintenance of membership because of commitment to the team, loyalty, and member participation in team decisions and activities. High cohesiveness has almost uniformly good effects on the satisfaction and morale of team members.42 With respect to performance, studies suggest that teams in which members share strong feelings of connectedness and generally positive interactions tend to perform better.43 Thus, a friendly, positive team environment contributes to productivity as well as member satisfaction. Cohesive teams can sometimes unleash enormous amounts of employee energy and creativity. One explanation for this is the research finding that correlates in-person interactions among employees with higher productivity. Among call center teams at Bank of America, for example, productivity rose 10 percent when leaders scheduled more face-to-face interaction time. Simply interacting with others has an energizing effect.44 However, cohesiveness can also decrease performance in some cases. One matter of particular concern is groupthink, which refers to the tendency of people in cohesive groups to suppress contrary opinions. The hesitation of team members to express safety concerns that went against the group consensus has been cited as a contributing factor to the 1986 Challenger space shuttle disaster. People slip into groupthink when the desire for harmony outweighs concerns over decision quality.45 Other research suggests that performance in cohesive teams may depend on the relationship between leaders and the work team. One study surveyed more than 200 work teams and correlated job performance with their cohesiveness.46 Highly cohesive teams were more productive when team members felt top leader support and less productive when they sensed leader hostility and negativism. A team norm is an informal standard of conduct that is shared by team members and guides their behavior.47 Norms are valuable because they provide a frame of reference for what is expected and acceptable. Exhibit 10.4 illustrates two common ways in which norms develop.48 Norms begin to develop in the first interactions among members of a new team, so first behaviors often set a precedent for how the team will interact. At one company, a team leader began his first meeting by raising an issue and then “leading”team members until he got the solution he wanted. The pattern became ingrained so quickly into an unproductive team norm that members dubbed meetings the “Guess What I Think”game.49 Team leaders should use care to shape norms that will help the team be effective. For example, research shows that when leaders have high expectations for collaborative problem-solving, teams develop strong collaborative norms.50 One powerful way in which leaders influence norms is by making explicit statements about the desired team behaviors. When he was CEO of Ameritech, Bill Weiss established a norm of cooperation and mutual support among his top leadership Groupthink the tendency of people in cohesive groups to suppress contrary opinions Team norm an informal standard of conduct that is shared by team members and guides their behavior Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 304 team by telling them bluntly that if he caught anyone trying to undermine the others, the guilty party would be fired.51 Now lets turn our attention to understanding the qualities and competencies of team members that contribute to high performance. To understand the need for a variety of skills and competencies, consider the 33 miners who were trapped for months underground after a copper mine collapsed in San José, Chile, in August 2010. The miners organized into several teams in charge of critical activities such as communication with rescue workers, the transport of supplies from above ground, rationing and distribution of food, managing health concerns, and securing the mine to prevent further rock falls. Some team members were clearly focused on helping the trapped miners meet their needs for physical survival, some focused on helping people coordinate their activities, and still others focused on the group’s psychological and social needs, helping people maintain hope and a sense of solidarity as the ordeal stretched to a harrowing 69 days. Experts agree that teamwork and leadership were key to the miners’ survival.52 NEW LEADER What contributions do you make to a team? Complete the questionnaire in Leader’s Self-Insight 10.2 to see which competencies you typically contribute to the success of a team. Research has identified a number of key competencies needed to make up an effective team.53 To function well as a team, members of the team should together display each of the following five competencies: 1. Goal Setting and Performance Management. First and foremost, team members must have the ability to establish and execute specific, challenging team objectives, as well as ways to monitor and evaluate performance toward meeting objectives. 2. Planning and Coordination. The ability to plan and coordinate is an important determinant of team effectiveness.54 Members must tightly cooordinate and synchronize activities, information, and resources in order to accomplish goals. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. C Complete this aassignment online with CCengageNOW. Instructions: Think about how you have typically behaved and contributed as a member of student or work teams. Respond to the statements below based on how you typically behaved on those teams. Mostly False Mostly True 1. I proposed a clear vision of team purpose. 2. I initiated up-front discussions of team goals and objectives. 3. I suggested corrective actions to improve performance. 4. I helped coordinate team members. 5. I came to meetings well prepared. 6. I followed through on promises and commitments. 7. I was a focused, active listener. 8. I proactively engaged others in problem solving. 9. I gave team members appreciation and support. 