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bonus
chapter
C
Cross-Cultural Communication
THE GROWING IMPORTANCE
OF CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
As Chapter 1 points out, increasing globalization is one of the major trends in business. The spread of the Internet, social media, and mobile devices has only fueled this
trend. And it isn’t just for big businesses. According to Laurel Delaney, founder of
GlobeTrade.com, “It’s the small business owners of the world who are busting borders,
discovering unlimited potential for growth and profit, and changing the shape of the
world economy.”1
Both large and small businesses want you to be able to communicate clearly with those
from other cultures, for several reasons. A primary reason is that many businesses
sell their products and services both domestically and internationally. Being able to
workplace scenario
Preparing for Cross-Cultural Communication
To introduce yourself to this bonus chapter,
forward. Then you ask Prasan if you can ex-
unrealistic deadline?” Andreas explains that
assume that you’re a recently hired trainer for
pect the documents by the next day.
Prasan wanted to save face by giving a pleas-
a U.S. company that has a new branch office
Hesitating, Prasan replies, “Yes, I can
ing answer. Such an answer would keep you
in Sweden. You’ve been sent to the office to
send everything to you by the end of the day
from appearing to be demanding and would
facilitate the training of new employees.
tomorrow.” His boss suddenly intervenes:
keep him from appearing to be slow. “He val-
After a fruitful brainstorming session with
“No, that’s not going to happen. You know you
ues face-saving more than accuracy,” the
the leadership team, you ask the Swedish
have a lot of work right now and won’t be able
Swede says—implying that he himself does
head manager, Andreas, to appoint a contact
to meet that deadline.” Turning to you, the
not. You wonder if such clashes of cultural
person in the group to help you launch the
Swedish manager continues, “You can expect
preference could be handled more gracefully
training project. Andreas turns to the HR man-
the material you need in two weeks.” Prasan
than the one you just witnessed. This bonus
ager, Prasan, who is from India, and says that
looks somewhat embarrassed but nods in
chapter will introduce you to cross-cultural
he will be your key contact from here on out.
agreement.
communication issues that may arise in busi-
You describe the process you want to follow
Back in Andreas’s office, you ask, “What
and the documents you’ll need in order to go
just happened? Why did Prasan agree to an
ness situations and help prepare you to meet
them successfully.
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communicate cross-culturally will help you understand different customers’ needs and persuasively explain how your
company can meet these needs. Another reason is that you
will be a more effective employee within your company. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the number of
non-native civilians in the U.S. workforce has reached almost
25 million, and this number is on the rise.2 If you can work
harmoniously with those from other cultures, you will help
create a more comfortable and productive workplace. Furthermore, if cultural barriers are minimized, your company
will be able to hire a wider variety of good people. Also, you
will minimize problems stemming from misinterpretations. A
final reason is that interaction with those from other cultures
will enrich your business and personal life.
In preparing to communicate with people from other cultures, you might well begin by heeding the advice in your
book. Adapting your words, sentences, and overall message to
your audience is always important, and never more so than in
cross-cultural situations. Clarity, courtesy, and correctness are
appreciated everywhere. But how to achieve these goals can
vary by culture. In one culture, for example, it might be appropriate to imply the main point, while in another you should state
the point directly. Thus, learning about the ways cultures differ
is an important foundation for successful business communication. In addition, you must look at the special problems that our
language presents to those who use it as a second language. It
is around these two topic areas that this review of cross-cultural
communication is organized.
Of course, even within one culture there can be many subcultures. With only a moment’s reflection on regional, ethnic, and
even gender differences within any culture, you will realize that
this is true. Plus, the person with whom you are communicating may be completely unrepresentative of his or her culture of
origin. National borders are more permeable and workplaces
more diverse than they have ever been. Still, an understanding
of your communication partner’s cultural roots will greatly enhance your interpretive and interaction skills.
Three Major Factors
That Affect Culture
Following the advice of Canning, a UK-based communication
consulting firm, we recommend starting your cross-cultural
education with the big picture.6 Instead of trying to memorize
such isolated facts as a culture’s typical greeting or attitude toward punctuality, try to gain a holistic understanding, starting
with these basic questions:
• What is the topography of the country you are studying? In
our Internet-influenced age, it may be difficult to believe,
but topography still has a profound influence on what types
of people live in a certain place. For instance, many natural
borders around a country make for a more insular culture
than changing, indistinct borders, and life under a broiling
sun creates different habits and values than life in a darker,
colder environment.
