Promoting Positive Social and
Emotional Development
9
© Dave Nagel/Getty Images
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
▸▸ Define social and emotional development and describe how each affects future
mental health.
▸▸ Understand behavioral health.
▸▸ List practices that promote social and emotional development in young children.
▸▸ Understand how young children can be encouraged to build relationships.
▸▸ Promote positive behaviors and demonstrate strategies to prevent discipline problems.
▸▸ Recognize three types of temperament of infants and toddlers.
▸▸ Teach young children self-regulation and de-escalation techniques.
▸▸ Determine when to make referrals to mental health professionals.
▸▸ Incorporate professional collaborations in the child care setting.
The Foundations of Social-Emotional Development
Chapter 9
9.1 The Foundations of Social-Emotional Development
Early social-emotional development is an indicator of how a child’s future mental health will
progress. Research shows that it sets the foundation for positive or negative future relationships, self-esteem, coping skills, conflict resolution, and working with others. The term socialemotional development “refers to feelings and competencies that reflect children’s sense of
themselves, their expectations of others and their growing abilities to understand and manage
emotions and to interact successfully with adults and other children” (Chinitz & Briggs, 2009,
p. 381). No two children are alike, especially in social-emotional development, because early
social and emotional development depends on many factors, including genetics and how
the children experience their early physical and behavioral environments (California Childcare
Health Program [CCHP], 2006).
Specifically, social development is the growth of a child’s capacity to have relationships and
to work cooperatively in the future. This is seen in infancy when a child smiles appropriately
for given stimuli or reaches for a favorite caregiver. Emotional development is a child’s increasing ability to express emotions appropriately whether in a stressful situation or not. Crying
when left by a significant caregiver is appropriate for
a toddler but typically not appropriate for a middle–
school-aged child.
▲ For children, positive relationships with adults
provide the foundation for positive behavioral
health. © Image Source/Thinkstock
Research has found that early, responsive, consistent
relationships with adults build positive attachments
that lead to healthy social-emotional development
and provide the basis for positive behavioral
health in children. Behavioral health refers to the
set of behaviors children make in response to early
experiences and to the actions of others. If those
actions and experiences are positive, it is likely that
the child will have healthy appropriate behaviors.
This is important because children with healthy
social-emotional competencies have an easier time
learning, and stay in school longer (Yates, 2011).
The Importance of Relationships and Interactions
Scholars have been debating for decades how children learn, thrive, and grow into healthy
productive adults. Developmental theories such as Freud’s (1940) psychoanalytic theory,
Bowlby’s (1958) attachment theory, Vygotsky’s (1978) social-cultural theory, Bandura’s (1977)
social-learning theory, and Piaget’s (1952) theory of stages of cognitive development often
have different emphasis in what makes children mentally healthy, behaviorally appropriate,
or how they learn. Yet a common theme throughout these theories is the importance of
early relationships in influencing a child’s future social and mental development. For instance,
attachment theory (Bowlby, 1958; Ainsworth, 1979) specifies that early experience with a
few warm and caring adults who are stable in a child’s life develops into secure relationships
that are the basis of appropriate long-term mental health. That is because early attachment
promotes a sense of positive self-esteem and confidence in the child.
To promote a positive relationship, the interactions between a child and a caregiver must
include appropriate emotional support from the adult, sensitivity that is tuned into the child,
The Foundations of Social-Emotional Development
Chapter 9
an affinity and understanding between child and adult, and a positive attitude toward the
child. Interactions between the caregiver and child should be reciprocal, with a give and
take that is age appropriate. These interactions should provide stimulation to the child, be
responsive to the child’s needs, and engage the child at the child’s social, emotional, and
cognitive level.
Temperament
Although children are influenced greatly by their environment and their caregivers, some
individual responses are inherently part of their personalities. Temperament is the inherited style of behavioral responses that a child
demonstrates. Though it can be modulated by environment and experiences, the basic traits of each
child fall into one category or another and do not
change. Temperament categories of children were
first described by Thomas & Chess (1977). These
categories have been expanded and debated since
then but researchers agree that traits of children
generally fall into three categories (although children do not always fit neatly into these categories
and at times show traits from other categories).
The three categories are easy or flexible, active or
feisty, and slow to warm up or cautious (Allard &
Hunter, n.d.).
It is important to understand the temperament of ▲ Babies' temperaments may vary. Some are "easy
children in care because researchers believe that it going," but there is no good or bad temperament.
is necessary to have a goodness of fit. Goodness © Kwaku Alston/Getty Images
of fit is the compatibility between the care and
relationships in the environment and a child’s temperament (Culpepper, n.d.). This assists
caregivers in identifying children’s needs in relationships and in new situations, the children’s approximate level of activity and ability to adapt, and their sensitivity, flexibility, and
H I G H L I G H T:
Three Temperament Types of Infants and Toddlers
Easy or flexible: These children are generally pleasant and calm. They are not easily distressed
and rarely get agitated. Their eating and sleeping patterns are regular.
Active or feisty: These children are often fussy and inflexible. They are disturbed by new situations and fearful of strangers. They are easily bothered by noise and other stimulation and have
intense reactions to these. Their eating and sleeping patterns are not regular.
Slow to warm or cautious: These children may also be fussy and react negatively to new situations and strangers. However, these children become more adaptable with repeated exposure and
experience than the active or feisty child.
(Adapted from Understanding Temperament in Infants and Toddlers by Lindsey T. Allard and Amy Hunter [n.d.])
The Foundations of Social-Emotional Development
Chapter 9
distractibility (Allard & Hunter, n.d.). The first step in goodness of fit is for caregivers to
recognize their own temperaments and then the child’s. Although the names of temperament categories may suggest it, there is no bad temperament or better temperament for a
child. The recognition of temperaments is important so that caregivers can be appropriately
responsive to each child.
Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the ability of a child to control emotions and behavior. Self-regulation
is a social-emotional skill that includes inhibition of impulses, focused and sustained attention, and ability to delay gratification. These self-regulatory behaviors are all necessary to be
successful in early care programs and later in school (Blair, 2002). They prevent later aggression and antisocial behaviors in children. Children who have persistent difficulties with attention, seem impulsive, are often overly active, and rarely finish a task should be screened for
Attention Deficit Disorder, known as ADD or ADHD.
In addition to providing nurturing care, caregivers must intentionally teach young children
pro-social and self-regulating behaviors. Depending on the age of the child this can be done
by discussing an event that took place that day and problem solving how emotions could have
been expressed to get the desired outcome, or how to deal more effectively, providing skills
on making friends by role playing positive play behaviors such as taking turns, sharing, and
talking socially.
H E A LT H I N A C T I O N :
Ten Steps in Minimizing the Impact of
Self-Regulation Problems
1. Get and maintain the focused attention of the child before giving instructions (i.e., get down to
the child’s level and make eye contact, use the child’s name).
2. Be sure the child understands the instructions (i.e,. ask the child to repeat them).
3. Situate the child close to the caregiver, especially at group times, to keep the child on task.
4. Minimize distractions, including noises, visual stimulation (such as decorations), and number of
available materials.
