In 500-600 words for each article (1,000-1,200-words total), interrogate each of your articles from the Topic 5 Article Summary assignment using the four big validities. For each article, work through the four big validities in turn, indicating whether the article does a good or bad job on each front. As you write, keep in mind that you are demonstrating your mastery of this material! Show that you know how to ask questions about each of the four validities. Demonstrate that you know what the answers to these questions mean. Finally, show that you understand what it means to prioritize validities as you interrogate a study.Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. Refer to the LopesWrite Technical Support articles for assistance.For this assignment, review the two articles provided:"Romantic Red Revisited: Red Enhances Men's Attraction to Young, but not Menopausal Women," by Sascha & Singer, from Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (2013). https://www-sciencedirect-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/science/article/pii/S0022103112001564"Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction as Predictors of Turnover Intentions among Teachers in the Offinso South District of Ghana," by Addai, Kyeremeh, Abdulai, & Sarfo, from European Journal of Contemporary Education (2018). https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130597326&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=s8333196&groupid=main&profile=eds1

Multiple definitions of critical thinking exist among contemporary educational and psychological theorists. How do you define critical thinking? Is your definition of critical thinking more important to problem-finding or problem-solving? Why?

LengthIn the MLA style, your paper should be very close to 1,100 words long (this is about 4 pages). Remember, the emphasis for this sort of writing is quality not quantity.Introduction & Conclusion paragraphsYour first paragraph should be an intro or agenda paragraph (see an example below). Essentially, your first sentence should be something like, "In this essay, I will explain Mill's and Bentham's utilitarianism" or "This essay will address the central ethical principle of Kant's deontology, i.e., the Categorical Imperative." You should then should then provide an overview of what you will cover. Think of the first paragraph as a roadmap for the body of the essay. It should read like an outline of the body of the essay that was put it into paragraph form. You only have a few pages, so you shouldn't bother with a long-winded, overly general ‘funnel’ introductory paragraph (i.e., do not begin your paper with, “Since the dawn of time, humans have pursued wisdom…” or “Throughout history people have always pondered about philosophical issues…”). Your conclusion paragraph should look a lot like the intro paragraph, but instead of "In this essay, I will do x, y, and z," you can say "In this essay I did x, y, and z." Paper Topics (select one and only one out a, b, and c, i.e, out of Utilitarianism Paper 1, Utilitarianism Paper 2, and Kant's Ethics)a. Utilitarianism Paper 1Section I: The Principle of UtilityAfter your intro/agenda paragraph, you should begin this section by quoting the principle from the PowerPoint, i.e., "An action is morally right if and only if... " Explain in your own words how the principle works. Address the following: What does it mean to maximize utility? And what is utility? What are sentient beings? Is this theory merely egoism? Is utilitarianism a sort of consequentialism or deontology? Which philosophers are credited with authoring the theory?Section II: The Trolley CasesPut Foot's original trolley case, the fat-man version (and if you would like the transplant version) into your own words. For each case, contrast what the theory (i.e., utilitarianism) says with common-sense or moral intuition. If there is disagreement or misalignment between the two, explain why this is problematic.Section III: Mill vs. Bentham: High & Low PleasuresAddress the following: Why would Bentham think Mill was a snob? Why would Bentham defend a life of simple pleasure devoid of cultured and sophisticated taste? How is the distinction between high and low pleasures relevant to this debate? Explain how Mill's 'It's better to be Socrates dissatisfied than..." quote is supposed to disprove Bentham theory? Following this section you should complete your essay with your conclusion paragraph.b. Utilitarianism Paper 2Section I: The Principle of UtilityAfter your intro/agenda paragraph, you should begin this section by quoting the principle from the PowerPoint, i.e., "An action is morally right if and only if... " Explain in your own words how the principle works. Address the following: What does it mean to maximize utility? And what is utility? What are sentient beings? Is this theory merely egoism? Is utilitarianism a sort of consequentialism or deontology? Which philosophers are credited with authoring the theory?Section II: Three Utilitarian Thought Experiments Discuss exactly 3 of the following utilitarian thought experiments: Singer's Oxfam/pond (explain why this isn't a problem case for utilitarianism so much as it is an argument that we should help people even if they are not in close proximity). Rachel's peeping Tom, the Titanic case, celebrities & hyper-luxury, the Better Call Saul case, the Omelas case, and Nozick's experience machine. For each thought experiment, contrast what the theory (i.e., utilitarianism) says with common-sense or moral intuition. If there is disagreement or misalignment between the two, explain why this is problematic.Section III: Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism What is 'rule' utilitarianism (RU) and what is the driving force behind revising traditional or 'act' utilitarianism (AU)? Use the cracked smart-phone screen analogy to explain. How are rules of RU selected? How is RU supposed to avoid the problem cases of AU? What is Smart's criticism of RU? What's Smart's problem with exceptionless, absolute rules? Use the Star Trek example in your explanation. If the rules of RU have exceptions, why is the theory still in trouble? Following this section you should complete your essay with your conclusion paragraph.c. Kant's EthicsSection I: Compare and Contrast Kant with Mill, Bentham, and HumeAfter your intro/agenda paragraph, you should begin this section by address the major difference between Kant's ethics and consequentialism. Discuss Kant's and consequentialism's differing views on one of following: (a) manslaughter vs first degree murder, (b) the sniper/pope case, or (c) the fat man trolley case. Does common sense or moral intuition side more with Kant or the consequentialists in these cases? What is the central difference between Kant's and Hume's moral psychology?Section II: Kant's Categorical Imperative and it's ApplicationWhat is the difference between hypothetical imperatives and categorical imperatives? What is the first formulation of Kant’s Categorical Imperative? First explain the loose version and then the formal one. Apply it to three of Kant's 4 examples, i.e., promise-breaking, not developing talents, not giving to charity, or suicide. Then apply the Categorical Imperative to the following maxim, "To save time, I will cut in line at the grocery store when no one is looking." Be sure to discuss any contradictions and duties that arise. What is the second formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative? Apply it to the following maxim, "To save 5 lives, I will harvest the organs of an unwilling healthy person when they come in for a checkup."Section III: Problems for Kant's Moral TheoryDiscuss are least three problems for Kant’s moral principle. 