• What is the country’s history? Have there been certain
DIMENSIONS OF
CULTURAL DIFFERENCE
Dutch sociologist Geert Hofstede, probably the most respected expert on cross-cultural differences, defines culture
as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another,” and national culture as “that component of our mental
programming which we share with more of our compatriots
as opposed to most other world citizens.”3 In other words,
cultures are “shared ways in which groups of people understand and interpret the world.”4
Our dominant culture affects almost everything about us—
from the way we think and communicate to the way we hold
our bodies or establish our personal space. Certainly the
spread of capitalism, advances in technology and science,
and the explosive growth of electronic media have eroded
national differences. The title of a popular book on international business claims that “the world is flat,”5 and many
would agree that we have more in common globally than ever
before. But cultural differences are still strong in many places
and situations.
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events or systems of government that have affected the
national memory? And what is the country’s history with
your country?
• What role does religion play in the culture? Think for a
moment about how religious values have shaped the Middle
East, different Asian countries, or the United States. Even
when many of a country’s people have stopped observing
traditional religious practices, the influence of religion can
linger, surfacing in certain behaviors and attitudes.
These broad cultural factors can have a major effect on businesspeople’s communication practices and preferences. If you
know your audience is Islamic, for example, you will be prepared to interpret their behavior when they do not take notes at
an important business meeting (they tend to favor oral communication and the use of memory rather than writing) or when
they resist detailed planning of a project (since, in Islam, the
success of human projects always depends on God’s will).
Keep in mind, though, that businesspeople the world over share
many goals and problems. All are interested in keeping their
businesses financially viable, hiring and retaining good employees, developing marketable products, finding reliable suppliers,
and so forth. Your efforts to understand your cross-cultural
audience—like those to understand communication partners
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Web Tools for Cross-Cultural Communication
The Internet is a rich source of cross-cultural
information for business communicators. Not
only can you find information about places
where you might be doing business, but you
can also use some Web-based tools to help
you with your communication.
One of these, shown right, is a currency
converter, allowing you to convert from one
currency to another. In this example, you
can see how the U.S. dollar compares to the
Hong Kong dollar. Such converters are free,
and they are set up to use regularly updated
exchange rates.
The Web also offers free translation tools.
Google has a built-in translation feature that
lets you easily translate webpages. In the
screens shown below, a French Web site
about writing cover letters has been trans-
Source: Reproduced with permission of Yahoo. © 2013 Yahoo. YAHOO! and YAHOO! logo are registered
trademarks of Yahoo.
lated into English.
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from your own culture—can lead to many mutually beneficial
relationships.
The next two sections will assist you in these efforts by discussing important dimensions of cultural difference, starting
with physical differences and then moving to mental and social ones. Sensitivity to these dimensions will help you avoid
ethnocentrism—the tendency to see only your own cultural
programming as “normal”—and make you a better crosscultural communicator.
Body Positions and Movements
One might think that the positions and movements of the
body would be much the same for all people. However, physical behaviors differ by culture, and the differences can affect
communication. For example, in the United States most people sit when they wish to remain in one place for some time,
but many of the world’s people squat when relaxing or even
when doing business. Because we do not squat, we tend to
view squatting as primitive. This view could adversely affect our communication with people from such countries as
Indonesia and Zimbabwe, to whom squatting is a very normal
body position.
To take another example, people from the United States who
visit certain Asian countries may view the fast, short steps
taken by the inhabitants as peculiar and their own longer
strides as normal. And when people from those countries
encounter U.S. natives who do not bow when meeting and
leaving each other, they are likely to interpret the omission as
rude. Similarly, people from the United States see standing
up as the appropriate thing to do on certain occasions (as
when someone enters the room), whereas people from some
other cultures do not.