10. I praised people for a job well done. Scoring and Interpretation These questions pertain to your contributions as a team member as described in the chapter. These items concern various important ways for a team member to contribute to the success of a team. By comparing your scores on the following scales, you may be able to identify the ways you most contribute to a team. To calculate your scores, give yourself 1 point for each Mostly True answer for the items indicated. A. B. C. D. E. Goal Setting: Items 1, 2: Performance Management: Items 3, 4: Preparation: Items 5, 6: Communication for Problem Solving: Items 7, 8: Social Support: Items 9, 10: An effective team must have members who contribute individually. A team must have someone performing each part, but no member is expected to perform all parts. Indeed, if you scored Mostly True on all the questions, you would be playing a leader role on the team. Part A pertains to goal and direction setting, which is often a team leader role. Part B concerns performance management, which is often part of a team leader’s role, but team members also contribute in this way. Part C is about your ability to be interdependent with other team members. Part D pertains to communication and problem solving skills. Part F is about meeting the relationship needs of team members, which is also a team leader role. How do you feel about your contribution to teams? In what ways do you take the initiative to be an effective member? What might you do to be more effective? 3. Collaborative Problem Solving. Team members need to be able to recognize when a problem requires group participation and then appropriately involve team members in searching for alternatives and devising solutions. 4. Communication. Employees working on individual jobs can sometimes get by with poor communication skills, but the wheels of teamwork keep rolling only with good communication. Members speak their minds, ask questions, seek and provide feedback, and make skillful presentations. 5. Conflict Resolution. Last, but by no means least, teams need to know how to effectively manage and resolve disagreements. Even in the most cohesive of teams, conflicts will inevitably arise. The five team competencies reflect that a team needs members who meet the important needs of the team for both accomplishing its tasks and fostering member unity, satisfaction, and well-being. Recall from Chapter 3 the discussion of situational leadership and the meta-categories of task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors described in that chapter (Exhibit 3.2). Task-oriented behavior places primary 305 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 306 NEW LEADER As a leader, you can make sure that both the task and socioemotional needs of team members are met so that people experience both friendly support and goal accomplishment. concern on tasks and production and is generally associated with higher productivity, whereas relationship-oriented behavior emphasizes concern for followers and relationships and is associated with higher employee satisfaction. For a team to be successful over the long term, both task-oriented behavior and relationship-oriented behavior are required within the team. The task-specialist role is associated with behaviors that help the team accomplish its goal. People who play a task-specialist role often display the following behaviors: Initiate Ideas. Propose new solutions to team problems. Give Opinions. Offer opinions on task solutions; give candid feedback on others’ suggestions. Seek Information. Ask for task-relevant facts. Summarize. Relate various ideas to the problem at hand; pull ideas together into a summary perspective. Energize. Stimulate the team into action when interest drops.55 The socioemotional role includes behaviors that maintain people’s emotional well-being and strengthen the social identity. People who adopt a socioemotional role display the following behaviors: Encourage. Are warm and receptive to others’ ideas; praise and encourage others to draw forth their contributions. Harmonize. Reconcile group conflicts; help disagreeing parties reach agreement. Reduce Tension. Tell jokes or in other ways draw off emotions when group atmosphere is tense. Follow. Go along with the team; agree to other team members’ ideas. Compromise. Will shift own opinions to maintain team harmony.56 Task-specialist role team role associated with initiating new ideas, evaluating the team’s effectiveness, seeking to clarify tasks and responsibilities, summarizing facts and ideas for others, and stimulating others to action Socioemotional role team role associated with facilitating others’ participation, smoothing conflicts, showing concern for team members’ needs and feelings, serving as a role model, and reminding others of standards for team interaction Virtual team team made up of geographically or organizationally dispersed members who share a common purpose and are linked primarily through advanced information technologies Teams with mostly socioemotional roles can be satisfying, but they also can be unproductive. At the other extreme, a team made up primarily of task specialists will tend to have a singular concern for task accomplishment. This team will be effective for a short period of time but will not be satisfying for members over the long run. Effective teams have people in both task-specialist and socioemotional roles. A well-balanced team will do best over the long term because it will be personally satisfying for team members as well as permit the accomplishment of team tasks. People tend to take on different roles based on their personalities and interests. Some people naturally lean more toward behaviors that aid in accomplishing tasks, whereas others tend toward behaviors that maintain group harmony and satisfaction. People who can excel at both types of roles often emerge as team leaders. At Marriott, strengthening both task-oriented and relationship-oriented skills is a primary goal for team leader training because teams headed by leaders with both types of skills are typically more productive and innovative.57 In any case, it is the leader’s responsibility to make sure