who can help me to make a summary of these texts thanks

yberamb65zveb
timer Asked: Nov 16th, 2014

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Use your own words and try to summarize the text using easy words and the text should not have the same words and then use other simple words with the same meaning One-to-one communication When you start a conversation with someone you don’t know well, you should always try to create the right kind of feeling. It is important to create a positive emotional atmosphere before you go on to discuss complicated issues or give people information. The other person needs to feel relaxed and happy to talk to you. Very often people will start with a greeting such as ‘Good morning’. You can help other people to relax by showing that you are friendly and relaxed. Informal communication We often use informal communication when we know people well – for example, with friends and family. Some friends or family members may use terms that other people would not understand. Local groups from particular places might also have their own ways of speaking. For example, some people in southern England might say things like ‘Hiya, mate. How’s it goin’?’ If you belong to this group, you will appreciate this as a warm, friendly greeting. But different groups of people use different informal language so it can sometimes be hard to understand the informal communication of people from different social groups. Formal communication Health and social care work often involves formal communication. For example, if you went to a local authority social services reception desk you might expect to be greeted with the phrase ‘Good morning. How can I help you?’ This formal communication is understood by a wide range of people. Formal communication also shows respect for others. The degree of formality or informality is called the language ‘register’. Imagine going to the reception desk and being greeted with the phrase ‘What you after then?’ Some people might actually prefer such an informal greeting. It might put them at ease, making them feel that the other person is like them. But in many situations, such informal language could make people feel that they are not being respected. Being ‘after something’ could be a ‘put down’; you might assume that you are being seen as a scrounger. So it is often risky to use informal language unless you are sure that other people expect you to do so. If you are treated informally, you may interpret this as not being treated seriously, or ‘not being respected’. So is there a correct way to speak to people when you fi rst introduce yourself? After all, if you are too formal you may come across as pretentious or ‘posh’. Usually care workers will adjust the way they speak in order to communicate respect for different ‘speech communities’. Communication between colleagues Family and friends know you well and will usually understand you, even if you communicate poorly or very informally. Communicating with people at work is different because: • It is important that care workers communicate respect for each other. Colleagues who do not show respect for each other may fail to show respect to the people who use care services. •You may often have to greet colleagues by asking if they are well and spend time on ‘warm-up talk’ in order to show that you value them. • You will need to demonstrate that you are a good listener and can remember details of conversations with your colleagues. • Colleagues have to develop trust in each other. It is important to demonstrate that you respect the confi dentiality of conversation with colleagues. • Work settings may have their own social expectations about the correct way to communicate thoughts and feelings. These may differ from social expectations when communicating with your friends and family. Although communication between colleagues may often be informal it is important that care workers use skilled communication in order to develop respect and trust Communication with professionals When people who use services communicate with professionals there is always a risk of misunderstanding between people from different language communities. It is important that people check that they are being understood correctly. Professional health and social care staff need to check their understanding of issues with people who are communicating with them. Multi-agency working Health and social care professionals often have to communicate with colleagues who work for different organisations. For example, a home care organiser might have to communicate not only with people who use services and care workers but also with community nurses, GPs’ surgeries, hospital services, occupational therapists, voluntary groups, day care groups and many other organisations. It is important not to assume that people from different agencies will understand the same terminology. Formal communication may help to convey respect and avoid misunderstandings when interacting with unfamiliar professionals in other agencies. Communication between professional people and people using services Professional people, such as doctors and nurses, often work within their own specialised language community. A language community is a community of people that has developed its own special words, phrases, social expectations and ways of interacting that set it apart from other groups of people. Professionals are usually well aware of the need to translate technical language into everyday language when they work with people from other professions or people who use services. It is important that professionals check that they are not being misunderstood (see section 2 on the role of feedback). Multi-professional working Professionals from different backgrounds often have to work together in order to assess and meet the needs of people who use services. Multi-professional working happens when many different professionals work together. Communication will often need to be formal and carefully planned in order to avoid barriers to understanding. Speech Different localities, ethnic groups, professions and work cultures all have their own special words, phrases and speech patterns. These localities and groups may be referred to as different speech communities. Some people may feel threatened or excluded by the kind of language they encounter in these speech communities. However, just using formal language will not solve this problem. The technical terminology used by care workers (often called jargon) can also create barriers for people who are not a part of that ‘speech community’. When people from different geographical areas use different words and pronounce words differently they are often using a different dialect. Some social groups use slang – non-standard words that are understood by other members of a speech community but which cannot usually be found in a dictionary. Jargon – Words used by a particular profession or group that are hard for others to understand. Dialect – Words and their pronunciation, which are specific to a geographical community. For example, people who live in the north west of England might use a different dialect from Londoners. Slang – Informal words and phrases that are not usually found in standard dictionaries but which are used within specific social groups and communities Posture The way you sit or stand can send messages. Sitting with crossed arms can mean ‘I’m not taking any notice’. Leaning back can send the message that you are relaxed or bored. Leaning forward can show interest or intense involvement. First language The author and psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) estimated that there may be about 600 languages in the world that are