As you know, movements of certain body parts (especially
the hands) are a vital form of human communication. Some of
these movements have no definite meaning even within a culture. But some have clear meanings, and these meanings may
differ by culture. In the United States an up-and-down movement of the head means “yes” and a side-to-side movement of
the head means “no.” These movements may mean nothing
at all or something quite different to people from cultures in
which thrusting the head forward, raising the eyebrows, jerking the head to one side, or lifting the chin are used to convey
similar meanings.
Hand gestures can have many different meanings. The twofingered sign that means “victory” or “peace” in the United
States is considered vulgar in Australia, and the “OK” sign
is insulting in such diverse countries as Russia, Germany,
and Brazil.7 Even the use of fingers to indicate numbers can
vary by culture. In the United States, most people indicate
“1” by holding up the forefinger, whereas in parts of Europe, “1” is the thumb, “2” is the forefinger, and so forth.
To point to themselves, the Japanese point to their faces,
while the Chinese point to their noses and Americans point
to their chests.8 And holding up both hands with the palms
facing outwards can mean either “ten,” “I surrender,” “I’m
telling the truth,” or “up yours—twice!” depending on where
you are.9
Even meanings of eye movements vary by culture. In North
America, we are taught not to look over the heads of our audience but to maintain eye contact
when giving formal speeches. In informal talking, we are encouraged to
make eye contact but not to stare. In
Indonesia, looking directly at people,
especially those who are older or in
higher positions, is considered disrespectful. On the other hand, our practices of eye contact are less rigorous
than those of the British and Germans.
Unless one understands these cultural
differences, how one uses eye movement can be interpreted as being impolite on the one hand or being shy on
the other.
Remember that, despite cultural differences, businesspeople around the world share many of the same goals.
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Touching and particularly handshaking differences are important to
understand in cross-cultural communication. Some cultures, like the
Chinese, do not like much touching.
They will give a handshake that Westerners might perceive as weak. Other
cultures that like touching will give
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communication matters
Carefully Present and Receive a Business Card in Japan
In Japan, it is considered bad manners to
on the presenter, receive it in both hands, es-
in a distinctive case. Those who do business
go to a business meeting without a business
pecially when the other party is senior in age
in both countries often have their business
card, or meishi. There are a number of ways
or status or a potential customer. Be careful
cards translated on the back, as the examples
to present the card, but receiving it is an art,
not to fiddle with the card or put it in your
here show.
too. If you want to make a good impression
rear pocket—that is considered crude. Put it
greetings ranging from full embraces and kisses to nose rubbing. Here are some additional examples:
Culture
Handshakes
Americans
Firm, three to five pumps
Germans
Brusque, firm, single pump, repeated
upon arrival and departure
French
Light, quick, not offered to superiors,
repeated upon arrival and departure, may
include a double kiss
British
Soft, three to five pumps
Hispanics
Moderate grasp, repeated frequently
Latin Americans
Firm, long-lasting
Middle Easterners
Gentle, repeated frequently
Asians
Gentle; for some, shaking hands is
unfamiliar and uncomfortable (an
exception to this is the Korean, who
generally has a firm handshake)
Arabs
Gentle, long-lasting, sometimes with
kisses on both cheeks
How people greet each other is a major indicator of their social
norms. Instead of critically judging others because of their
different greeting styles, seize the opportunity to gain insight into
their cultures.
In our culture, smiles are viewed positively in most situations.
But in some other cultures (notably African cultures), a smile
is regarded as a sign of weakness in certain situations (such
as bargaining). Receiving a gift or touching with the left hand
is a serious breach of etiquette among Muslims, who view the
left hand as unclean, but many cultures attach no such meaning
to the left hand. And so it is with other body movements—
arching the eyebrows, positioning the fingers, raising the
arms, and many more. All cultures use body movements in
communicating, but in different ways.
Views and Practices Concerning
Factors of Human Relationships
Probably causing even more miscommunication than differences in body positions and movements are the attitudes of different cultures toward various factors of human relationships.
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communication matters
High-Context versus Low-Context Cultures:
Edward T. Hall
An extremely influential model of cross-cultural differences comes
from U.S. anthropologist Edward T. Hall. With Beyond Culture
(1976), as well as two earlier books (The Silent Language [1959],
about perceptions of space and time, and The Hidden Dimension
[1966], focusing on the use of space), Hall essentially launched the
field of cross-cultural communication. His most lasting contribution
to this field has been his dividing of the cultures of the world into
low- and high-context communicators.