5. Keep activities short and stimulating.
6. Break down tasks into small steps.
7. Give positive attention.
8. Redirect child to the activity when needed.
9. Be flexible.
10. Involve the parents in supporting these techniques at home.
(Wodrich [1994]; “Strategies for teaching” [n.d.]; TeachingToday, [n.d.])
Promoting Positive Behaviors in Young Children
Chapter 9
9.2 Promoting Positive Behaviors in Young Children
Positive behaviors are those that are desirable and appropriate for a given situation. These
behaviors, such as using proper table manners or taking turns, should be encouraged in
young children. Strategies that promote positive behaviors must be a part of every activity
and routine in an early care and education environment. Caregivers and teachers should be
trained in promotion of positive behaviors, and techniques should be continually updated.
According to many early childhood professionals, there is no more important skill for a caregiver to have and use than the promotion of positive behaviors in children. Current conceptual and training models of positive behavior promotion use comprehensive frameworks that
address workforce or caregiver needs as well as the needs of all children and their families,
and are especially useful with children with challenging behaviors.
Models for Promoting Positive Behavior
One evidence-based model of promoting positive behaviors is school-wide Positive Behavior
Support (PBS). This model teaches children social skills and alternate appropriate behaviors.
It uses teacher training and teacher supports as well as strong buy-in at the administrative and
teacher levels. Although this model has been shown effective in K–12 programs, components
of the model are useful for young children. These relevant and valuable components include
having staff buy-in and clear goals for all children, using prevention strategies, directly teaching
social skills, and developing individualized intervention plans for children with persistent behavioral challenges (Doubet & Corso, 2011). For example, try to distract the child. When a child
demonstrates a negative behavior, a caregiver can try to distract by asking the child to talk about
something he or she enjoys doing, or direct the child toward another activity.
Caregivers can also demonstrate appropriate behaviors for children so that Figure 9.1:
they can learn how to respond to frustration or anger. Another suggestion is The Pyramid Model
for the caregiver to teach children how to respond when a child
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Social Emotional Foundations
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Promoting Positive Behaviors in Young Children
Chapter 9
social-emotional development, positive play behaviors, and the prevention of challenging
behaviors. It specifies a comprehensive system of addressing the social-emotional development of young children with challenging behaviors.
This model (see Figure 9.1) uses four levels of prevention of challenging behaviors, promotion of appropriate behaviors, and intervention to assist children with challenging behaviors.
At the most universal level for all children is prevention through “nurturing and responsive
relationships.” The next level is prevention through good environmental practices or “highquality supportive environments,” followed by teaching children alternative or replacement
skills that they do not have but need, known in the model as “targeted social emotional
supports.” Finally, children with continued behavior challenges need “intensive individualized
interventions.” These intense interventions include prevention strategies, replacement skills,
and new responses by the caregivers to the behaviors targeted for elimination and those to
be reinforced (Doubet & Corso, 2011).
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In particular, the R&R model uses recognition of potential problems by the
caregiver who has observed the child in
question and documented skills and behaviors that are inappropriate. This first step is followed by collaborations with other professionals
and specialists to link the information gathered
by the caregiver with supportive interventions
known as the “response.” Figure 9.2 shows the
R&R conceptual framework. More information
can be found at http://randr.fpg.unc.edu.
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Another model that has been documented as effective in intervening early before significant
problems arise is the Recognition and Response (R&R) model (Peisner-Feinberg et al., 2011).
This model is another tiered model of intervention that depends on the needs of the individual
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The whole pyramid rests on a base of an effective workforce that needs professional development opportunities in this area. See Figure 9.1 for details and refer to the Center on the
Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning at http://www.vanderbilt.edu/csefel for
implementation assistance and user-friendly training videos, materials, and other resources.
Promoting Positive Behaviors in Young Children
Chapter 9
Consultation for Positive Mental Health
Before these models were created, the early childhood field used a mental health consultation
strategy for children reported to have challenging behaviors or mental health problems. This
strategy employed consultants who screened, assessed, and intervened with the targeted children. The consultants generally worked directly with the children, often in an isolated room,
and talked later with the caregiver. The caregiver and parents were involved indirectly at best.
This model is not the same as the very collaborative “early childhood mental health consultation” practice described later in this chapter.
Currently, due to better understanding that young children need to be viewed in a holistic
manner, or within the program and within the family, early childhood mental health consultation is a more collaborative effort. Consequently, mental health consultation currently means
working with early care and education staff of the program to improve the quality of the
program for all children and involving the family of any child needing more interventions. This
trend is not to provide one-on-one therapy to children but rather to work with professional
staff and families in a coaching model (Doubet & Corso, 2011). The coaching model recognizes the importance of working with the adults that spend the most time with the child and
have enormous influence on the child. These adults should be in agreement on how to manage the child, what various strategies are effective, including the implementation of consistent
consequences. Thus, the child’s program, community, and family context are very complex
and influential. See Figure 9.3 for a view of the complex family context (Zeanah, 1993). The
family context is an example of the interrelationships and the impact of family members,
friends, community, and life conditions.
The Influence of Teacher/Caregiver Behaviors
Forty-four percent of children less than 1 year old are in nonparental care while parents or
guardians work, and the percent increases each year, to 70% of 4-year-olds in nonparental
care (Florida State University Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy, 2006). These
children often spend the majority of daytime hours with caregivers other than parents and
other family members. Research shows that the early years are critical in brain development.
The parts of the brain that are affected early control emotions and executive functioning
skills such as planning ahead, organization, inhibition, and working memory as well as social
behaviors. Studies over the past 30 years in the neurobiological, behavioral, and social sciences have provided in-depth understanding of the importance of early life experiences in
early care and education programs that impact environment and genetics to form behavioral
responses in children (Schonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Young children often receive their early
sense of trust from the predictability and stability of their early childhood caregivers (Preusse,
n.d.). Very recently, due to the expanding understanding of the lifelong physical and mental
health influences of early environments, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) (2012)
issued a technical report that calls on the pediatric medical community to work with early
childhood providers to reduce external threats to brain growth by encouraging quality care in
early childhood services.
In addition, studies show that supportive caregivers and parents can influence and change
children’s behavior from inappropriate behavior to more appropriate behaviors (McCabe &
Brooks-Gunn, 2007). The reverse is also true. Poor-quality care that deviates significantly from
a nurturing environment, such as in cases of child abuse or living with parents who are either
physically or emotionally unavailable due to substance abuse or mental illness, puts children
at risk of behavioral health problems (Sonuga-Barke, Schlotz, & Kreppner, 2010).