both task and socioemotional needs are met, whether through the leader’s own behaviors or through the actions and behaviors of other team members. Being a team leader can be particularly challenging when people are scattered in different geographical locations and may be separated by language and cultural differences as well. Virtual teams are a reality for today’s leaders. A virtual team is made up of geographically or organizationally dispersed members who share a Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 307 Conventional Colocated Face-to-face Same High Virtual Scattered Mediated Same Higher Global Widely scattered Mediated Different Very high common purpose and are linked primarily through advanced information and telecommunications technologies.58 Virtual teams are sometimes also global teams. A global team is a cross-border work team made up of members of different nationalities whose activities span multiple countries.59 Exhibit 10.5 illustrates the primary differences between conventional types of teams and today’s virtual teams. Conventional types of teams discussed earlier in this chapter meet and conduct their interactions face-to-face in the same physical space. Team members typically share similar cultural backgrounds and characteristics. The key characteristics of virtual teams, on the other hand, are (1) spatial distance limits face-to-face interaction and (2) the use of technological communication is the primary means of connecting team members.60 Members of virtual teams are often scattered in different locations, whether it be different offices and business locations around the country or around the world. Team members use e-mail, telephone, text messaging, videoconferencing, Skype, other Internet technologies, and various forms of collaboration software to perform their work rather than meeting face-to-face. Although some virtual teams are made up of only organizational members, virtual teams often include contingent workers, members of partner organizations, customers, suppliers, consultants, or other outsiders. Consider the virtual teams at Smart Balance, the “heart-healthy” food company. Global team team made up of culturally diverse members who live and work in different countries and coordinate some part of their activities on a global basis Smart Balance Smart Balance has about 67 employees, but nearly 400 people work for the company. Smart Balance started by making a buttery spread and now has a line of spreads; all-natural peanut butter; nutrient-enhanced milk, cheese, sour cream, and popcorn; and other products. Leaders decided to use virtual teams, including employees and outside contractors, to enable Smart Balance to innovate and expand rapidly. Smart Balance keeps product development and marketing in-house but uses contractors to do just about everything else, including manufacturing, distribution, sales, information technology services, and research and testing. Each morning, virtual team members exchange a flurry of e-mails, text messages, and phone calls to update each other on what took place the day before and what needs to happen today. Leaders spend much of their time building and managing team relationships. Twice a year they hold all-company meetings that include full-time Smart Balance employees and employees of contractors participating in virtual teams. Information is exchanged widely, and leaders make a point of recognizing the contributions of virtual members to the company’s success, which helps create a sense of unity and commitment.61 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 308 NEW LEADER As a leader, you can help a virtual team perform even with limited control and supervision. You can select members who thrive in a virtual environment, arrange opportunities for periodic face-to-face meetings, and ensure that members understand goals, responsibilities, and performance standards. According to recent surveys, nearly half of all organizations surveyed use virtual teams, and about 80 percent of employees at multinational corporations have been part of a virtual team at some time.62 Virtual teams may be temporary crossdepartmental teams that work on specific projects, or they may be long-term, selfdirected teams. One of the primary advantages of virtual teams is the ability to rapidly assemble the most talented group of people to complete a complex project, solve a particular problem, or exploit a specific strategic opportunity. The diverse mix of people can fuel creativity and innovation. On a practical level, organizations can save employees time and cut travel expenses when people meet in virtual rather than physical space. IBM reported that it saved more than $50 million in travelrelated expenses in one recent year by using virtual teams.63 Despite their potential benefits, there is growing evidence that virtual teams are often less effective than teams whose members meet face-to-face.64 Studies indicate that, as virtual distance grows, innovative behavior can decline by a whopping 93 percent. Trust drops 83 percent, clarity of roles and objectives falls 62 percent, and project results such as on-time delivery and customer satisfaction decline by about 50 percent.65 The team leader can make a tremendous difference in how well a virtual team performs, but virtual teams bring significant leadership challenges.66 Building team relationships and trust is the biggest challenge faced by virtual team leaders. “Being authentic, connecting with others … and all of the interpersonal skills leaders use to build relationships and trust are always important,” one team leader said, but in a virtual environment, “the actions associated with these skills must be deliberate and intentional.”67 Virtual team leaders have to trust people to do their jobs without constant supervision, and they learn to focus more on results than on the process of accomplishing them. Too much control can kill a virtual team, so leaders have to give up most of their control and yet at the same time provide guidance, encouragement, support, and development. To