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Advanced Physiology And Pathophysiology

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Nursing
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Western Carolina University
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Running head: ADVANCED PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 1
Advanced Physiology and Pathophysiology
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Institutional Affiliation

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ADVANCED PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2
Question 1. Analyze how calcium and phosphate are hormonally regulated and describe
the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, evaluation and treatments for hypercalcemia
and hypocalcemia.
Calcium and phosphate are essential minerals in human physiology and are necessary for
skeletal mineralization. In the body, calcium exists in three areas; bone calcium, intracellular
calcium, and calcium in the blood and extracellular fluid (Bowen, n.d.). Excess calcium is
excreted from the body, and three-body organs are involved; the small intestine, bones and
kidneys. Besides, hormonal control systems play crucial roles in controlling phosphate and
calcium levels. The main hormones involved in regulating calcium and phosphorus levels are
pyrethroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Parathyroid hormone increases calcium
concentrations in the blood whenever it is low (Bowen, n.d.). The hormone facilitates the
production of vitamin D in the kidney that is biologically active. It also stimulates calcium and
phosphate mobilization from the bones. To minimize phosphate accumulation, the parathyroid
hormone stimulates the kidney to remove excess phosphate. Also, the hormone facilitates the
tubular reabsorption of calcium within the urine. Vitamin D increases calcium concentration of
calcium by enhancing calcium fluxes in and out of bones, while calcitonin reduces calcium
levels in the blood through suppression of renal tubular.
Hypercalcemia refers to a situation where the concentration of calcium rises higher than
usual. The concentration of calcium and phosphate in the blood is usually around the saturation
point. Hypercalcemia occurs when the extracellular fluid has excess calcium or when the kidneys
excrete insufficient calcium (Agraharkar, 2021). The majority of hypercalcemia cases arise due
to hyperparathyroidism or malignancy. Mild hypercalcemia produces mild symptoms, while a
prolonged situation may cause kidney stones. Hypercalcemia affects every body organ, but its

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Running head: ADVANCED PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Advanced Physiology and Pathophysiology Student's Name Institutional Affiliation 1 ADVANCED PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2 Question 1. Analyze how calcium and phosphate are hormonally regulated and describe the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, evaluation and treatments for hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia. Calcium and phosphate are essential minerals in human physiology and are necessary for skeletal mineralization. In the body, calcium exists in three areas; bone calcium, intracellular calcium, and calcium in the blood and extracellular fluid (Bowen, n.d.). Excess calcium is excreted from the body, and three-body organs are involved; the small intestine, bones and kidneys. Besides, hormonal control systems play crucial roles in controlling phosphate and calcium levels. The main hormones involved in regulating calcium and phosphorus levels are pyrethroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Parathyroid hormone increases calcium concentrations in the blood whenever it is low (Bowen, n.d.). The hormone facilitates the production of vitamin D in the kidney that is biologically active. It also stimulates calcium and phosphate mobilization from the bones. To minimize phosphate accumulation, the parathyroid hormone stimulates the kidney to remove excess phosphate. Also, the hormone facilitates the tubular reabsorption of calcium within the urine. Vitamin D increases calcium concentration of calcium by enhancing cal ...
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