Promoting Positive Behaviors in Young Children
Chapter 9
POVERTY
SOCIAL NETWORK
Friends
Family
Community Institutions
ADVERSE LIFE CONDITIONS
Adult Health
Housing
Child Health
Expose to Violence
Unemployment
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS
Marital Conflict
Maltreatment
Parental Depression
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Figure 9.3: The Complex Interrelationships Within the Family Context All Influence the
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conclusions on this topic. One of the most cited is that “Parents and other regular caregivers
in children’s lives are ‘active ingredients’ of environmental influence during the early childhood
period. Children grow and thrive in the context of close and dependable relationships that
provide love and nurturance, security, responsive interaction, and encouragement for exploration.” It is not sufficient that a child’s environment be clean, tidy, and organized. Caregivers
need to remember that their actions, or lack thereof, can either promote or hinder a child’s
emotional development.
What Are Challenging Behaviors?
Chapter 9
Another pivotal conclusion from this work is “The time is long overdue for society to recognize the significance of out-of-home relationships for young children, to esteem those who
care for them when their parents are not available, and to compensate them adequately as
a means of supporting stability and quality in these relationships for all children. . . .” (p. 7).
Child care centers are not just holding tanks for children while their parents are at work.
Early childhood caregivers play an important part in the emotional development of children.
Therefore, the most competent individuals must be recruited to take on this important role. In
order to attract the most competent individuals to this position, society must understand this
process, elevate the position of caregivers, and pay them accordingly.
It is established that caregivers in early care and education settings have an enormous influence on learning, behavior, and future success of the children in their care. Generally, children
want to do what is expected of them, they want to imitate and please adults, and they want
to be in control of themselves. Caregivers can help children accomplish these desires by setting clear rules, reinforcing appropriate behavior, modeling alternative behaviors, and helping
each child problem solve and make positive decisions. The first step in having such an impact
on the child is building a strong relationship with the child. Early caregiving that is consistent,
stable, nurturing, warm, and responsive in a secure and respectful environment builds strong
relationships with the children in care.
9.3 What Are Challenging Behaviors?
Challenging behaviors are actions on the part of a child that are inappropriate for the child’s
age and developmental level. These actions are repeated often, and they make the child
difficult to manage. To manage these behaviors the caregiver must first recognize them as
inappropriate and understand what purpose the behaviors serve for the child. Once this is
established, compatible skills should be promoted or taught so that the child has alternative
positive behaviors to use that fulfill the same purpose. However, preventing the challenging
behavior from ever being presented is even more effective.
H E A LT H I N A C T I O N :
Strategies that Help in the Management
of Challenging Behavior
• Be sure rules are clear and understood.
• Enforce consequences consistently.
• Arrange the physical environment so that it discourages inappropriate behaviors.
• Present activities that are at the child’s level and interest.
• Note what happens before and after the behavior occurs.
• Model positive behaviors.
• Provide alternative behaviors.
What Are Challenging Behaviors?
Chapter 9
So what does a common challenging behavior look like? In most cases, challenging behaviors are seen as negative behaviors. They can be aggressive, such as biting and hitting, or
noncompliant, such as refusing to obey adult requests. They are sometimes destructive to
toys and other materials or just annoying and disruptive, with loud talking or wandering
during circle time. Sometimes they surface as emotional or “dependent” behaviors such as
clinging, whining, pant wetting or soiling, or baby talk (Essa, 1999). Forms of challenging
behaviors that are less common include extreme
withdrawal or shyness, self-injurious behaviors, or
repetitive behaviors such as rocking the body back
and forth. Caregivers could keep logs on challenging behaviors so that they have documentation that
could be helpful when speaking to parents. It is
important for caregivers not to be judgmental or
presumptive when speaking with parents. Parents
and caregivers working together can help identify
triggers that may result in challenging child behaviors, allowing caregivers to intervene before a situation escalates, thereby reducing the number of
incidents.
The usual purposes of these behaviors are attention
seeking or self-stimulation but there also may be
causes that are out of the child’s control. All possible external reasons should be considered, including
© iStockphoto/Thinkstock
the caregivers’ behaviors. Caregiver behaviors such
as sending mixed messages, enforcing rules in an
inconsistent way, and presenting inappropriate adult responses including facial expressions,
gestures, verbalizations, or audible sounds (e.g., sighing in response to a child’s behavior) are
all potential triggers that can encourage conduct problems. Other external conditions that
often set off challenging behaviors include the physical environment encouraging certain
behaviors through too little personal space for an active preschooler or open areas that invite
running. Bored children or frustrated children also may present challenging behaviors, so it is
important to target activities to the child’s interest and skill level with opportunities for learning and practicing skills.
▲ Some children may exhibit challenging behaviors, such as withdrawal or shyness. Caregivers
should consider documenting challenging behaviors to pinpoint a possible trigger of such behavior.
If external causes for poor behavior have been identified and eliminated and the child is
still having difficulty with behavior, an effective way of identifying the reason for the child’s
challenging behavior is to note what happens immediately before the behavior begins and
immediately before it stops. Often, caregivers will claim that a child produces the challenging behaviors for “no reason.” This is very unlikely. For example, a child is tugging at a caregiver’s sleeve but the caregiver is attending to a group of children and does not respond.
Subsequently the child falls to the floor screaming and kicking, which causes the caregiver to
stop the group activity and discipline the child. The caregiver did not notice the tugging and
therefore claims there was no provocation for the behavior. The child’s purpose, however, was
to get the attention of the caregiver and it worked.
After noting what happens before and after a negative behavior occurs, the next step in
managing a challenging behavior is to select an alternative but socially acceptable and age-
appropriate behavior, called the replacement or alternative behavior, that could have
been used by the child rather than the tantrum displayed by screaming and kicking. Once the
Providing Disciplinary Guidance
new behavior is selected it must be taught, practiced,
and rewarded when the child uses it appropriately.
Chapter 9
The purpose of discipline is to help
children learn behaviors that help
them succeed in life.
To follow through on the example of the child who
displayed a tantrum, assume the teacher and child
agree that oral communication coupled with a gesture is an effective replacement behavior. Therefore,
each time the child needs to gain the attention of the teacher the child will raise his hand
and say “excuse me.” The teacher must (1) respond immediately and (2) praise the child for
using appropriate behavior. Both these steps (1 and 2) become the child’s reward for using
the replacement behaviors.
9.4 Providing Disciplinary Guidance
Discipline is not punishment. Discipline is the guidance provided to children as they learn
appropriate behaviors. Good discipline includes predetermined and clearly stated rules for
behavior and the use of consequences that allow children to experience the result of their
behaviors, thus teaching children responsibility for their own actions. Consequences must
be consistently enforced. Inconsistent consequences are confusing to children. With consistent consequences, children learn to self-regulate their behaviors and responses to others in
advance of a consequence.
Children learn behaviors by what is reinforced around them. If inappropriate behaviors are
laughed at as if they are funny or cute, or reinforced through another kind of attention, the target child and possibly other observant children will adopt them because it appears that those
behaviors are expected. If an alternative behavior is never praised or attended to, children will
not be reinforced to use it. Therefore, appropriate behavior must be intentionally rewarded.
Effective discipline helps children know limits and consequences of crossing those limits.