1. Do only rational agents have moral worth? 2. Is the CI is too strict? (I.e., discuss Benjamin Constant's inquiring murderer case). 3. Is the CI subject to counterexamples? (I.e., discuss Hanser's leaving the game early case). 4. Do consequences really count for nothing? 5. Can reason alone really motivate? (I.e., Could a belief or knowledge about right and wrong (Kant's 'pure practical reason') motivate someone without a desire to do the right thing?) Following this section you should complete your essay with your conclusion paragraph.Stay Off the Web, No Really!You needn't and shouldn't 'google' anything for this essay. Use only the resources from class, that is, our lectures, class discussions, readings, PowerPoints, and Quizlet flashcards (but do not just copy and paste the Quizlet material! Put things into your own words). Unfortunately, sometimes students -- usually out of desperation -- cut and paste material from the Web. This is plagiarism and is serious (discussed below). FYI: You will have to submit your essay to a plagiarism detection software.Introductory Agenda Paragraph (Example)Alexa MartinezPhil 60: EthicsDr. Scherbart4 December 2029 Kant's Inviolable Imperative In this essay, I will address the moral philosophy of Kant, with special emphasis on hisguiding ethical principle: the Categorical Imperative. I will discuss this principle in general,including Kant’s procedure for universalizing maxims and looking for contradictions andduties. I will then apply Kant’s system to the four examples in his text, i.e., promise-breaking, charity, suicide, and developing talents. Along the way, I will explain how Kantemphasizes reason and intention, as opposed to Hume’s emphasis on desire and Mill’semphasis on consequences. Finally, I will cover the second formulation of Kant’s ethics.ContentThis paper should be entirely descriptive. This means that you should not criticize or add your own two cents. Essentially, you are demonstrating that you have a substantial understanding of your topic by putting things into your own words.ToneKeep your tone academic, i.e., don’t write too colloquially. In other words, you don’t want your paper to read like an email or text to a friend, lol, =). Also, don’t allow your biases to spill onto the page, i.e., keep a neutral and objective tone.QuotationsQuotations are not required, in fact I would recommend against them. Remember, the main task of this paper is to put what we've learned into your own words. If you do use quotations or paraphrasings, make sure not to overuse them. The quotations in many papers, if strung together, would account for twenty percent of the paper! Avoid this. Also, any quotations or paraphrases must accord with MLA style guides, i.e., their citations should be in-text, e.g., “The Theory of Natural Law is now widely rejected because its view of the world conflicts with modern science” (Rachels 61).Use of quotations or paraphrasing require a works cited page following the conclusion of your essay. In general, if you reference or generally discuss one of the readings or lectures, you need a works cited page, which looks like this:Works CitedKant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals (originally published in1785), edited for easier reading by Jonathan F. Bennett. Earlymoderntexts.com, 2005. Web. Feb. 2017.Scherbart, Ryan. “Kant’s Ethics.” Phil 60, Spring ’17, Chabot College.Revision & EditingAlthough the precedent in college is to wait until the last minute to write essays, this often is the main obstacle to good writing. Even the best writers don’t get it right the first time. Imagine a Hollywood director shooting a film on one take. It would be almost impossible to make it as good as it would be if you had redone several things and made adjustments. I implore you write at least one draft of your paper before the final draft.Getting feedback can greatly improve a paper. Feel free to email me a draft before the due date. Anytime is okay, but realize that if you wait until a couple days before the paper is due, there’s a chance I might not be able to get to it. You can also get comments from a peer or friend.I also encourage you to slowly read your paper aloud to proofread it. It can also be helpful to print out a copy to read aloud, or read a copy out loud while someone else reads along. (Or get your computer to do it!) These methods are good at catching typos and weeding out sentences that are confusing or hard to understand.GradingFairly grading papers is one of the most difficult things an instructor has to do. While I hesitate to offer a rubric, here are the questions I keep in mind while I’m grading your papers:The Content: What You Say (Most important)Have you accurately addressed the prompt? That is, have you accurately described the view, idea, argument, problems, (or aspects thereof), etc.? Have you demonstrated a more than surface level understanding of your topic? The Writing: How You Say It (Important)Is your paper well written, i.e., did you follow the tips and writing strategies offered in this handout? Is the paper well organized? Did this person lay out the agenda early on? Did this person avoid the 'common undergraduate writing blunders'? How well does the paper flow? Is it too confusing? Is the language too emotive or loaded?Details (Least Important)Are there grammatical, spelling, or formatting errors? Are there typos? Did the person properly employ MLA?Late Assignment PolicyTurning in your paper late will be detrimental to your final course grade. For example, suppose you turned in your paper a week late, this could lower paper grade from, e.g., a B to a C.Policy on Cheating & Plagiarizing: If you are found plagiarizing,[1] you will be dismissed from this class with a grade of “F” and face possible suspension from Chabot College.[1] Plagiarism is the conscious or inadvertent failure to identify the contributions of others. It occurs when someone borrows any part of another’s work and submits it as his or her own work without crediting its author.