spoken by more than 100,000 people. There are many more minority languages. Some people grow up in multilingual communities, where they learn several languages from birth. But many people in the UK have grown up using only one language to think and communicate. People who learn a second language later in life often fi nd that they cannot communicate their thoughts as effectively as they might have done using their fi rst language. The fi rst language that people have learned to think in usually becomes their preferred language. Facial expression Your face often indicates your emotional state. When a person is sad they may signal this emotion by looking down – there may be tension in their face and their mouth will be closed. The muscles in the person’s shoulders are likely to be relaxed but their face and neck may show tension. A happy person will have ‘wide eyes’ that make contact with you – and they will probably smile. When people are excited they move their arms and hands to signal this. We can guess another person’s feelings and thoughts by looking at their eyes, using eye-to-eye contact. Our eyes get wider when we are excited, attracted to, or interested in someone else. A fixed stare may send the message that someone is angry. In European culture, looking away is often interpreted as being bored or not interested. Most people can recognise emotions in the non-verbal behaviour of others. You will also need to understand how your own non-verbal behaviour may infl uence other people. Touch Touch is another way of communicating without words. Touching another person can send messages of care, affection, power over them or sexual interest. The social setting and a person’s body language will usually help you to understand what their touch might mean. But touch can easily be misinterpreted. You might try to comfort someone by holding their hand but they may interpret this touch as an attempt to dominate. Sometimes it can be a good idea to ask if you may touch, or gesture in a way that allows another person to refuse your touch, before proceeding. People may also look at, or feel, the degree of muscle tension that you show when you communicate with them. The tension in your feet, hands and fi ngers can tell others how relaxed or tense you are. If someone is very tense their shoulders might stiffen, their face muscles might tighten and they might sit or stand rigidly. A tense person may have a fi rmly closed mouth, with lips and jaws clenched tight, and they might breathe quickly Silence One defi nition of friends is ‘people who can sit together and feel comfortable in silence’. Sometimes a pause in conversation can make people feel embarrassed – it looks as if you weren’t listening or you weren’t interested. Sometimes a silent pause can mean ‘let’s think’ or ‘I need time to think’. Silent pauses can be OK, as long as non-verbal messages that show respect and interest are given. Silence doesn’t always stop the conversation. Proximity The space between people can sometimes show how friendly or ‘intimate’ the conversation is. Different cultures have different customs regarding the space between people when they are talking. In Britain there are expectations or ‘norms’ as to how close you should be when you talk to others. When talking to strangers we usually keep ‘an arm’s length’ apart. The ritual of shaking hands indicates that you have been introduced – you may come closer. When you are friendly with someone you may accept them being closer to you. Relatives and partners might not be restricted at all in how close they can come. Proximity is a very important issue in health and care work. Many people have a sense of personal space. A care worker who assumes it is fi ne to enter the personal space of a person who uses services, without asking or explaining why, may be seen as dominating or aggressive Reflective listening We can often understand other people’s emotions just by watching their non-verbal communication. However, we can’t always understand someone’s thoughts without good listening skills. Listening skills involve hearing another person’s words, then thinking about what their words mean, then thinking about how to reply to the other person. Sometimes this process is called ‘active listening’ and sometimes ‘reflective listening.’ The word ‘reflective’ is used because the person’s conversation is reflected back (like the reflection in a mirror) in order to check understanding. As well as remembering what a person says, good listeners will make sure that their non-verbal behaviour shows interest. Skilled listening involves: •looking interested and communicating that you are ready to listen • hearing what is said to you •remembering what was said to you, together with non-verbal messages British Sign Language British Sign Language is a language in its own right – not simply a signed version of spoken English. The British Deaf Association explains that British Sign Language is the first or preferred language of many Deaf people in the United Kingdom. The British Deaf Association also explains that BSL was recognised as an official British language in 2003 and the Association campaigns for the right of Deaf people to be educated in BSL and to access information and services through BSL. Many Deaf people argue that the Deaf community should be identifi ed as ‘culturally Deaf’ by using a capital ‘D’ for Deaf. This emphasises that ‘Deaf’ people use another language system, as opposed to ‘Deaf’ people who are perceived to be impaired. Makaton Makaton is a system for developing language that uses speech, signs and symbols to help people with learning diffi culties to communicate and to develop their language skills. People who communicate using Makaton may speak a word and perform a sign using hands and body language. There is a large range of symbols to help people with learning diffi culties to recognise an idea or to communicate with others. Written communication There is a Chinese saying that ‘the faintest ink is stronger than the strongest memory’! Written records are essential for communicating formal information that needs to be reviewed at a future date. When people remember conversations they have had, they will probably miss out or change some details. Written statements are much more permanent and, if they are accurate when they are written, they may be useful later on. Braille Braille (a system of raised marks that can be felt with the fingers) provides a means of written communication, based on the sense of touch, for people who have limited vision. The communication system known as Braille was first published by Louis Braille, a blind 20-year-old, in 1829. This system is now widely used, for reading and writing, by people who cannot see written script. Modern computer software can translate written material into Braille, which can be printed out using special printers. Use of signs and symbols Gestures made with hands or arms, written symbols or diagrams (such as traffic signs) all communicate messages to people. Objects can sometimes be used to communicate with people who do not use much signed or spoken language. A child or adult with a learning disability might understand that a cup stands for ‘would you like a drink’. An object like a spoon tied to a card might communicate that it is time for dinner when the spoon is presented. A person without language might use a patch of cloth to communicate that they wish to sit in a favourite chair covered in that type of cloth. Sometimes a person might learn a symbol, perhaps a symbol like a horseshoe that can be used to label possessions or identify his or her room. Finger spelling People who use a signed language, such as British Sign Language, also use