To be effective with discipline, caregivers must treat the child with respect at all times and
without making the child feel guilty or “bad.” The caregivers should recognize the child’s need
for learning a behavior and be appropriately responsive. Rules should be set with developmentally appropriate explanations that help the child develop self-control. Children should learn the
impact to others when their behavior is inappropriate. That puts the focus on the rights and
feelings of others and allows children to understand the reasons and logic behind behaving.
Therefore, effective discipline helps children become socially responsible for their behaviors,
builds self-esteem, and helps them understand better how to solve problems in the future.
Strategies to Prevent Discipline Problems
Several effective methods can be used to prevent discipline problems, but a few basic techniques practiced regularly can do the job without much disruption to the routines of the day.
To start, clear boundaries must be set, explained, and understood. To be sure the boundaries
are understood, role playing or practice can be used. The caregiver must be consistent, fair,
and understanding about the boundaries and rule setting. Consequences for not following
rules must be consistently enforced in a firm and respectful manner.
Along with boundary setting and consistent enforcement of consequences, positive reinforcement of the behavior that is desired should be given. The reinforcement often is verbal
but other effective choices include a smile, a pat on the back, or even a hug, if it is appropriate
Providing Disciplinary Guidance
Chapter 9
and permissible by the student (Essa, 1999). It must
be clear to the child which behavior is being reinforced. For example, if a child who previously yelled
out answers at circle time now raises his hand to
answer a question, it is not effective to say “Good
boy.” The child may think he is “good” for sitting in
the circle, a behavior that is appropriate but is not
the behavior being targeted. Rather, the reinforcement should include the behavior; therefore the
verbal reinforcement should be “I like how you are
raising your hand to give an answer.”
Modeling appropriate behavior by the caregiver is
another prevention strategy. Children often learn by
imitating others, especially adults. They learn by listening, watching, and then trying out the behavior,
whether it was a phrase or an action. Caregivers must be aware of this tendency of children
to copy, understanding that even unintentional caregiver behaviors are likely to be copied.
Yet, modeling appropriate behavior should be intentional so that it can be done at a developmentally appropriate level. For instance, after modeling behavior, the caregiver generally
can discuss with a 4-year-old why the original inappropriate behavior occurred. This strategy
is effective when it is honest and consistent. So having a bad day may mean that the caregiver talks about it rather than banging objects or using loud tones. The caregiver may say
“I’m not happy this morning because I slept too long
and missed the bus but I know I will get over it and
start to feel better.” This same explanation would
not have the same effect on a young toddler.
▲ A simple smile is a powerful positive
reinforcement. © Medioimages/Photodisc/Thinkstock
▲ Children learn a lot by watching adults' unintentional behaviors. For example, this child copies his
mother's dislike of broccoli. © Katrina Wiltkamp/Getty Images
Another prevention strategy is to know when to give
attention to a behavior and when to ignore it. Minor
infractions can be ignored but it is very important to
“catch the child being appropriate” and praise the
child. The caregiver can also “catch” another child
being appropriate and point it out without any reference to the contrasting inappropriate behavior. For
example, during circle time, Tony is tipping his chair.
The caregiver may point out “I like the way Lisa is
sitting so still in her chair.” Tony may look over at
Lisa and stop tipping. If he does, then Tony needs to
be praised.
Age-Appropriate Discipline Techniques
Physical discipline such as hitting, spanking, and slapping or negative psychological discipline such as ridiculing or embarrassing a child, being verbally abusive, or threatening are
never appropriate regardless of the age of the child. These two forms of discipline are not
effective and do not help a child learn what is appropriate or inappropriate.
Caregivers should institute consequences that are consistently enforced and age appropriate
so the child understands the consequences of inappropriate behavior. Consequences must be
Providing Disciplinary Guidance
Chapter 9
logical outcomes of misbehaviors. If the child is able to demonstrate the misbehavior and the
consequence matches it, the consequence is likely to be age appropriate. So if the child cannot play appropriately with others, he must be alone; if the child breaks a TV rule there is no
TV for a set amount of time.
Table 9.1 Age-Appropriate Techniques for Childhood Discipline
Intervention
Infant
Toddler
School-age
Adolescent
Positive
reinforcement
+
+
+
+
Redirecting
+
+
+
0
Verbal instruction/
explanation
0
Ltd
+
+
Time-out
0
+
+
0
Establishment of
rules
0
0
+
+
Grounding
0
0
+
+
Withholding
privileges
0
0
+
+
0 = Little or no effectiveness; + = effective/recommended; Ltd = limited, may work in certain situations or with
more mature toddlers.
Banks, J. B., & Quillen, J. H. (2002). Childhood Discipline: Challenges for clinicians and parents. American Family Physician, 66(8), 1447–1453.
Yet, age-appropriate discipline should always include positive reinforcement for appropriate
behavior. Once again it is important to be reminded that disciplining a child is providing guidance to the child, not doling out punishments. To be effective, discipline should be instructional and based on age-appropriate and well-understood expectations. See Table 9.1 for
Age-Appropriate Techniques for Childhood Discipline (Banks & Quillen, 2002). The caregiver
must be aware of the child’s skills so that defiance is not blamed when a child is simply unable
to comply with a request.
Physical discipline is the least effective form of discipline. It teaches aggression and retaliation
and may cause anger in a child that turns into bullying more vulnerable children. It is connected to future domestic violence, substance abuse, and depression (Banks & Quillen, 2002).
Prevention techniques described earlier in this chapter, such as positive reinforcement, teaching alternative behaviors, examining the environment for triggers, modeling, and troubleshooting the behavior by documenting what happens before and after are suggestions to use
instead of physical discipline. Additionally, recommendations include time-out, withholding
privileges, and verbal disapproval.
Time-out
Time-out is an effective discipline that eventually children can use by themselves. Once an
established and understood rule is broken, time-out should be implemented with little emotion on the part of the caregiver, therefore no yelling, tugging the child, or other negative
reaction. Time-out is a discipline technique that requires the child to go to a quiet boring
place that is somewhat isolated but within view of an adult who can supervise. Then the
child must be told clearly why time-out is being used. The child cannot have anything to play
Providing Disciplinary Guidance
Chapter 9
with or anything that will be distracting, and the child must be ignored. A time-out should
last approximately 1 minute per year of age and never be more than 5 minutes. Before the
child is released, the alternative behavior that should have been used should be explained.
Be clear that the child is still valued and loved, and allow regular activities to resume. Timeout is described in additional detail in the following section under self-control. However, the
effectiveness of time-outs has been called into question by some child
care organizations (e.g., The Natural Child Project). One view of timeouts is that they extend the child’s feelings of not having their needs
met and with frequent use can result in negative, long-term consequences (e.g., build-up of anger and increased emotional outbursts)
(Haiman, 1998).
Withholding Privileges
Withholding privileges is effective with older toddlers, preschoolers, and older children. It is a method that begins with a clear rule and
an understanding that an agreed-upon related privilege will be lost
as a consequence for the rule being broken. The privilege must be
something the child enjoys and wants. The withheld privilege cannot
be something the child must have such as meals, sleep, or affection.