be successful, virtual team leaders can master the following skills:68 Select the Right Team Members. Effective virtual team leaders put a lot of thought into getting the right mix of people on the team. Team members need the right mix of technical, interpersonal, and communication skills to work effectively in a virtual environment. In addition, leaders make clear to the team why each member was chosen to participate, thus giving people a basis for trust in others’ abilities and commitment. Choosing people who have open, honest, and trusting personalities is also a plus. As with other types of teams, small virtual teams tend to be more cohesive and work together more effectively. However, diversity of views and experiences is also important to the success of a virtual team. Diversity is usually built into virtual teams because when leaders can pick the right people for the job, no matter where they are located, members usually reflect diverse backgrounds and viewpoints.69 Start Off Right. Leaders make sure people have opportunities to know one another and establish trusting relationships. Studies of virtual teams suggest that an initial face-to-face meeting is one of the best ways to get people to come together as a team and rapidly go through the forming and storming stages of development, as discussed earlier in this chapter.70 At Mobil Corporation, leaders bring virtual team members together in one location at the beginning of a project so they can begin to build personal relationships and gain an understanding of Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 309 • • their goals and responsibilities. LivePerson Inc., a leading cloud-based platform company, builds in ways for people from around the world to come together face-to-face whenever there seems to be a need for it. “We understand there is a cost to this, but we see real results, so it is a price we willingly pay,”says senior vice president Steve Schloss.71 Use Technology to Build Relationships. Leaders also apply technology to build relationships.72 Leaders hold team meetings using Skype, for example, to enable people to get to know one another and clarify roles and project tasks. They also encourage non-task-related communication, such as the use of online social networking where people can share photos, thoughts, and personal biographies. “Managers often assume that people are mainly interested in what their fellow team members can do, not who they are,”Keith Ferrazi wrote in a Harvard Business Review blog. “Wrong!”Ferrazi and other virtual team experts emphasize the value of non-work-related interactions.73 Researchers have also found that roundthe-clock virtual work spaces, where team members can access the latest versions of files, keep track of deadlines and timelines, monitor one another’s progress, and carry on discussions between formal meetings enhance virtual team success.74 Agree on Ground Rules. Leaders make everyone’s roles, responsibilities, and authority clear from the beginning. All team members need to explicitly understand both team and individual goals, deadlines, and expectations for participation and performance. When roles and expectations are clear, trust can develop more easily. It is also important that leaders define a clear context so that people can make decisions, monitor their own performance, and regulate their behavior to accomplish goals. For each virtual team decision, Kevan Hall, CEO of Global Integration, asks team members to summarize the decision, whether they agree with it, and the specific actions they will take as a result of the decision.75 Another important point is shaping norms of respectful interaction. Team members need to agree on communications etiquette, rules for “verbalizing”online when members are shifting mental gears or need more feedback, whether there are time limits on responding to voice mail or e-mail, and so forth. As the use of virtual teams grows, there is growing understanding of what makes them successful. Some experts suggest that leaders solicit volunteers as much as possible for virtual teams, and interviews with virtual team members and leaders support the idea that members who truly want to work as a virtual team are more effective.76 As one would expect, there is an increased potential for conflict among members of virtual teams because of the greater chances for miscommunication and misunderstandings. Studies of virtual teams indicate that how they handle internal conflicts is critical to their success, yet conflict within virtual teams tends to occur more frequently and take longer to resolve. Moreover, people in virtual teams who communicate by e-mail tend to engage in more inconsiderate behaviors such as name-calling or insults than do people who work face-to-face.77 Some people aren’t cut out for virtual teamwork and show a greater propensity for shirking their duties or giving less than their full effort when working in a virtual environment, which can lead to team conflicts.78 Cultural value differences, little face-to-face interaction, and lack of on-site monitoring make it harder to build team identity and commitment. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 310 Whenever people work together in teams, some conflict is inevitable. Whether leading a virtual team or a team whose members work side-by-side, bringing conflicts into the open and effectively resolving them is one of the team leader’s most important jobs. Conflict refers to antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to block the intentions or goals of another.79 Effective conflict management has a positive impact on team cohesiveness and performance.80 High-performing teams typically have lower levels of conflict, and the conflict is more often associated with tasks than with interpersonal relationships. In addition, teams that reflect healthy patterns of conflict are usually characterized by high levels of trust and mutual respect.81 Two basic types of conflict that occur in teams are task conflict and relationship conflict.82 Task conflict refers to