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History and Philosophy of Science

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History and Philosophy of Science

by blackmuby

General Studies Unit

Kaduna State University, Kaduna

Kaduna State, Nigeria

GST 203

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

LECTURE NOTES

COURSE INTRODUCTION:

This course is designed with the objectives of not only educating students on the historical developments

that have taken place in the fields of science and technology and the philosophical basis on which

achievements were made but to stimulate discuss and interests in the minds of students irrespective of

the course they offer in the University, it is understood that cross disciplinary exposures of students in

this manner will enable them appreciate the need to think alike and work together especially that they

are our future leaders. The end result is lifting our country to joining the elite nations of scientific and

technologically developed societies. Man, His Origin and Nature

Introduction

The origin of man is based on the modern theory concerning the evolution of man which proposes that

humans and apes derive from an apelike ancestor that lived on earth a few million years ago. The theory

states that man, through a combination of environmental and genetic factors, emerged as a species to

produce the variety of ethnicities seen today, while modern apes evolved on a separate evolutionary

pathway. Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolutionary theory is Charles Darwin (1809-82) who

authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe his theory of evolution. It was based largely on

observations which he made during his 5-year voyage around the world aboard the HMS Beagle (1831-

36). Since then, mankind's origin has generally been explained from an evolutionary perspective.

Moreover, the theory of man's evolution has been and continues to be modified as new findings are

discovered, revisions to the theory are adopted, and earlier concepts proven incorrect are discarded.

Evolution of Man - Concepts in Evolutionary Theory`

The currently-accepted theory of the evolution of man rests on three major principles. These principles

hinge on the innate ability which all creatures have to pass on their genetic information to their offspring

through the reproductive process. An alternative explanation for homology is a common designer.

According to this reasoning, the similarities in anatomical features between species point to a blueprint

used by a Creator/Designer. The first tenet is microevolution, the occurrence and build-up of mutations in

the genetic sequence of an organism. Mutations are predominantly random and can occur naturally

through errors in the reproductive process or through environmental impacts such as chemicals or

radiation. The second tenet of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is a natural mechanism by

which the fittest members of a species survive to pass on their genetic information, while the weakest

are eliminated (die off) because they are unable to compete in the wild. Natural selection is often termed

"survival of the fittest" or "elimination of the weakest." The third tenet is speciation, which occurs when

members of a species mutate to the point where they are no longer able to breed with other members of

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the same species. The new population becomes a reproductively isolated community that is unable to

breed with its former community. Through speciation, the genes of the new population become isolated

from the previous group. Evolution of Man - Scientific Evidence

The theory of evolution of man is supported by a set of independent observations within the fields of

anthropology, paleontology, and molecular biology. Collectively, they depict life branching out from a

common ancestor through gradual genetic changes over millions of years, commonly known as the "tree

of life." Although accepted in mainstream science as altogether factual and experimentally proven, a

closer examination of the evidences reveal some inaccuracies and reasonable alternative explanations.

This causes a growing number of scientists to dissent from the Darwinian theory of evolution for its

inability to satisfactorily explain the origin of man. One of the major evidences for the evolution of man is

homology, that is, the similarity of either anatomical or genetic features between species. For instance,

the resemblance in the skeleton structure of apes and humans has been correlated to the homologous

genetic sequences within each species as strong evidence for common ancestry. This argument

contains the major assumption that similarity equals relatedness. In other words, the more alike two

species appear the more closely they are related to one another. This is known to be a poor assumption.

Two species can have homologous anatomy even though they are not related in any way. This is called

"convergence" in evolutionary terms. It is now known that homologous features can be generated from

entirely different gene segments within different unrelated species. The reality of convergence implies

that anatomical features arise because of the need for specific functionality, which is a serious blow to

the concept of homology and ancestry. Additionally, the evolution of man from ape-like ancestors is often

argued on the grounds of comparative anatomy within the fossil record. Yet, the fossil record indicates

more stability in the forms of species than slow or even drastic changes, which would indicate

intermediate stages between modern species. The "missing links" are missing. And unfortunately, the

field of paleoanthropology has been riddled with fraudulent claims of finding the missing link between

humans and primates, to the extent that fragments of human skeletons have been combined with other

species such as pigs and apes and passed off as legitimate. Although genetic variability is seen across

all peoples, the process of natural selection leading to speciation is disputed. Research challenging the

accepted paradigm continues to surface raising significant questions about the certainty of evolution as

the origin of man. Evolution of Man - The Scrutiny

The theory concerning the evolution of man is under increased scrutiny due to the persistence of gaps in

the fossil record, the inability to demonstrate "life-or-death" determining advantageous genetic mutations,

and the lack of experiments or observations to truly confirm the evidence for speciation. Overall, the

evolution of man pervades as the accepted paradigm on the origin of man within the scientific

community. This is not because it has been proven scientifically, but because alternative viewpoints bring

with them metaphysical implications which go against the modern naturalistic paradigm. Nevertheless, a

closer examination of the evidence reveals evolution to be increasingly less scientific and more reliant

upon beliefs, not proof. Darwin's Theory of Evolution - The Premise

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has descended from a

common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related. Darwin's general

theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected)

"descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally

over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the

beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known as "natural selection."

These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations

accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an

entirely different creature). Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Natural Selection

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History and Philosophy of Science by blackmuby General Studies Unit Kaduna State University, Kaduna Kaduna State, Nigeria GST 203 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE LECTURE NOTES COURSE INTRODUCTION: This course is designed with the objectives of not only educating students on the historical developments that have taken place in the fields of science and technology and the philosophical basis on which achievements were made but to stimulate discuss and interests in the minds of students irrespective of the course they offer in the University, it is understood that cross disciplinary exposures of students in this manner will enable them appreciate the need to think alike and work together especially that they are our future leaders. The end result is lifting our country to joining the elite nations of scientific and technologically developed societies. Man, His Origin and Nature Introduction The origin of man is based on the modern theory concerning the evolution of man which proposes that humans and apes derive from an apelike ancestor that lived on earth a few million years ago. The theory states that man, through a combination of environmental and genetic factors, emerged as a species to produce the variety of ethnicities seen today, while modern apes evolved on a separate evolutionary pathway. Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolutionary theory is Charles Darwin (1809-82) who authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe his theory of evolution. It was based l ...
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