The younger the child, the sooner the withholding must be enforced.
An older preschooler may understand that free play will be lost after
▲ When time-out is used, the
lunch when another child’s crayons are grabbed during morning art
surrounding environment
time, but a young toddler may need to lose the privilege of art immeshould be free of distractors.
© Design Pics/SuperStock
diately when grabbing crayons occurs. For instance, if a child who
enjoys water play is not permitted to splash water at the water table
and does so, water play will be stopped immediately and not permitted for the rest of that
day. This teaches the child that water play is a privilege that comes with the responsibility to
play appropriately and to respect others.
Verbal Disapproval
Verbal disapproval should be used sparingly. It loses intended effectiveness if overused or
used inappropriately. Verbal disapproval is the use of words to describe a negative reaction
to the child’s action or behavior. If there is a poor choice of words to describe the reaction
it may hurt the child in a way that cannot be easily undone. If it uses a harsh tone or loud
voice, is done in a berating manner, or goes on too long, verbal disapproval may cause emotional distress, damage self-esteem, and hurt the relationship between the caregiver and the
child. Verbal disapproval must be delivered in a calm normal tone. It must describe clearly the
behavior that is prompting the disapproval. It is intended to teach a child why the behavior is
inappropriate. Therefore a simple “no” if provided in a calm normal tone will express disapproval, but it will not teach the child why slamming the door is not acceptable. Rather, the
verbal disapproval should be coupled with a logical and understandable reason, such as “We
don’t slam the door here because it may wake the sleeping babies in the room next door.”
Teaching Self-Regulation and De-escalation Techniques
Self-regulation is also referred to as self-control. Self-control is the ability of children to control
their urges and emotions and their reactions to these. It emerges during infancy and continues to develop through childhood. The development and functioning of the sections of the
Providing Disciplinary Guidance
Chapter 9
brain that are related to self-control are determined largely by the child’s genetic makeup.
However, scientists have found that self-control is also influenced by everyday experiences
and environments. Self-control is important to most outcomes in life such as having friends,
being healthy, succeeding in school and work, being in a close relationship, and being safe.
To determine whether a child is developing self-control, caregivers should note the child’s
behaviors during times of stress or frustration. When a child is in self-control, behaviors
that are demonstrated may include staying calm, being focused, being patient while waiting, and not being impulsive. Infants and toddlers
who are frustrated often lose self-control in the
form of crying that can escalate to sobbing and
become full-blown outbursts. Early self-control in
infants is demonstrated by thumb sucking, turning away from the source of stress, and sometimes
even falling asleep. Toddlers and preschoolers who
lose self-control may throw objects, hit, scream, be
destructive, hurt themselves, or throw temper tantrums. To gain self-control at this age once inappropriate behaviors escalate, the child often needs help
from a caregiver. Receiving this help in an understanding but firm way teaches the child what can be
done next time frustration, stress, or other emotions
threaten self-control.
▲ When children lose their self-control, they
may react in different ways, such as hitting or
The first line of action for a caregiver who notes loss screaming. © Camille Tokered/Getty Images
of self-control in a child is to try to distract the child
with talking, toys, or other diversions (KidsHealth,
n.d.). If this does not work, have the child sit alone in a designated area that has no distractors,
like a bottom step or chair away from other children and activities but within sight of the caregiver. This should not be a prolonged amount of time but can vary depending on the age of the
child and the severity of the infraction, generally from 2 to 5 minutes. The rule of thumb is 1
minute for each year of age the child is (i.e., 2 years old = 2 minutes). Longer time-outs are not
effective and most specialists do not recommend time-out for children less than 18 months old.
For a younger child time-out gives time to calm down and gain self-control. For an older child,
its intent is to have the child realize that an outburst does not accomplish what was hoped for,
but that once the child is calm and in self-control the adult is ready to listen and help the child
achieve the original purpose.
When a child is old enough to understand how to use self-control, praise should be used
as a reward. Soon the child will understand that it is more pleasant and rewarding to be
in self-control than to have an emotional outburst of any kind. In studies of mother–child
dyads Calkins and Johnson (1998) wanted to determine how frustration, distress, emotional
regulation, and maternal interactive styles are connected. They found that mothers who had
an interference style of parenting (doing things for the child to avoid outbursts) had children
with higher levels of distress and lower tolerance for frustration. They also found that mothers who distracted their children when the child was starting to become upset avoided negative responses from their children. The researchers interpreted these findings to say intrusive
caregiving denies the child opportunities to practice self-regulation and caregivers who gave
positive feedback, used distractions, and were not interfering had children who demonstrated
positive coping behaviors.
Partnering with Families
Chapter 9
H E A LT H I N A C T I O N :
Techniques that Teach Positive Self-Control and
De-escalate Poor Self-Control Reactions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Provide well-understood expectations.
Use distractions when escalation begins.
Give positive reinforcement.
Try role playing for practicing alternative behaviors.
Use time-out appropriately.
Be consistent with consequences.
Model positive behavior.
9.5 Partnering with Families
Social-emotional development is harder to gauge than a child’s physical or cognitive skills.
The national organization Zero to Three found in its 2010 parent survey conducted by Hart
Research Associates, that parents had a more difficult time understanding their children’s
milestones related to social-emotional development than milestones related to any other
developmental domain. Parents tend to underestimate the emotional skills of their infants
(Yates, 2011) and therefore may not focus on what are age-appropriate behaviors, discipline,
and consequences.
Because of this, professionals and other caregivers should work with families on techniques
that have been found to be successful with their children. Many early childhood specialists feel
that there needs to be synchrony between what happens in the early childhood setting and
the home environment to bring about the most of a child’s capacity to learn self-control and
appropriate regulation behaviors. Parents can easily learn some techniques that are effective
with most children. These include distracting the child, providing positive reinforcement as
much as possible, overlooking minor misbehaviors, modeling positive responses to stress and
frustration, and being consistent with consequences. Consequences that are simple to implement and effective are time-out and withholding privileges.
The key to proper and effective implementation of these techniques is the timing of executing the action and the manner and tone used in carrying it out. For that reason, staff and
parents must react quickly but calmly. They should be firm and consistent with consequences
and never act with anger. Coaching may be the best method to impart these strategies. This
is done by either videotaping the caregiver using one of these techniques or even looking
together at training videos on the Internet. Yet it is important to remember that the parent is
the child’s first teacher and often the child’s most influential caregiver. Accordingly, this partnership must be based on mutual respect between the parents and the staff, learning from
each other what works on behalf of the child.