disagreements among people about the goals to be achieved or the content of the tasks to be performed. Two shop foremen might disagree over whether to replace a machine’s valve or let it run despite the unusual noise it is making. Or two members of a top management team might disagree about whether to acquire a company or enter into a joint venture as a way to expand globally. Relationship conflict refers to personal incompatibility that creates tension and feelings of personal animosity among people. For example, a recurring problem for many hospitals that have implemented teams is conflict between doctors and nurses or other team members. Many physicians are accustomed to being in charge and calling all the shots, and the shift to teamwork has been difficult. A survey of hospital administrators performed for the American College of Physician Executives found that 71 percent reported that disruptive behavior, such as doctors berating nurses for “interrupting”them with questions, surgeons flinging scalpels, or physicians demeaning coworkers they consider incompetent, occurs at least monthly at their hospital.83 In general, research suggests that task conflict can be beneficial because it leads to better decision making and problem solving. On the other hand, relationship conflict is typically associated with negative consequences for team effectiveness.84 One study of top management teams, for example, found that task conflict was associated with higher decision quality, greater commitment, and more decision acceptance, while the presence of relationship conflict significantly reduced those same outcomes.85 Conflict antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to thwart the intentions or goals of another Task conflict disagreement among people about the goals to be achieved or the content of the tasks to be performed Relationship conflict personal incompatibility that creates tension and feelings of personal animosity among people There is evidence that mild conflict can be beneficial to teams.86 A healthy level of conflict helps to prevent groupthink, as described earlier, in which people are so committed to a cohesive team that they are reluctant to express contrary opinions. When people in work teams go along simply for the sake of harmony, problems typically result. Thus, a degree of conflict leads to better decision making because multiple viewpoints are expressed. However, conflict that is too strong, that is focused on personal rather than work issues, or that is not managed appropriately can damage productivity, tear relationships apart, and interfere with the healthy exchange of ideas and information.87 Team leaders have to find the right balance between conflict and cooperation, as illustrated in Exhibit 10.6. Too little conflict can decrease team performance because the team doesn’t benefit from a mix of opinions and ideas—even disagreements—that might lead to better solutions or prevent the team from making mistakes. At the other end of the spectrum, too much conflict outweighs the team’s cooperative efforts and leads to a decrease in employee satisfaction and commitment, hurting team Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 311 Source: From Daft, Management, 11E. © 2014 Cengage Learning. performance. A moderate amount of conflict that is managed appropriately typically results in the highest levels of team performance. Several factors can lead to conflict.88 One of the primary causes of conflict is competition over resources, such as money, information, or supplies. In similar fashion, conflict often occurs simply because people are using those resources to pursue differing goals. Goal differences are natural in organizations. For example, the sales department’s goals for fast delivery on new orders might conflict with the manufacturing department’s goals for high quality and efficiency. The lack of clear roles and responsibilities can also lead to conflict. Consider the 2012 multibillion-dollar loss at JPMorgan Chase. Many people wondered how implementation of the company’s careful low-risk trading strategy faltered so badly. Ina Drew, the senior banker who has been partly blamed for the problems, had won the complete trust of CEO Jamie Dimon after she steered the company through the 2008 financial crisis. However, Drew was out of the office a great deal of time due to illness beginning in 2010, and long-simmering conflicts and divisions over roles and responsibilities emerged. Drew’s deputy in New York, Althea Duersten, disagreed with the risky, outsized bets being made by Achilles Macris, the deputy in London, but the London deputy used his stronger personality to shout down Duersten’s objections. One trader underscored the lack of clear roles when he said he “didn’t know who to listen to.”89 Teams as well as individuals develop specific styles for dealing with conflict, based on the desire to satisfy their own concern versus the other party’s concern. A model Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 312 Sources: Based on Kenneth Thomas, “Conflict and Conflict Management,“ in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Behavior, ed. M.D. Dunnette (New York: John Wiley, 1976), p 900; and Nan Peck, “Conflict 101: Styles of Fighting,” North Virginia Community College Website, September 20, 2005, www.nvcc.edu/home/npeck/conflicthome/conflict/Conflict101/conflictstyles.htm (accessed April 13, 2011) that describes five styles of handling conflict is in Exhibit 10.7. The two major dimensions are the extent to which an individual is assertive versus unassertive and cooperative versus uncooperative in his or her approach to conflict.90 1. The dominating style (my way) reflects assertiveness to get one’s own way and should be used when quick, decisive action is vital on important issues or unpopular actions, such as during emergencies or urgent cost cutting. 