finger spelling. Finger spelling enables signers to spell out words that do not have a general sign, or words that may be misunderstood such as the names of people and places. Communication passports Communication passports are usually small personalised books containing straightforward practical information about a person and their style of communication. The passport may help health and care workers to understand the needs of a person with communication diffi culties. Communication passports often include photographs or drawings that may help care workers to gain a better understanding of the person who owns the passport. They are put together by working with the person with communication diffi culties and his or her carers; the person tells their own story of their likes, dislikes and communication styles. Technological aids to communication Information technology offers a wide range of facilities to help with communication. It is possible to provide enlarged visual displays or voice description for people with visual impairment. Electronic aids – such as the minicom for people with a hearing disability or voice typing for people with dyslexia – can turn speech into writing. Some electronic communication systems can be activated by air pressure, so that a person can communicate via an oral tube connected to computerised equipment. At a simpler level, aids such as fl ash cards or picture books can also improve communication with people who do not use a spoken or signed language. Text messaging, using a mobile phone, provides an effective way of staying in touch for many people. For people with a hearing disability, text messaging may provide a major form of communication. When you send text messages to friends, do you use symbols and shortened words that would not be acceptable in more formal academic work? If you send emails, do you use abbreviations, symbols and special terms or do you only use formal English? Do you think it should be acceptable to use ‘texting’ symbols and abbreviations for academic work? How formal should English be? Human aids to communication Many people have specifi c communication needs. It may be important to employ an interpreter if a person uses a different language such as BSL. Some carers learn to use communication systems, such as Makaton, in order to help them communicate with people. If you are communicating with a person with a hearing impairment you should make sure that the person can see your face clearly so that they can see your expressions and the way your lips move. Sometimes people use clues from facial expression and lip movement to interpret what you might be saying. It is also important to speak in a clear, normal voice. If you raise your voice, your face and lips will become distorted. A person with a hearing impairment may realise that you are shouting and may assume that you are angry! It is also important to try and speak in an environment with little background noise. If people have limited vision, it may be important to use language to describe issues that a sighted person might take for granted, such as non-verbal communication or the context of certain comments. Touch may be an important aspect of communication. For instance, some registered blind people can work out what you look like if they can touch your face in order to build an understanding of your features. It is always important to choose the right style of language in order to communicate with people from different language communities. Variation between cultures Skilled carers use a range of conversational techniques when working with others. These include being sensitive to variations in culture. Culture means the history, customs and ways of behaving that people learn as they grow up. People from different regions of Britain use different expressions. Non-verbal signs vary from culture to culture. White middle-class people often expect people to ‘look them in the eye’ while talking. If a person looks down or away a lot, they think it is a sign that the person may be dishonest, or perhaps sad or depressed. In some other cultures – for example, among some black communities – looking down or away when talking is a sign of respect. No one can learn every possible system of cultural variation in non-verbal behaviour but it is possible to learn about the ones that are used by the people you are with! You can do this by first noticing and remembering what others do – in other words, what non-verbal messages they are sending. The next step is to make a guess as to what messages the person is trying to give you. Finally, check your understanding (your guesses) with the person. This involves reflective listening and thinking carefully about the person’s responses Care workers must be careful not to assume that statements and signs always have the same meaning. Cultural differences and different settings can alter what things mean. A vast range of meanings can be given to any type of eye contact, facial expression, posture or gesture. Every culture, and even small groups of people, can develop their own system of meanings. Care workers have to respect differences but it is impossible to learn all the possible meanings that phrases, words and signs may have. Use your own words and try to summarize the text using easy words and the text should not have the same words and then use other simple words with the same meaning One-to-one communication When you start a conversation with someone you don’t know well, you should always try to create the right kind of feeling. It is important to create a positive emotional atmosphere before you go on to discuss complicated issues or give people information. The other person needs to feel relaxed and happy to talk to you. Very often people will start with a greeting such as ‘Good morning’. You can help other people to relax by showing that you are friendly and relaxed. Informal communication We often use informal communication when we know people well – for example, with friends and family. Some friends or family members may use terms that other people would not understand. Local groups from particular places might also have their own ways of speaking. For example, some people in southern England might say things like ‘Hiya, mate. How’s it goin’?’ If you belong to this group, you will appreciate this as a warm, friendly greeting. But different groups of people use different informal language so it can sometimes be hard to understand the informal communication of people from different social groups. Formal communication Health and social care work often involves formal communication. For example, if you went to a local authority social services reception desk you might expect to be greeted with the phrase ‘Good morning. How can I help you?’ This formal communication is understood by a wide range of people. Formal communication also shows respect for others. The degree of formality or informality is called the language ‘register’. Imagine going to the reception desk and being greeted with the phrase ‘What you after then?’ Some people might actually prefer such an informal greeting. It might put them at ease, making them feel that the other person is like them. But in many situations, such informal language could make people feel that they are not being respected. Being ‘after something’ could be a ‘put down’; you might assume that you are being seen as a scrounger. So it is often risky to use informal language unless you are sure that other people expect you to do so. If you are treated informally, you may interpret this as not being treated seriously, or ‘not being respected’. So is there a correct way to speak to people when you fi rst introduce yourself? After all, if you are too formal you may come across as pretentious or ‘posh’. Usually care workers will adjust the way they speak in order to communicate respect for different ‘speech communities’. Communication between colleagues Family and friends know you well and will usually understand you, even if you communicate poorly or very informally. Communicating with people at work is different because: • It is important that care workers communicate respect for each other. Colleagues who do not show respect for each other may fail to show respect to the people who use care services. •You may often have to greet colleagues by asking if they are well and spend time on ‘warm-up talk’ in order to show that you value them. • You will need to demonstrate that you are a good listener and can remember details of conversations with your colleagues. • Colleagues have to develop trust in each other. It is important to demonstrate that you respect the confi dentiality of conversation with colleagues. • Work settings may have their own social expectations about the correct way to communicate thoughts and feelings. These may differ from social expectations when communicating with your friends and family. Although communication between colleagues may often be informal it is important that care workers use skilled communication in order to develop respect and trust Communication with professionals When people who use services communicate with professionals there is always a risk of misunderstanding between people from different language communities. It is important that people check that they are being understood correctly. Professional health and social care staff need to check their understanding of issues with people who are communicating with them. Multi-agency working Health and social care professionals often have to communicate with colleagues who work for different organisations. For example, a home care organiser might have to communicate not only with people who use services and care workers but also with community nurses, GPs’ surgeries, hospital services, occupational therapists, voluntary groups, day care groups and many other organisations. It is important not to assume that people from different agencies will understand the same terminology. Formal communication may help to convey respect and avoid misunderstandings when interacting with unfamiliar professionals in other agencies. Communication between professional people and people using services Professional people, such as doctors and nurses, often work within their own specialised language community. A language community is a community of people that has developed its own special words, phrases, social expectations and ways of interacting that set it apart from other groups of people. Professionals are usually well aware of the need to translate technical language into everyday language when they work with people from other professions or people who use services. It is important that professionals check that they are not being misunderstood (see section 2 on the role of feedback). Multi-professional working Professionals from different backgrounds often have to work together in order to assess and meet the needs of people who use services. Multi-professional working happens when many different professionals work together. Communication will often need to be formal and carefully planned in order to avoid barriers to understanding. Speech Different localities, ethnic groups, professions and work cultures all have their own special words, phrases and speech patterns. These localities and groups may be referred to as different speech communities. Some people may feel threatened or excluded by the kind of language they encounter in these speech communities. However, just using formal language will not solve this problem. The technical terminology used by care workers (often called jargon) can also create barriers for people who are not a part of that ‘speech community’. When people from different geographical areas use different words and pronounce words differently they are often using a different dialect. Some social groups use slang – non-standard words that are understood by other members of a speech community but which cannot usually be found in a dictionary. Jargon – Words used by a particular profession or group that are hard for others to understand. Dialect – Words and their pronunciation, which are specific to a geographical community. For example, people who live in the north west of England might use a different dialect from Londoners. Slang – Informal words and phrases that are not usually found in standard dictionaries but which are used within specific social groups and communities Posture The way you sit or stand can send messages. Sitting with crossed arms can mean ‘I’m not taking any notice’. Leaning back can send the message that you are relaxed or bored. Leaning forward can show interest or intense involvement. First language The author and psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) estimated that there may be about 600 languages in the world that are spoken by more than 100,000 people. There are many more minority languages. Some people grow up in multilingual communities, where they learn several languages from birth. But many people in the UK have grown up using only one language to think and communicate. People who learn a second language later in life often fi nd that they cannot communicate their thoughts as effectively as they might have done using their fi rst language. The fi rst language that people have learned to think in usually becomes their preferred language. Facial expression Your face often indicates your emotional state. When a person is sad they may signal this emotion by looking down – there may be tension in their face and their mouth will be closed. The muscles in the person’s shoulders are likely to be relaxed but their face and neck may show tension. A happy person will have ‘wide eyes’ that make contact with you – and they will probably smile. When people are excited they move their arms and hands to signal this. We can guess another person’s feelings and thoughts by looking at their eyes, using eye-to-eye contact. Our eyes get wider when we are excited, attracted to, or interested in someone else. A fixed stare may send the message that someone is angry. In European culture, looking away is often interpreted as being bored or not interested. Most people can recognise emotions in the non-verbal behaviour of others. You will also need to understand how your own non-verbal behaviour may infl uence other people. Touch Touch is another way of communicating without words. Touching another person can send messages of care, affection, power over them or sexual interest. The social setting and a person’s body language will usually help you to understand what their touch might mean. But touch can easily be misinterpreted. You might try to comfort someone by holding their hand but they may interpret this touch as an attempt to dominate. Sometimes it can be a good idea to ask if you may touch, or gesture in a way that allows another person to refuse your touch, before proceeding. People may also look at, or feel, the degree of muscle tension that you show when you communicate with them. The tension in your feet, hands and fi ngers can tell others how relaxed or tense you are. If someone is very tense their shoulders might stiffen, their face muscles might tighten and they might sit or stand rigidly. A tense person may have a fi rmly closed mouth, with lips and jaws clenched tight, and they might breathe quickly Silence One defi nition of friends is ‘people who can sit together and feel comfortable in silence’. Sometimes a pause in conversation