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BIOL 161
Final Exam Notes
Introduction to Nervous System
Action Potential- all or nothing response
o Abnormalities in ion channels can affect the action potential
Voltage gated Na+ channels are blocked
Voltage gated K+ channels are blocked
At neuron terminal voltage gated calcium channels open (due to AP) letting calcium in triggering
secretion of neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters and Synaptic potential
Neurotransmitters (NT) diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cells
Open ligand-gated ion channels
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential- EPSP
These postsynaptic cells have NT receptors that open gated sodium channel and lead to
depolarization
Action potential of postsynaptic neuron becomes more likely
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential IPSP
These postsynaptic cells have NT receptors that open potassium and chloride channels
which leads to hyperpolarization
Action potential of postsynaptic neuron becomes less likely
EPSPs and IPSPs
o EPSPs and IPSPs are added together in a process called summation
o More EPSPs
- Increased probability of an action potential
Neuropeptides
Neurons in the brain or spinal cord synthesize neuropeptides.
Some act as neurotransmitters.
Others act as neuromodulators (substances which alter a neuron’s response to a
neurotransmitter or block the release of a neurotransmitter)
e.g. Beta endorphin

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Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine allows development of memory in the hippocampus; Muscle contraction
ex) Cramps in the body caused by shortage of acetylcholine
Dopamine Voluntary movement, learning and feelings of pleasure
drugs, sex, food
Norepinephrine arousal, alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
can increase the rate of contractions in the heart, a stress hormone in the heart
Serotonin sleep, arousal levels, emotion
GABA Inhibitory- produces a calming effect reduces anxiety, stress, and fear
Glutamate learning and memory
Some disorders associated with neurotransmitter imbalances
o Clinical depression inexplicable, debilitating sadness
o Parkinson Disease hand tremors, muscle rigidity
o Alzheimer’s Disease
Many psychoactive drugs mimic, inhibit or block reuptake of neurotransmitter
o Nicotine activates acetylcholine receptors and elevates dopamine
o Valium enhances GABA receptor binding
o Antidepressants block reuptake of serotonin and/or norepinephrine
o Cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Meninges - membrane around brain and spinal cord
Three layers of meninges
o Dura mater - protective outer layer
o Arachnoid mater - sub-arachnoid space filled with cerebrospinal fluid
o Pia mater very closely associated with the brain
Meninges continue and covers spinal cord
Cerebrospinal fluid CSF
o Fluid that bathes brain and spinal cord in the subarachnoid space
o CSF produced by choroid plexuses of ventricles
Ventricles - interconnected cavities in the brain that produce and are filled with CSF

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