2. The avoiding style (no way) reflects neither assertiveness nor cooperativeness. It is appropriate when an issue is trivial, when there is no chance of winning, when a delay to gather more information is needed, or when a disruption would be costly. NEW LEADER Which conflict-handling style do you tend to use most frequently? Answer the questions in Leader’s Self-Insight 10.3 to find out. Try to think of conflict situations you’ve been involved in where each of the styles might be appropriate. 3. The compromising style (half way) reflects a moderate amount of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. It is appropriate when the goals on both sides are equally important, when opponents have equal power and both sides want to split the difference, or when people need to arrive at temporary or expedient solutions under time pressure. 4. The accommodating style (your way) reflects a high degree of cooperativeness, which works best when people realize that they are wrong, when an issue is more important to others than to oneself, when building social credits for use in later discussions, and when maintaining harmony is especially important. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. C Complete this aassignment online with CCengageNOW. Instructions: Think about how you typically handle a dispute or disagreement with a team member, friend, or coworker, and then respond to the statements below based on whether they are Mostly False or Mostly True for you. There are no right or wrong answers, so answer honestly. Mostly False 1. I try hard to win my position. 2. I strongly assert my opinion in a disagreement. 3. I raise my voice to get other people to accept my position. 4. I feel that differences are not worth arguing about. 5. I would usually avoid a person who wants to discuss a disagreement. 6. I would rather keep my views to myself than argue. 7. I give in a little if other people do the same. 8. I will split the difference to reach an agreement. 9. I typically give up some points in exchange for others. 10. I don’t want to hurt other people’s feelings. 11. I am quick to agree when someone I am arguing with makes a good point. 12. I try to smooth over disagreements. Mostly True 13. I suggest a solution that includes the other person’s point of view. 14. I consider the merits of other viewpoints as equal to my own. 15. I try to include the other person’s ideas to create an acceptable solution. Scoring and Interpretation Five categories of conflict-handling strategies are measured in this instrument: dominating, avoiding, compromising, accommodating, and collaborating. By comparing your scores on the following five scales, you can identify your preferred or natural conflict-handling strategy by the highest score. To calculate your five scores, give yourself 1 point for each Mostly True answer for the three items indicated. Dominating: Items 1, 2, 3: Avoiding: Items 4, 5, 6: Compromising: Items 7, 8, 9: Accommodating: Items 10, 11, 12: Collaborating: Items 13, 14, 15: Briefly review the text material (pages 312–313) about these five strategies for handling conflict. Do you agree that your highest score represents the style you use the most? Which strategy do you find the most difficult to use? How would your conflict strategy differ if the other person was a family member rather than a team member? Can you think of a situation where a conflict strategy in which you are weak might be more effective? Explain your scores to another student and listen to the explanation for his or her scores. Source: Adapted from “How Do You Handle Conflict?” in Robert E. Quinn et al., (New York: Wiley, 1990), pp. 221–223. 5. The collaborating style (our way) reflects both a high degree of assertiveness and cooperativeness. The collaborating style enables both parties to win, although it may require substantial bargaining and negotiation. The collaborating style is important when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised, when insights from different people need to be merged into an overall solution, and when the commitment of both sides is needed for a consensus. An example of the collaborating style comes from the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. When building the Beijing National Aquatics Center (typically called the Water Cube), two architectural firms—one Chinese and the other Australian—developed designs that were totally different. Although this created some tension, instead of fighting for their own ideas, the two sides came up with a totally new concept that excited everyone. The resulting award-winning building is spectacular.91 NEW LEADER As a leader, you can adopt the best approach for handling a team conflict. Choose among the dominating, avoiding, compromising, accommodating, or collaborating styles based on the degree of assertiveness and cooperativeness needed to manage the situation. 313 Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 314 Each of the five styles is appropriate in certain cases, and effective team members and leaders vary their style to fit the specific situation and the people involved. One distinctive type of conflict management is negotiation, whereby people engage in give-and-take discussions and consider various alternatives to reach a joint decision that is acceptable to both parties. Negotiation is typically used when a conflict is formalized, such as between a union and management. Conflicting parties may embark on negotiation from different perspectives and with different intentions, reflecting either an integrative approach or a distributive approach. Integrative negotiation is based on a win–win assumption, in that all parties want to come up with a creative solution that can benefit both sides. Rather than viewing the conflict as a win–lose situation, people look at the issues from multiple angles, consider trade-offs, and try to “expand the pie”rather than divide it. With integrative negotiation, conflicts are managed through cooperation and compromise, which fosters trust and positive long-term relationships. Distributive negotiation, on the other hand, assumes the “size of the pie”is fixed, and each party attempts to get as much of it as they can. One side wants to win, which means the other