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Science Knowledge

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Science (from Latin: scientia meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in
the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world.[1][2][3][4] An older and closely related meaning still
in use today is that of Aristotle, for whom scientific knowledge was a body of reliable knowledge that can be logically
and rationally explained (see "History and etymology" section below).[5]
Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the
two words, "science" and "philosophy", were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th
century, "natural philosophy" (which is today called "natural science") had begun to be considered separately from
"philosophy" in general.[6][7] However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge
about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science.
In modern use, science is "often treated as synonymous with ‘natural and physical science’, and thus restricted to those
branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied
exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use."[8] This narrower sense of "science"
developed as a part of science became a distinct enterprise of defining "laws of nature", based on early examples such
as Kepler's laws, Galileo's laws, and Newton's laws of motion. In this period it became more common to refer to natural
philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly
associated with the disciplined study of the natural world including physics, chemistry, geology and biology. This
sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these
areas of academic study as social science. Similarly, several other major areas of disciplined study and knowledge exist
today under the general rubric of "science", such as formal science and applied science.[9]
The history of science is the study of the historical development of human understandings of the natural world. Until
the late 20th century the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was seen as a narrative
celebrating the triumph of true theories over false. Science was portrayed as a major dimension of the progress of
civilization. In recent decades, postmodern views, especially influenced by Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (1962), the history is seen in terms of competing paradigms or conceptual systems battling for intellectual
supremacy in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside pure science.
New attention is paid to science outside the context of Western Europe.
Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by researchers
making use of scientific methods, which emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world
phenomena by experiment. Given the dual status of science as objective knowledge and as a human construct, good
historiography of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history.
Tracing the exact origins of modern science is possible through the many important texts which have survived from the
classical world. However, the word scientist is relatively recentfirst coined by William Whewell in the 19th century.
Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers.
While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by
Thales, Aristotle, and others), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn
al-Haytham, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early
modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution that took place in 16th and 17th century Europe.
Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some especially philosophers of
science and practicing scientists consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of
science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries.[1]
The first computers were people! That is, electronic computers (and the earlier mechanical computers) were given this
name because they performed the work that had previously been assigned to people. "Computer" was originally a job
title: it was used to describe those human beings (predominantly women) whose job it was to perform the repetitive
calculations required to compute such things as navigational tables, tide charts, and planetary positions for astronomical
almanacs. Imagine you had a job where hour after hour, day after day, you were to do nothing but compute

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multiplications. Boredom would quickly set in, leading to carelessness, leading to mistakes. And even on your best
days you wouldn't be producing answers very fast. Therefore, inventors have been searching for hundreds of years for a
way to mechanize (that is, find a mechanism that can perform) this task.
The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids the memory of the human
performing the calculation. A skilled abacus operator can work on addition and subtraction problems at the speed of a
person equipped with a hand calculator (multiplication and division are slower). The abacus is often wrongly attributed
to China. In fact, the oldest surviving abacus was used in 300 B.C. by the Babylonians. The abacus is still in use today,
principally in the far east. A modern abacus consists of rings that slide over rods, but the older one pictured below dates
from the time when pebbles were used for counting (the word "calculus" comes from the Latin word for pebble).
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS.
The development of the modern day computer was the result of advances in technologies and man's need to quantify.
Papyrus helped early man to record language and numbers. The abacus was one of the first counting machines..
Some of the earlier mechanical counting machines lacked the technology to make the design work. For instance, some
had parts made of wood prior to metal manipulation and manufacturing. Imagine the wear on wooden gears. This
history of computers site includes the names of early pioneers of math and computing and links to related sites about
the History of Computers, for further study. This site would be a good Web adjunct to accompany any book on the
History of Computers or Introduction to Computers. The "H" Section includes a link to the History of the Web
Beginning at CERN which includes Bibliography and Related Links. Hitmill.com strives to always include related
links for a broader educational experience. The material was originally divided into Part 1 & Part 2
Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting
and integrating previous knowledge.[1] To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering
empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary says
that scientific method is: "a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century,
consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of
hypotheses."[3]
Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from
other methods of obtaining knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and
design experimental studies to test these hypotheses via predictions which can be derived from them. These steps must
be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion in any particular experimenter. Theories that encompass wider
domains of inquiry may bind many independently derived hypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure.
Theories, in turn, may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context.
Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible, to reduce biased interpretations of results.
Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so they are available for careful
scrutiny by other scientists, giving them the opportunity to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. This
practice, called full disclosure, also allows statistical measures of the reliability of these data to be established.
The Scientific Process
Scientists make progress by using the scientific method, a process of checking conclusions against nature. After
observing something, a scientist tries to explain what has been seen.
The explanation is called an hypothesis. There is always at least one alternative hypothesis.
A part of nature is tested in a "controlled experiment" to see if the explanation matches reality. A controlled experiment
is one in which all treatments are identical except that some are exposed to the hypothetical cause and some are not.
Any differences in the way the treatments behave is attributed to the presence and lack of the cause.

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Science (from Latin: scientia meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world.[1][2][3][4] An older and closely related meaning still in use today is that of Aristotle, for whom scientific knowledge was a body of reliable knowledge that can be logically and rationally explained (see "History and etymology" section below).[5] Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the two words, "science" and "philosophy", were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, "natural philosophy" (which is today called "natural science") had begun to be considered separately from "philosophy" in general.[6][7] However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science. In modern use, science is "often treated as synonymous with ‘natural and physical science’, and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use."[8] This narrower sense of "science" developed as a part of science became a distinct enterprise of defining "laws of nature", based on early examples such as Kepler's laws, Gali ...
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