Making Referrals to Mental Health Professionals
Chapter 9
9.6 Making Referrals to Mental Health Professionals
Mental health disorders are more common in young children than many people realize, but
it may be quite difficult to identify when a very young child is in need of specialized mental
health support or intervention. A young child in the child care setting may exhibit characteristics that lead caregivers to suspect the child may be having mental health or social-emotional
development difficulties. Caregivers may consider making a referral for the child to a mental
health professional for further assessment. In such cases, it is important to speak with the
child’s parents or guardians and explain the reasons for the concerns in a nonthreatening
way. Keep in mind that children may not exhibit the same behaviors in child care as they
do at home, so parents may not see the same issues that are causing concern in child care
center staff. Furthermore, behaviors performed in a classroom or center full of other children
can become a major issue more quickly than in a home where there are few other children
around. It is important for caregivers to know the signs of abuse and neglect. A child who
seems to be hungry all the time, whose appearance indicates poor hygiene, or who is dressed
unsuitably for the weather may be suffering from neglect. A child who has frequent bruising
or other injuries (burns, bites), or multiple injuries, some new and others that seem to be healing, may be suffering from physical abuse. A child who demonstrates extremely violent or submissive behavior, engages in self-soothing behaviors that are not developmentally appropriate
(rocking or sucking their thumb for an older child), or who seem withdrawn may be suffering
from emotional abuse. These situations may necessitate making a referral.
When to Make a Referral
Center staff need to be able to recognize when a referral to a mental health professional may
be needed, or if the challenging behavior is caused by a trigger in the environment, which
H I G H L I G H T:
Some Signs That May Indicate a Mental
Health Concern in a Young Child
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Changes in sleep or eating patterns
Unusual behaviors
Poor performance in child care or refusal to attend
Severe worry or anxiety
Hyperactivity
Persistent nightmares
Persistent disobedience or aggression (6 months or longer)
Frequent and unexplainable temper tantrums
Threatening harm to self
(American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry [2011a])
Making Referrals to Mental Health Professionals
Chapter 9
may be due to situations in the home or classroom.
Environmental triggers may be addressed through
simple interventions such as helping a child to transition between activities, or providing more one-onone support in the classroom. Staff should get to
know the home contexts of the children they care
for. If an issue at home seems to be leading to a
child’s mental health challenges, staff may need to
speak with the family about what is occurring in the
home and how it is impacting the child (American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2011a).
Child care providers who wish to speak with a family about a child’s mental health should anticipate
how parents may react and have empathy for their
feelings. Parents may be aware of and concerned
by their child’s behavior or mood, but they may not
know what to do or where to turn. Parents may feel shame or fear that others will blame
them for their child’s issues. The mental health system can be intimidating and confusing.
Some parents may not believe a young child can suffer from mental health problems. Child
care providers can work with parents to direct them to services available in their area, or refer
parents to their pediatricians or the local health department for more information (American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2011b).
▲ Early childhood staff often need to collaborate with outside specialists to help children with
behavioral challenges. © Will and Deni McIntyre/Getty Images
Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation
Early childhood mental health consultation is a promising practice that is being used more
widely in early care and education settings to support young children who show difficulties
in their social and emotional development or challenging behaviors. This model, being used
by a growing number of communities and states, involves a consultant trained in mental
health to observe in the early care and education setting and work collaboratively with center
staff and families. The consultant helps staff and parents to prevent, identify, and respond
Additional Resources: Mental Health in Young Children
National mental health organizations are good resources that have a lot of information
available on the web.
sea rch . . .
• American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry: http://www.aacap.org/
• American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org/pi/families/children-mental-health.aspx
• National Mental Health Association: http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/go/children
• National Technical Assistance Center for Children’s Mental Health (NTAC): http://gucchd.georgetown.edu/67211.html
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): http://www.samhsa.
gov/children/
Making Referrals to Mental Health Professionals
Chapter 9
to a child’s mental health needs. This model is not direct therapy or treatment. It is meant
to develop classroom- and/or home-based approaches to reduce challenging behaviors and
promote positive social and emotional development in young children (Georgetown University
Center for Child and Human Development, n.d.). Georgetown University’s Center for Child
and Human Development is a leader in this model and has studied the core components of
the consultation approach and what is needed in the early care and education setting to
make this model successful. Their website provides a description of the model and resources
related to early childhood mental health consultation, which can be viewed at http://gucchd.
georgetown.edu/67637.html.
Early Intervention
Early intervention is another type of referral mechanism for a child who is at risk or shows
signs of needing extra support during development, typically between birth and entrance to
school. Early intervention encompasses a variety of services and supports that are designed
to enhance a child’s natural learning process in the first years of life. These services are legislated through Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) Part C: Early Intervention for Babies and
Typically,
the early childhood mental
Toddlers, which is described at http://nichcy.org/
tags/part-c-regulations. IDEA mandates that all
health consultant will observe the
children with disabilities receive a free, appropriate
child in the classroom setting for a
public education. However, it is frequently the case
period of time, and then work with
that children with social and emotional challenges
center staff and the family to
are not considered in need of special educational
develop a plan to address the facservices unless they are also significantly developtors that are contributing to the
mentally delayed or cognitively impaired (Florida
child’s challenges.
State University Center for Prevention and Early
Intervention Policy, 2006).
Early intervention services can be preventive, remedial, or direct treatment. The purpose is to
intervene at the earliest possible time to ensure the best outcomes for the child and family. If
a concern about a child’s development is identified and addressed early, it can often be ameliorated or corrected. If a developmental problem is not addressed, it could persist or worsen
and result in the child needing more intensive and more expensive special services later. Child
care center staff who have concerns about a child can contact their local early intervention
provider. Trained professionals will administer a developmental screening of the child and
work with the child’s parents or guardians to discuss the results of the screening and what
resources are available that may assist the child.
Early intervention staff may work with the child only, with the entire family, or with child care
providers. Parents of children who have developmental delays or other special needs often
feel stress and social isolation, and may be unsure of what to do to support their child. Early
intervention services can assist parents in these matters and encourage parent involvement.
To ensure the best outcomes for the child, families should be actively involved in the supports,
therapies, and treatments identified by early intervention screening tools. Parents should be
part of the process of including children with special needs in the classroom. They can do
so by speaking with the school about the child’s particular abilities and needs; meeting with
the teacher and principal, introducing themselves, and talking about the child; developing a
strategy for communication between home and school; showing the teacher what the child
Using Professional Collaborators
Chapter 9
is capable of; helping and supporting the teacher
by volunteering in the classroom; and offering
constructive feedback on what the child does in
school. Parents should also know their rights and
be familiar with the resources available to them.
Some resources can be found at http://nichcy.
org/babies/parent-participation.
▲ Parents should be actively involved with their child's
therapy and treatment. © Phanie/SuperStock
Family involvement should be intentional and not
done haphazardly. One technique that provides
a good strategy for this is the 5-Point Plan by
Caitlin C. Edwards and Alexandra DaFonte (2012).
If implemented correctly, this plan establishes a
successful parent–educator collaborative relationship that benefits families, children, and staff.
The focus is on the caregiver in the program as
the “help giver” for the family. The five points are
1. Be positive, proactive, and solution oriented
2. Respect families’ roles and cultural backgrounds in their children’s lives
3. Communicate consistently, listen to families’ concerns, and work together
4. Consider simple, natural supports that meet individual needs of students
5. Empower families with knowledge and opportunities for involvement in the context of the
student’s global needs (Edwards & DaFonte, 2012, p. 8).