side must lose. With this win–lose approach, distributive negotiation is competitive and adversarial rather than collaborative, and it does not typically lead to positive long-term relationships.92 Most experts emphasize the value of integrative negotiation for today’s collaborative business environment. That is, the key to effectiveness is to see negotiation not as a zero-sum game but as a process for reaching a creative solution that benefits everyone.93 Achieving a win–win solution through integrative negotiation is based on four key strategies:94 • • Integrative negotiation a cooperative approach to negotiation in which conflicting parties attempt to reach a win–win solution Distributive negotiation adversarial negotiation in which conflicting parties compete to win the most resources and give up as little as possible • Separate the People from the Problem. For successful integrative negotiation, people stay focused on the problem and the source of conflict rather than attacking or attempting to discredit each other. Focus on Underlying Interests, not Current Demands. Demands are what each person wants from the negotiation, whereas underlying interests represent the “why”behind the demands. Consider two sisters arguing over the last orange in the fruit bowl. Each insisted she should get the orange and refused to give up (demands). If one sister had asked the other why she wanted the orange (interests), the sisters would have discovered that one wanted to eat it and the other wanted the peel to use for a project. By focusing on interests, the sisters would be able to arrive at a solution that gave each what she wanted.95 Demands create yes-or-no obstacles to effective negotiation, whereas underlying interests present problems that can be solved creatively. Listen and Ask Questions. A good strategy for most negotiations is to listen and ask questions. Leaders can learn more about their opponent’s position, their constraints, and their needs by being quiet or asking questions. Smart negotiators want to learn the other side’s constraints so they can help overcome them. Effective negotiators don’t dismiss the opposing party’s limitation as unreasonable or Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 315 think “that’s their problem.” Rather, they try to come up with a solution for the opponent so both parties can get closer to an agreement. Insist that Results be Based on Objective Standards. Each party in a negotiation has its own interests and would naturally like to maximize its outcomes. Successful negotiation requires focusing on objective criteria and maintaining standards of fairness rather than using subjective judgments about the best solution. Now that you’ve read the chapter, check out how today’s leaders are applying these concepts. Log in to CengageNOW to follow the leaders on Twitter. Many leaders are called upon to facilitate teams rather than manage direct-report subordinates. Teams can be effective in providing the coordination and information sharing needed to accomplish interdependent tasks. Functional teams typically are part of the traditional organization structure. Cross-departmental teams include people from different functional areas and are often formed for projects of special importance. Self-directed teams are member-centered rather than leadercentered and -directed. Teams present a dilemma for many people. Individuals have to give up their independence and sometimes make sacrifices for the good of the team. Other potential problems are free riders and dysfunctional teams. The team leader plays a big part in whether a team achieves high performance. Five things leaders provide that contribute to high performance are: compelling purpose and clear objectives, clear roles and diversity of skills, streamlined team size, decision authority over how to achieve goals, and support and coaching. Teams go through stages of development and change over time. Guiding a team through these stages is an important part of team leadership. In addition, leaders encourage team cohesiveness, help establish productive norms, and make sure people contribute their skills and competencies needed for the team to be effective. Every team must possess the following competencies: goal setting and performance management, planning and coordination, collaborative problem solving, communication, and conflict resolution. Team members take on various roles that meet both task needs and socioemotional needs. These principles apply to virtual and global teams as well. However, being a team leader is even more challenging when people are scattered in different geographic locations and may be separated by language and cultural differences. To create effective, smoothly functioning virtual teams, leaders select team members who have the skills and temperaments to work virtually, use technology to build trusting relationships, and agree on ground rules for the team. All teams experience some conflict because of scarce resources, goal conflicts, or power and status differences. Leaders try to balance conflict and cooperation and use varied styles to handle conflict, including the dominating style, avoiding style, compromising style, accommodating style, and collaborating style. Each style can be effective in certain circumstances. One type of conflict management is negotiation. Good leaders try to use integrative negotiation, which is based on a win–win assumption, rather than distributive negotiation, in which each party strives to get as much as it can at the expense of the other party. Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 316 1. What is the difference between a “team” and a “group”? Describe your personal experience with each. 2. Discuss the differences between a cross-departmental team and a self-directed team. Do you believe self-directed teams could be effectively used in certain types of organizations? Explain. 3. Which of the five elements of high-performance teams do you think would be most difficult for a leader to implement in a virtual team? Explain. 