can make people feel embarrassed – it looks as if you weren’t listening or you weren’t interested. Sometimes a silent pause can mean ‘let’s think’ or ‘I need time to think’. Silent pauses can be OK, as long as non-verbal messages that show respect and interest are given. Silence doesn’t always stop the conversation. Proximity The space between people can sometimes show how friendly or ‘intimate’ the conversation is. Different cultures have different customs regarding the space between people when they are talking. In Britain there are expectations or ‘norms’ as to how close you should be when you talk to others. When talking to strangers we usually keep ‘an arm’s length’ apart. The ritual of shaking hands indicates that you have been introduced – you may come closer. When you are friendly with someone you may accept them being closer to you. Relatives and partners might not be restricted at all in how close they can come. Proximity is a very important issue in health and care work. Many people have a sense of personal space. A care worker who assumes it is fi ne to enter the personal space of a person who uses services, without asking or explaining why, may be seen as dominating or aggressive Reflective listening We can often understand other people’s emotions just by watching their non-verbal communication. However, we can’t always understand someone’s thoughts without good listening skills. Listening skills involve hearing another person’s words, then thinking about what their words mean, then thinking about how to reply to the other person. Sometimes this process is called ‘active listening’ and sometimes ‘reflective listening.’ The word ‘reflective’ is used because the person’s conversation is reflected back (like the reflection in a mirror) in order to check understanding. As well as remembering what a person says, good listeners will make sure that their non-verbal behaviour shows interest. Skilled listening involves: •looking interested and communicating that you are ready to listen • hearing what is said to you •remembering what was said to you, together with non-verbal messages British Sign Language British Sign Language is a language in its own right – not simply a signed version of spoken English. The British Deaf Association explains that British Sign Language is the first or preferred language of many Deaf people in the United Kingdom. The British Deaf Association also explains that BSL was recognised as an official British language in 2003 and the Association campaigns for the right of Deaf people to be educated in BSL and to access information and services through BSL. Many Deaf people argue that the Deaf community should be identifi ed as ‘culturally Deaf’ by using a capital ‘D’ for Deaf. This emphasises that ‘Deaf’ people use another language system, as opposed to ‘Deaf’ people who are perceived to be impaired. Makaton Makaton is a system for developing language that uses speech, signs and symbols to help people with learning diffi culties to communicate and to develop their language skills. People who communicate using Makaton may speak a word and perform a sign using hands and body language. There is a large range of symbols to help people with learning diffi culties to recognise an idea or to communicate with others. Written communication There is a Chinese saying that ‘the faintest ink is stronger than the strongest memory’! Written records are essential for communicating formal information that needs to be reviewed at a future date. When people remember conversations they have had, they will probably miss out or change some details. Written statements are much more permanent and, if they are accurate when they are written, they may be useful later on. Braille Braille (a system of raised marks that can be felt with the fingers) provides a means of written communication, based on the sense of touch, for people who have limited vision. The communication system known as Braille was first published by Louis Braille, a blind 20-year-old, in 1829. This system is now widely used, for reading and writing, by people who cannot see written script. Modern computer software can translate written material into Braille, which can be printed out using special printers. Use of signs and symbols Gestures made with hands or arms, written symbols or diagrams (such as traffic signs) all communicate messages to people. Objects can sometimes be used to communicate with people who do not use much signed or spoken language. A child or adult with a learning disability might understand that a cup stands for ‘would you like a drink’. An object like a spoon tied to a card might communicate that it is time for dinner when the spoon is presented. A person without language might use a patch of cloth to communicate that they wish to sit in a favourite chair covered in that type of cloth. Sometimes a person might learn a symbol, perhaps a symbol like a horseshoe that can be used to label possessions or identify his or her room. Finger spelling People who use a signed language, such as British Sign Language, also use finger spelling. Finger spelling enables signers to spell out words that do not have a general sign, or words that may be misunderstood such as the names of people and places. Communication passports Communication passports are usually small personalised books containing straightforward practical information about a person and their style of communication. The passport may help health and care workers to understand the needs of a person with communication diffi culties. Communication passports often include photographs or drawings that may help care workers to gain a better understanding of the person who owns the passport. They are put together by working with the person with communication diffi culties and his or her carers; the person tells their own story of their likes, dislikes and communication styles. Technological aids to communication Information technology offers a wide range of facilities to help with communication. It is possible to provide enlarged visual displays or voice description for people with visual impairment. Electronic aids – such as the minicom for people with a hearing disability or voice typing for people with dyslexia – can turn speech into writing. Some electronic communication systems can be activated by air pressure, so that a person can communicate via an oral tube connected to computerised equipment. At a simpler level, aids such as fl ash cards or picture books can also improve communication with people who do not use a spoken or signed language. Text messaging, using a mobile phone, provides an effective way of staying in touch for many people. For people with a hearing disability, text messaging may provide a major form of communication. When you send text messages to friends, do you use symbols and shortened words that would not be acceptable in more formal academic work? If you send emails, do you use abbreviations, symbols and special terms or do you only use formal English? Do you think it should be acceptable to use ‘texting’ symbols and abbreviations for academic work? How formal should English be? Human aids to communication Many people have specifi c communication needs. It may be important to employ an interpreter if a person uses a different language such as BSL. Some carers learn to use communication systems, such as Makaton, in order to help them communicate with people. If you are communicating with a person with a hearing impairment you should make sure that the person can see your face clearly so that they can see your expressions and the way your lips move. Sometimes people use clues from facial expression and lip movement to interpret what you might be saying. It