9.7 Using Professional Collaborators
There are many types of health care professionals with whom child care providers or families
may consult when there are concerns about a child’s health or development. Most states do
not regulate providers of psychotherapy, so it is prudent to check the credentials and experience of anyone advertising as a “therapist.” Child psychiatrists are licensed and board-certified
physicians who are trained psychiatrists with two years of additional specialized training in
child and adolescent needs. These professionals provide medical and psychiatric evaluations
with a full range of treatment options for emotional, behavioral, or psychiatric issues, and
have the ability to prescribe medication. Psychologists may have masters or doctorate degrees
in one of several fields related to psychology. These professionals can provide evaluation and
treatment for emotional or behavioral disorders, provide psychological tests and assessments,
but cannot write prescriptions. A child may also see a social worker who is trained at the
bachelors or masters level and licensed by the state. Social workers can provide psychotherapy
but cannot prescribe medication. Other professionals who may work with families or child
care providers include physical therapists, occupational therapists, or speech therapists. When
working with any professional, their child-specific training and experience is important, and
families should look for a provider who is a good match for the needs of the family (American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2011b).
A collaborator may visit a child care center to observe or work with a child or do a consultation with child care providers regarding a particular child. In this situation, it is important
Using Professional Collaborators
Chapter 9
that center staff work with the consulting professional rather than taking a “hands-off”
approach. For example, if a child psychologist is providing a center-based observation and
consultation on a child’s behavior, center staff should take the time to speak with the psychologist about the child, the child’s behaviors, and any pertinent information that may
assist the psychologist in making his or her assessment. Center staff are likely to know the
child well and may be aware of the child’s family situation or other environmental factors
that might influence the child’s health and behavior. While respecting the family’s privacy, it
is in the best interest of the child for all the caregivers and professionals in the child’s life to
collaborate and share information that might ensure finding the best support and assistance
for the child. It is not helpful if center staff withhold information that could assist a professional who has been asked to observe or assess a child who has a behavioral, mental health,
or developmental challenge.
Additional Resources
Working with the family, the early intervention professional will create an Individual
Family Service Plan (IFSP) or an Individual Education Plan (IEP). Both of these plans can
recommend that a child receive specialized mental health or other services.
sea rch . . .
An IFSP is typically for children birth to age 3, whereas the IEP is for children 3 to 8. The IFSP
describes the child’s abilities on all developmental domains, including vision, hearing, and general
health. The IEP describes the child’s abilities and academic achievement.
Both plans describe the child and family’s strengths, resources, and their concerns about the child;
outline measurable outcomes for the child and family; provide a timeline for working on goals;
provide a statement of services needed to meet goals; and detail other specifications of the child’s
individual plan.
A detailed description and comparison of an IFSP and an IEP can be found at http://www.ifspweb.
org/ifsp_vs_iep.html.
The System of Care (SoC) framework is used in human services to promote seamless and coordinated provision of services that promote best outcomes for those who use them. The SoC
includes a broad range of services and supports for children with behavioral health challenges
and their families. The system is meant to integrate care across many types of services. This
type of model promotes services for children and families that:
• Provide comprehensive arrays of services and supports in the least restrictive and
appropriate settings,
• Use individualized and flexible plans that are tailored to the strengths and needs of the
child and family,
• Utilize families as full partners in decision making,
• Coordinate across systems and integrate efforts through care management,
• Emphasize early identification and intervention, and
• Are accountable and demonstrate positive outcomes for children and families (National
Technical Assistance Center for Children’s Mental Health, n.d.).
Summary
Chapter 9
Summary
• Social-emotional development is how children develop in their sense of themselves,
their expectations of others, and their growing abilities to manage emotions.
–– Behavioral health is a child’s set of behaviors that are in response to early experiences and actions of others.
–– Emotional development is a child’s increasing ability to express emotions
appropriately.
–– Social development is the growth of a child’s capacity to have relationships and to
work cooperatively in the future.
• A common theme throughout decades of developmental theories is the importance of
early relationships in a child’s future social and mental development. For positive early
relationships the interactions between a child and a caregiver must include:
–– Appropriate emotional support from the adult
–– Sensitivity to the child
–– A positive attitude toward the child
–– Stimulation to the child
–– Responsive behavior to the child’s needs
–– Engagement of the child at the child’s social, emotional, and cognitive level
• Temperament is the inherited style of behavioral responses that a child demonstrates.
–– The three categories are easy or flexible, difficult or active, and slow to warm up or
cautious (Allard & Hunter, n.d.).
–– Researchers believe that it is necessary to have a “goodness of fit.”
–– Goodness of fit is the compatibility between the care and relationships in the environment and a child’s temperament.
–– The first step in goodness of fit is for caregivers to recognize their own
temperaments.
–– The second step in goodness of fit is to recognize the child’s temperament.
Goodness of fit between the temperaments of the caregiver and child is important
to a successful relationship.
–– Understanding the differences in temperament is key to the appropriate responsiveness of a caregiver to a child.
• Strategies that promote appropriate behaviors must be a part of every activity and
routine.
–– Schoolwide PBS is a model of appropriate behavior promotion that teaches children social skills and alternative appropriate behaviors. It uses teacher training and
teacher supports and has strong buy-in at the administrative and teacher levels.
–– The Pyramid Model is another way to promote positive behaviors. It provides a conceptual framework that organizes early educators’ and caregivers’ practices into a
hierarchical order that is dependent on the level of intervention needed by the child.
–– The R&R model is another tiered model of intervention that depends on the needs
of the individual child.
–– Early childhood mental health consultation is a collaborative coaching model that
works with early care and education staff of the program to improve the quality
Summary
Chapter 9
of the program for all children and involve the family of any child needing more
interventions.
• Challenging behaviors are actions on the part of a child that are inappropriate for the
child’s age and developmental level. The actions are repeated often, and they make
the child difficult to manage.
–– Challenging behaviors are seen as negative behaviors.
–– They can be aggressive such as biting and hitting.
–– Challenging behaviors include noncompliant behaviors such as refusing to obey
adult requests.
–– They are sometimes destructive to toys and other materials.
–– They are often annoying and disruptive, like loud talking or wandering during
circle time.
–– Sometimes they surface as emotional or “dependent” behaviors such as clinging,
whining, pant wetting or soiling, thumb sucking, or baby talk (Essa, 1999).
–– Forms of challenging behaviors that are less common include extreme withdrawal
or shyness, self-injurious behaviors, or repetitive, stereotypic behaviors.
• Good discipline includes predetermined and clearly stated rules for behavior and the
use of consequences that allow children to experience the result of their behaviors,
thus teaching children responsibility for their own actions.
–– Appropriate behavior must be intentionally rewarded.
–– Caregivers must treat the child with respect at all times and without making the
child feel guilty or “bad.”