4. Describe the stages of team development. How would you facilitate a team’s development through each stage? 5. How might an individual’s dilemma about teamwork be intensified or reduced in a virtual team? As a virtual team leader, what would you do to manage these dilemmas? 6. The chapter suggests that very small teams (say, three to six members) perform better, and most people prefer to work in small teams. However, many companies use teams of 100 or more people to perform complex tasks, such as creating and developing a new product. Do you think a unit of that size can truly function as a team? Discuss. 7. Discuss the relationship between team cohesiveness and performance. As a leader, can you think of specific ways you would encourage norms of cohesiveness and collaboration? 8. Think about a team you have participated in to do a class project or a sports team on which you participated. Can you identify members who played a task-specialist role and those who played a socioemotional role? What behaviors were associated with each? 9. What style of handling conflict do you typically use? Can you think of instances where a different style might have been more productive? 10. If you were the leader of a team developing a new computer game, how might you apply negotiation to resolve a conflict between two strong-willed members related to which features to include in the game? C Complete this aassignment online with CCengageNOW. Team Feedback Think back to your most recent experience working in a team, either at work or school. Write down your answers to the following questions about your role in the team. What did the team members appreciate about you? What did the team members learn from you? Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 317 What could the team members count on you for? How could you have improved your contribution to the team? Evaluate your answers. What is the overall meaning of your answers? What are the implications for your role as a team member? As a team leader? “Team Feedback” is an excellent exercise to use for student feedback to one another after a specific team class project or other activities done together during the class. If there were no assigned team activities but students have gotten to know each other in class, they can be divided into groups and provide the information with respect to their participation in the class instead of in the student team. The instructor can ask the student groups to sit in a circle facing one another. Then one person will volunteer to be the focal person, and each of the other team members will tell that team member the following: What I appreciate about you What I learned from you What I could count on you for My one suggestion for improvement as a team leader/member When the team members have given feedback to the focal person, another team member volunteers to hear feedback, and the process continues until each person has heard the four elements of feedback from every other team member. The key questions for student learning are: Are you developing the skills and behaviors to be a team leader? If not, what does that mean for you? If you are now providing team leadership, how can you continue to grow and improve as a team leader? Source: Thanks to William Miller for suggesting the questions for this exercise. Decision Time C Check out CengageNOW ffor additional cases with iinteractive activities. Ben Dooley and Casey Stringer had agreed to stop for coffee in the atrium Starbucks before heading up to the 35th floor for a board meeting. “You seem deep in thought,” Ben said, placing the two cups of hot coffee on the table. “Watching Johnna and Robert in previous board meetings helps me to understand why the folks in Congress can’t get anything done,” Casey mused. “Both sides have stated their positions and nothing, nothing will budge them. I dread this meeting. I’d rather have a root canal.” “Well, while the two giants battle it out, the rest of us will have to work out some sort of compromise. We outsourced manufacturing operations to China several years ago to cut Copyright 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 318 costs and now things are changing rapidly and we have a major decision. Does Bishop’s Engineered Plastics make the best of the situation in China …?” “… Or do we re-shore?”Casey added. “Someone will have to be the voice of reason today,”Ben said. “Robert Ma has overseen the outsourcing to China and, initially, it was a great move.” “I agree the cost savings were pretty amazing. The retooling and creation of a stateof-the-art factory in Wenzhou by the Chinese really propelled us to a new level within the industry.” “Well, 2012 is the Year of the Dragon, and the dragon is having a problem,”Ben replied. “Yes, Robert is going to have to face the fact that if we stay in China, we have to move from Wenzhou,” Casey pointed out. “The worker shortage is bad and...
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Running head: COMMUNICATION-LEADERSHIP

Communication-Leadership
Student’s Name
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COMMUNICATION-LEADERSHIP
Communication-Leadership
Amy Cuddy and Communication-Leadership Communication
Part 1
Watch the video above and then address the following:
Discuss how your non-verbal behaviors tell a story about you (e.g., attitudes, views,
emotions, etc.). You might include facial expressions, body language, and symbolic
behaviors (e.g., type of clothing you wear, artifacts in your office, the car you drive, brands
you like, etc.). Ask at least one person for feedback.
Non-verbal behaviors create what goes on to become the first impression. What people first think
about someone. In this case people will either feel powerful or powerless and that is normally
short by their posture. People feeling powerful tend to be more and more open and while
powerlessness makes people shrink themselves. Power expressions increase confidence and even
gradually intelligence. People expressing themselves as powerful will tend...


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