is also important to speak in a clear, normal voice. If you raise your voice, your face and lips will become distorted. A person with a hearing impairment may realise that you are shouting and may assume that you are angry! It is also important to try and speak in an environment with little background noise. If people have limited vision, it may be important to use language to describe issues that a sighted person might take for granted, such as non-verbal communication or the context of certain comments. Touch may be an important aspect of communication. For instance, some registered blind people can work out what you look like if they can touch your face in order to build an understanding of your features. It is always important to choose the right style of language in order to communicate with people from different language communities. Variation between cultures Skilled carers use a range of conversational techniques when working with others. These include being sensitive to variations in culture. Culture means the history, customs and ways of behaving that people learn as they grow up. People from different regions of Britain use different expressions. Non-verbal signs vary from culture to culture. White middle-class people often expect people to ‘look them in the eye’ while talking. If a person looks down or away a lot, they think it is a sign that the person may be dishonest, or perhaps sad or depressed. In some other cultures – for example, among some black communities – looking down or away when talking is a sign of respect. No one can learn every possible system of cultural variation in non-verbal behaviour but it is possible to learn about the ones that are used by the people you are with! You can do this by first noticing and remembering what others do – in other words, what non-verbal messages they are sending. The next step is to make a guess as to what messages the person is trying to give you. Finally, check your understanding (your guesses) with the person. This involves reflective listening and thinking carefully about the person’s responses Care workers must be careful not to assume that statements and signs always have the same meaning. Cultural differences and different settings can alter what things mean. A vast range of meanings can be given to any type of eye contact, facial expression, posture or gesture. Every culture, and even small groups of people, can develop their own system of meanings. Care workers have to respect differences but it is impossible to learn all the possible meanings that phrases, words and signs may have. Use your own words and try to summarize the text using easy words and the text should not have the same words and then use other simple words with the same meaning One-to-one communication When you start a conversation with someone you don’t know well, you should always try to create the right kind of feeling. It is important to create a positive emotional atmosphere before you go on to discuss complicated issues or give people information. The other person needs to feel relaxed and happy to talk to you. Very often people will start with a greeting such as ‘Good morning’. You can help other people to relax by showing that you are friendly and relaxed. Informal communication We often use informal communication when we know people well – for example, with friends and family. Some friends or family members may use terms that other people would not understand. Local groups from particular places might also have their own ways of speaking. For example, some people in southern England might say things like ‘Hiya, mate. How’s it goin’?’ If you belong to this group, you will appreciate this as a warm, friendly greeting. But different groups of people use different informal language so it can sometimes be hard to understand the informal communication of people from different social groups. Formal communication Health and social care work often involves formal communication. For example, if you went to a local authority social services reception desk you might expect to be greeted with the phrase ‘Good morning. How can I help you?’ This formal communication is understood by a wide range of people. Formal communication also shows respect for others. The degree of formality or informality is called the language ‘register’. Imagine going to the reception desk and being greeted with the phrase ‘What you after then?’ Some people might actually prefer such an informal greeting. It might put them at ease, making them feel that the other person is like them. But in many situations, such informal language could make people feel that they are not being respected. Being ‘after something’ could be a ‘put down’; you might assume that you are being seen as a scrounger. So it is often risky to use informal language unless you are sure that other people expect you to do so. If you are treated informally, you may interpret this as not being treated seriously, or ‘not being respected’. So is there a correct way to speak to people when you fi rst introduce yourself? After all, if you are too formal you may come across as pretentious or ‘posh’. Usually care workers will adjust the way they speak in order to communicate respect for different ‘speech communities’. Communication between colleagues Family and friends know you well and will usually understand you, even if you communicate poorly or very informally. Communicating with people at work is different because: • It is important that care workers communicate respect for each other. Colleagues who do not show respect for each other may fail to show respect to the people who use care services. •You may often have to greet colleagues by asking if they are well and spend time on ‘warm-up talk’ in order to show that you value them. • You will need to demonstrate that you are a good listener and can remember details of conversations with your colleagues. • Colleagues have to develop trust in each other. It is important to demonstrate that you respect the confi dentiality of conversation with colleagues. • Work settings may have their own social expectations about the correct way to communicate thoughts and feelings. These may differ from social expectations when communicating with your friends and family. Although communication between colleagues may often be informal it is important that care workers use skilled communication in order to develop respect and trust Communication with professionals When people who use services communicate with professionals there is always a risk of misunderstanding between people from different language communities. It is important that people check that they are being understood correctly. Professional health and social care staff need to check their understanding of issues with people who are communicating with them. Multi-agency working Health and social care professionals often have to communicate with colleagues who work for different organisations. For example, a home care organiser might have to communicate not only with people who use services and care workers but also with community nurses, GPs’ surgeries, hospital services, occupational therapists, voluntary groups, day care groups and many other organisations. It is important not to assume that people from different agencies will understand the same terminology. Formal communication may help to convey respect and avoid misunderstandings when interacting with unfamiliar professionals in other agencies. Communication between professional people and people using services Professional people, such as doctors and nurses, often work within their own specialised language community. A language community is a community of people that has developed its own special