–– Effective discipline helps children become socially responsible for their behaviors, builds
self-esteem, and helps them understand better how to solve problems in the future.
–– Positive reinforcement of the behavior that is desired should be given.
–– Modeling good behavior by the caregiver is a preventative measure in discipline.
–– Minor infractions can be ignored but it is very important to “catch the child being
good” and praise the child.
• Physical discipline such as hitting, spanking, and slapping, or negative psychological
discipline such as ridiculing or embarrassing a child, being verbally abusive, or threatening are never appropriate regardless of the age of the child, and are not considered
effective.
• Age-appropriate discipline should always include positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior.
• Other alternatives to physical discipline include time-out, withholding privileges, ignoring the behavior, and verbal disapproval.
• Self-control, also known as self-regulation, is the ability of children to control their
urges and emotions and their reactions to these.
–– Self-control is important to most outcomes in life such as having friends, being
healthy, succeeding in school and work, being in a close relationship, and being safe.
–– Self-control behaviors include staying calm, being focused, being patient while
waiting, and not being impulsive.
• Techniques that teach positive self-control and de-escalate poor self-control behaviors
include:
Case Study
Chapter 9
–– Providing well-understood expectations
–– Using distractions when escalation begins
–– Giving positive reinforcement
–– Trying role playing for practicing alternative behaviors
–– Using time-out appropriately
–– Being consistent with consequences
–– Modeling positive behavior
• To bring about the most of a child’s capacity to learn self-control and appropriate
regulation behaviors, caregivers in the early childhood setting and parents must work
together to have consistent responses to the child’s behavior.
• Parents can easily learn some techniques that are effective with most children, including distracting the child, providing positive reinforcement as much as possible, overlooking minor misbehaviors, modeling positive responses to stress and frustration, and
being consistent with consequences. Consequences that are simple to implement and
effective are time-out and withholding privileges.
• Another important aspect of effective disciplining is the timing of executing the action
and the manner and tone used in carrying it out.
• Coaching parents may be the best method to impart these strategies.
• Center staff need to be able to recognize when a referral to a mental health professional may be needed, or if the challenging behavior is caused by a trigger in the
environment.
–– Early childhood mental health consultation involves a consultant trained in mental
health to observe in the early care and education setting and work collaboratively
with center staff and families.
–– Early intervention encompasses a variety of services and supports that are designed
to enhance a child’s natural learning process in the first years of life.
–– To ensure the best outcomes for the child, families should be actively involved in the
supports, therapies, and treatments identified by early intervention screening tools.
Chapter Review
1. Describe the meaning of each of the key terms.
2. Describe a tiered model of promoting positive behaviors and provide three examples.
3. How are temperament and self-regulation related to behavioral health of a child?
4. Name five challenging behaviors and three ways to prevent them.
5. Describe how you would create a collaborative partnership with a family of a child in your
program.
Case Study
You are observing the child care practices at the Red Spotted Frog Child Care Center. This
center has recently undergone extensive training related to promoting social-emotional relationships between the caregivers and children at the center. Before the observation, you
interviewed the director, who discussed the content of the training, how much the center’s
Concept Check
Chapter 9
staff learned during the recent training, and how they have implemented what they have
learned across the center. While observing in an infant room you notice that the caregivers are
demonstrating many of the warm and nurturing behaviors prescribed in the training materials.
However, the infants in the room do not respond to the caregiving and do not have appropriate reactions to the caregivers’ behaviors.
1. What do you think is happening in this room?
2. What do you think the caregivers are doing?
3. How would you explain the infants’ reactions to the caregivers?
4. What questions might you have for the caregivers?
5. What might you suggest to the center director?
Activity
Have children engage in “role reversal” with the caregiver. During circle time, the caregiver can
choose a child to play the “caregiver” while the caregiver plays a “child.” First the caregiver
can model appropriate responses to various acts (e.g., appropriate self-regulation, tantrum,
noncompliance). Then the caregiver should let each child take a turn playing the “caregiver”
while the caregiver prompts the child on how to respond. During the activity the caregiver will
also have opportunities to model appropriate behavior with children who are not engaged
with the activity, who have lost interest, or who are disrupting the activity. This activity will
not only demonstrate appropriate child behaviors to the children, but may be an opportunity
for caregivers to see a reflection of how the children view their caregiving style.
Concept Check
1. All of the following are techniques that will help a child with self-control problems learn
EXCEPT
.
a. giving positive attention
b. keeping the child close to the teacher
c. keeping the child on task
d. having the child sit near the window
2. Tiered positive behavioral models always include a level that
a. requires buy-in from the parents
b. offers professional development opportunities
c. delivers service to all children
d. monitors caregiver behaviors
3. Psychological discipline is
.
a. dependent on the age of the child
b. as effective as physical discipline
c. used only in the most difficult cases of challenging behaviors
d. used when time-out and withholding privileges are not effective
.
Key Terms
Chapter 9
4. The age-appropriate childhood discipline that works for all ages of children
.
is
a. time-out
b. establishing clear rules
c. verbal instructions
d. positive reinforcement
5. The 5-Point Plan
.
a. gives caregivers ideas on how to build a collaborative relationship with parents
b. tells families how to talk to professionals
c. keeps the caregiver in control of methods used to improve behaviors
d. provides a plan for working directly with children with behavioral concerns
Answers: 1. d; 2. c; 3. b; 4. d; 5. a
Key Terms
behavioral health The child’s set of behaviors that are in response to early experiences
and actions of others.
challenging behaviors The actions on the part of a child that are inappropriate for the
child’s age and developmental level, that are repeated often, and that make the child difficult to manage.
discipline The guidance provided to children as they learn to behave.
goodness of fit The compatibility between the care and relationships in the environment
and a child’s temperament.
modeling Children emulating the behaviors of adults.
physical discipline Corporal punishment such as hitting, spanking, and slapping a child.
Positive Behavior Support (PBS) An evidence-based model of promoting positive behaviors that teaches children social skills and alternate appropriate behaviors. It uses teacher
training and teacher supports as well as strong buy-in at the administrative and teacher
levels.
positive reinforcement Supporting socially acceptable behavior in a constructive manner.
psychological discipline Emotionally punishing a child by such acts as ridiculing or embarrassing a child, being verbally abusive, or threatening.
Pyramid Model A conceptual framework that organizes early educators’ and caregivers’
practices into a hierarchical order that is dependent on the level of intervention needed by
the child.
replacement or alternative behaviors Behaviors that can be substituted for inappropriate behaviors and are socially and age appropriate.
self-regulation The ability of a child to control emotions and behavior.
Key Terms
Chapter 9
temperament The inherited style of behavioral responses that a child demonstrates.
time-out A discipline technique that requires a child to go to a quiet uninteresting place
that is somewhat isolated but within view of an adult who can supervise.
verbal disapproval The use of words to describe a negative reaction to the child’s action
or behavior.
withholding privileges An alternative method to physical discipline that begins with a
clear rule and an understanding that an agreed-upon related privilege will be lost as a consequence for the rule being broken.
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