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Module 4 Writing Assignment

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Chapter 6
1. Describe observational versus experimental approaches in
epidemiology. Include the terms manipulation and randomization.
In epidemiology, an observational study draws inferences from a sample to a
population when the independent variable is not under the control of the investigator
due to the ethical concerns or logistic restrictions. One popular observational study is
about the probable influence of a treatment on subjects, where the allocation of
subjects into a treated group versus a control group is beyond the control of the
researcher. This is in clear contradiction to experimental approaches such as
randomized controlled trials in which randomization is done, a process whereby each
subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group.
Experimental approached use an experimental model to establish a causal relationship
suggested by the observational studies
Experimental epidemiology is the knowledge of the relationships between various
factors influencing the frequency, pattern and distribution of illnesses in a community.
Manipulation of the exposure i.e. modifying it can be done in experimental designs
which is in clear contrast with the observational designs which are just to be observed
as and when they are and no manipulation is to be done.
2. Define and give example of each type.
Experimental studies: clinical trials
Clinical trials are research studies that explore whether a medical strategy, treatment,
or device is safe and effective for humans. These studies also may show which
medical approaches work best for certain illnesses or groups of people. For example
drug trials.
Quasi-experimental studies: community trials
Quasi-experiments are studies that aim to evaluate interventions but that do not use
randomization. Similar to randomized trials, quasi-experiments aim to demonstrate
causality between an intervention and an outcome.
Observational studies
i. Descriptive
1. Case reports
In medicine, a case report is a report consisting of the symptoms, signs,
diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of a single patient. They may contain
a demographic profile of the patient, but mostly describe an unusual or

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novel occurrence. For example dengue case report of first dengue fever
case in a country.
2. Case series
A case series known as clinical series as well is a type of research study
which tracks subjects with a known exposure, such as patients who have
received a similar treatment e.g. of TB.
3. Cross-sectional surveys
Cross sectional surveys obtain cross section of a population at a time by
describing parameters such as prevalence. For example prevalence of TB
in a country.
ii. Analytic
1. Ecologic studies
Ecological studies are studies of risk-modifying factors on health or
other outcomes based on populations defined either geographically or
temporally. Both risk-modifying factors and outcomes are averaged for
the populations in each geographical or temporal unit and then compared
using standard statistical methods.
2. Case-control studies
A study that compares patients who have a disease or outcome of interest
(cases) with patients who do not have the disease or outcome (controls),
and looks back retrospectively to compare how frequently the exposure
to a risk factor is present in each group to determine the relationship
between the risk factor and the disease.
3. Cohort studies
Cohort studies are a type of medical research used to investigate the
causes of disease, establishing links between risk factors and health
outcomes. Cohort studies are usually forward-looking - that is, they are
"prospective" studies, or planned in advance and carried out over a
future period of time.
Chapter 7
1. Define and give examples of terms used in cohort studies.
a. temporality Refers to the timing of information about cause and effect
For example:
•did the info about cause and effect refer to the same point in time?
•Or, was the info about the cause garnered before or after the info about the effect

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Chapter 6 1. Describe observational versus experimental approaches in epidemiology. Include the terms manipulation and randomization. In epidemiology, an observational study draws inferences from a sample to a population when the independent variable is not under the control of the investigator due to the ethical concerns or logistic restrictions. One popular observational study is about the probable influence of a treatment on subjects, where the allocation of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is beyond the control of the researcher. This is in clear contradiction to experimental approaches such as randomized controlled trials in which randomization is done, a process whereby each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group. Experimental approached use an experimental model to establish a causal relationship suggested by the observational studie ...
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