words, phrases, social expectations and ways of interacting that set it apart from other groups of people. Professionals are usually well aware of the need to translate technical language into everyday language when they work with people from other professions or people who use services. It is important that professionals check that they are not being misunderstood (see section 2 on the role of feedback). Multi-professional working Professionals from different backgrounds often have to work together in order to assess and meet the needs of people who use services. Multi-professional working happens when many different professionals work together. Communication will often need to be formal and carefully planned in order to avoid barriers to understanding. Speech Different localities, ethnic groups, professions and work cultures all have their own special words, phrases and speech patterns. These localities and groups may be referred to as different speech communities. Some people may feel threatened or excluded by the kind of language they encounter in these speech communities. However, just using formal language will not solve this problem. The technical terminology used by care workers (often called jargon) can also create barriers for people who are not a part of that ‘speech community’. When people from different geographical areas use different words and pronounce words differently they are often using a different dialect. Some social groups use slang – non-standard words that are understood by other members of a speech community but which cannot usually be found in a dictionary. Jargon – Words used by a particular profession or group that are hard for others to understand. Dialect – Words and their pronunciation, which are specific to a geographical community. For example, people who live in the north west of England might use a different dialect from Londoners. Slang – Informal words and phrases that are not usually found in standard dictionaries but which are used within specific social groups and communities Posture The way you sit or stand can send messages. Sitting with crossed arms can mean ‘I’m not taking any notice’. Leaning back can send the message that you are relaxed or bored. Leaning forward can show interest or intense involvement. First language The author and psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) estimated that there may be about 600 languages in the world that are spoken by more than 100,000 people. There are many more minority languages. Some people grow up in multilingual communities, where they learn several languages from birth. But many people in the UK have grown up using only one language to think and communicate. People who learn a second language later in life often fi nd that they cannot communicate their thoughts as effectively as they might have done using their fi rst language. The fi rst language that people have learned to think in usually becomes their preferred language. Facial expression Your face often indicates your emotional state. When a person is sad they may signal this emotion by looking down – there may be tension in their face and their mouth will be closed. The muscles in the person’s shoulders are likely to be relaxed but their face and neck may show tension. A happy person will have ‘wide eyes’ that make contact with you – and they will probably smile. When people are excited they move their arms and hands to signal this. We can guess another person’s feelings and thoughts by looking at their eyes, using eye-to-eye contact. Our eyes get wider when we are excited, attracted to, or interested in someone else. A fixed stare may send the message that someone is angry. In European culture, looking away is often interpreted as being bored or not interested. Most people can recognise emotions in the non-verbal behaviour of others. You will also need to understand how your own non-verbal behaviour may infl uence other people. Touch Touch is another way of communicating without words. Touching another person can send messages of care, affection, power over them or sexual interest. The social setting and a person’s body language will usually help you to understand what their touch might mean. But touch can easily be misinterpreted. You might try to comfort someone by holding their hand but they may interpret this touch as an attempt to dominate. Sometimes it can be a good idea to ask if you may touch, or gesture in a way that allows another person to refuse your touch, before proceeding. People may also look at, or feel, the degree of muscle tension that you show when you communicate with them. The tension in your feet, hands and fi ngers can tell others how relaxed or tense you are. If someone is very tense their shoulders might stiffen, their face muscles might tighten and they might sit or stand rigidly. A tense person may have a fi rmly closed mouth, with lips and jaws clenched tight, and they might breathe quickly Silence One defi nition of friends is ‘people who can sit together and feel comfortable in silence’. Sometimes a pause in conversation can make people feel embarrassed – it looks as if you weren’t listening or you weren’t interested. Sometimes a silent pause can mean ‘let’s think’ or ‘I need time to think’. Silent pauses can be OK, as long as non-verbal messages that show respect and interest are given. Silence doesn’t always stop the conversation. Proximity The space between people can sometimes show how friendly or ‘intimate’ the conversation is. Different cultures have different customs regarding the space between people when they are talking. In Britain there are expectations or ‘norms’ as to how close you should be when you talk to others. When talking to strangers we usually keep ‘an arm’s length’ apart. The ritual of shaking hands indicates that you have been introduced – you may come closer. When you are friendly with someone you may accept them being closer to you. Relatives and partners might not be restricted at all in how close they can come. Proximity is a very important issue in health and care work. Many people have a sense of personal space. A care worker who assumes it is fi ne to enter the personal space of a person who uses services, without asking or explaining why, may be seen as dominating or aggressive Reflective listening We can often understand other people’s emotions just by watching their non-verbal communication. However, we can’t always understand someone’s thoughts without good listening skills. Listening skills involve hearing another person’s words, then thinking about what their words mean, then thinking about how to reply to the other person. Sometimes this process is called ‘active listening’ and sometimes ‘reflective listening.’ The word ‘reflective’ is used because the person’s conversation is reflected back (like the reflection in a mirror) in order to check understanding. As well as remembering what a person says, good listeners will make sure that their non-verbal behaviour shows interest. Skilled listening involves: •looking interested and communicating that you are ready to listen • hearing what is said to you •remembering what was said to you, together with non-verbal messages British Sign Language British Sign Language is a language in its own right – not simply a signed version of spoken English. The British Deaf Association explains that British Sign Language is the first or preferred language of many Deaf people in the United Kingdom. The British Deaf Association also explains that BSL was recognised as an official British language in 2003 and the Association campaigns for the right of Deaf people to be educated in BSL and to access information and services through BSL. Many Deaf people argue that the Deaf community should be identifi ed as ‘culturally Deaf’ by using a capital ‘D’ for Deaf. This emphasises that ‘Deaf’ people use another language system, as opposed to ‘Deaf’ people who are perceived to be impaired. Makaton Makaton is a system for developing language that uses speech, signs and symbols to help people with learning diffi culties to communicate and to develop their language skills. People who communicate using Makaton may speak a word and perform a sign using hands and body language. There is a large range of symbols to help people with learning diffi culties to recognise an idea or to communicate with others. Written communication There is a Chinese saying that ‘the faintest ink is stronger than the strongest memory’! Written records are essential for communicating formal information that needs to be reviewed at a future date. When people remember conversations they have had, they will probably miss out or change some details. Written statements are much more permanent and, if they are accurate when they are written, they may be useful later on. Braille Braille (a system of raised marks that can be felt with the fingers) provides a means of written communication, based on the sense of touch, for people who have limited vision. The communication system known as Braille was first published by Louis Braille, a blind 20-year-old, in 1829. This system is now widely used, for reading and writing, by people who cannot see written script. Modern computer software can translate written material into Braille, which can be printed out using special printers. Use of signs and symbols Gestures made with hands or arms, written symbols or diagrams (such as traffic signs) all communicate messages to people. Objects can sometimes be used to communicate with people who do not use much signed or spoken language. A child or adult with a learning disability might understand that a cup stands for ‘would you like a drink’. An object like a spoon tied to a card might communicate that it is time for dinner when the spoon is presented. A person without language might use a patch of cloth to communicate that they wish to sit in a favourite chair covered in that type of cloth. Sometimes a person might learn a symbol, perhaps a symbol like a horseshoe that can be used to label possessions or identify his or her room. Finger spelling People who use a signed language, such as British Sign Language, also use finger spelling. Finger spelling enables signers to spell out words that do not have a general sign, or words that may be misunderstood such as the names of people and places. Communication passports Communication passports are usually small personalised books containing straightforward practical information about a person and their style of communication. The passport may help health and care workers to understand the needs of a person with communication diffi culties. Communication passports often include photographs or drawings that may help care workers to gain a better understanding of the person who owns the passport. They are put together by working with the person with communication diffi culties and his or her carers; the person tells their own story of their likes, dislikes and communication styles. Technological aids to communication Information technology offers a wide range of facilities to help with communication. It is possible to provide enlarged visual displays or voice description for people with visual impairment. Electronic aids – such as the minicom for people with a hearing disability or voice typing for people with dyslexia – can turn speech into writing. Some electronic communication systems can be activated by air pressure, so that a person can communicate via an oral tube connected to computerised equipment. At a simpler level, aids such as fl ash cards or picture books can also improve communication with people who do not use a spoken or signed language. Text messaging, using a mobile phone, provides an effective way of staying in touch for many people. For people with a hearing disability, text messaging may provide a major form of communication. When you send text messages to friends, do you use symbols and shortened words that would not be acceptable in more formal academic work? If you send emails, do you use abbreviations, symbols and special terms or do you only use formal English? Do you think it should be acceptable to use ‘texting’ symbols and abbreviations for academic work? How formal should English be? Human aids to communication Many people have specifi c communication needs. It may be important to employ an interpreter if a person uses a different language such as BSL. Some carers learn to use communication systems, such as Makaton, in order to help them communicate with people. If you are communicating with a person with a hearing impairment you should make sure that the person can see your face clearly so that they can see your expressions and the way your lips move. Sometimes people use clues from facial expression and lip movement to interpret what you might be saying. It is also important to speak in a clear, normal voice. If you raise your voice, your face and lips will become distorted. A person with a hearing impairment may realise that you are shouting and may assume that you are angry! It is also important to try and speak in an environment with little background noise. If people have limited vision, it may be important to use language to describe issues that a sighted person might take for granted, such as non-verbal communication or the context of certain comments. Touch may be an important aspect of communication. For instance, some registered blind people can work out what you look like if they can touch your face in order to build an understanding of your features. It is always important to choose the right style of language in order to communicate with people from different language communities. Variation between cultures Skilled carers use a range of conversational techniques when working with others. These include being sensitive to variations in culture. Culture means the history, customs and ways of behaving that people learn as they grow up. People from different regions of Britain use different expressions. Non-verbal signs vary from culture to culture. White middle-class people often expect people to ‘look them in the eye’ while talking. If a person looks down or away a lot, they think it is a sign that the person may be dishonest, or perhaps sad or depressed. In some other cultures – for example, among some black communities – looking down or away when talking is a sign of respect. No one can learn every possible system of cultural variation in non-verbal behaviour but it is possible to learn about the ones that are used by the people you are with! You can do this by first noticing and remembering what others do – in other words, what non-verbal messages they are sending. The next step is to make a guess as to what messages the person is trying to give you. Finally, check your understanding (your guesses) with the person. This involves reflective listening and thinking carefully about the person’s responses Care workers must be careful not to assume that statements and signs always have the same meaning. Cultural differences and different settings can alter what things mean. A vast range of meanings can be given to any type of eye contact, facial expression, posture or gesture. Every culture, and even small groups of people, can develop their own system of meanings. Care workers have to respect differences but it is impossible to learn all the possible meanings that phrases, words and signs may have.
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