Low-context communicators, in Hall’s model, tend to express
themselves in concrete, direct, and explicit ways. The gist of the
message and everything one needs in order to interpret it are all
there in the message. American, German, Scandinavian, Swiss, and
Finnish people tend to fall into this category. They use and value a
straightforward communication style.
High-context communicators use a more multimodal style.
Rather than putting everything they mean into words, they use
eye movements, body language, tone of voice, and other nonver-
For illustrative purposes, we will review six of these factors:
time, space, frankness, social hierarchy, workplace values,
and expression of emotions.
time
In the United States, people tend to be monochronic.
They regard time as something that must be planned in order to
be used as efficiently as possible. They strive to meet deadlines,
to be punctual, to conduct business quickly, and to work on a
schedule.
In some other cultures (especially those of the Middle East and
some parts of Asia), people are polychronic, viewing time in
a more relaxed way. They see extensive planning as unwise and
unnecessary. Being late to a meeting or a social function is of
little consequence to them. In fact, some of them hold the view
that important people should be late to show that they are busy.
In business negotiations, the people in these cultures move at a
deliberately slow pace, engaging in casual talk before getting
to the main issue. It is easy to see how such different views of
time can cause people from different cultures to have serious
communication problems.
space
People from different cultures often vary in their attitudes toward space. North Americans tend to prefer about two
feet of distance between themselves and those with whom they
speak. But in some cultures (some Arabian and South American
cultures), people stand closer to each other, and not following
bal elements to give interpretational cues. Though they communicate implicitly, they expect you to be able to interpret their points
by drawing on your knowledge of their cultural context. French,
Japanese, Indian, Irish, British, and Arabic people tend to be
high-context communicators—though of course their contexts can
differ dramatically.
Lately Hall’s model has come under fire for being unsupported by formal research. In an extensive review of the topic,
Peter Cardon has shown that Hall’s generalizations arose from
unsystematic observation and have often been contradicted.
On the other hand, Cardon’s study also shows that Hall’s theory
about low and high contexts is the most cited theory in crosscultural communication. The fact that so many researchers,
teachers, and consultants have found it useful suggests that,
despite its flaws, the model has a certain tried-and-true appeal.
So put it into your cross-cultural communication tool box—and
apply it with caution.
Source: Peter W. Cardon, “A Critique of Hall’s Contexting Model: A Meta-Analysis
of Literature on Intercultural Business and Technical Communication,” Journal of
Business and Technical Communication 22.4 (2008): 399–428, print.
C-6
Greetings vary among cultures, as do many other behaviors. Consult
authoritative resources, including people with international experience,
to learn the preferred ways of interacting in different cultures—and take
a cue from your communication partner as well.
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communication matters
Six Dimensions of Culture: Geert Hofstede
Between 1967 and 1973, Dutch sociologist
• Masculinity vs. femininity. At the feminine
society suppresses gratification of needs
Geert Hofstede collected 116,000 question-
end of the spectrum is a “modest, caring”
and regulates it by means of strict social
naires about business practices and attitudes
attitude, while at the masculine end is
norms.
from IBM employees in over 50 countries.
assertiveness and competitiveness.
It is tempting to see whole cultures as
The result was the hugely influential Culture’s
• Uncertainty avoidance. This label refers to
falling at one end or the other on these di-
Consequences (1980), one of the most cited
the extent to which “a culture programs
mensions. But as with other models, one
works on cross-cultural communication.
its members to feel either uncomfortable
must use this one only as a rough, preliminary
The book identified four dimensions of cul-
or comfortable in unstructured situations.”
guide. As one business executive puts it, “In
ture, to which a fifth was added in 1991. These
Uncertainty-avoiding cultures try to prevent
my own practice, I look upon Hofstede’s
became mainstays in the field of international
such situations with strict rules and core
data as would an airplane passenger look-
business. In 2010, Hofstede added another
values. Uncertainty-accepting cultures tend
ing down upon mountain ranges. . . . These
dimension. Here’s a brief description of each
to be more relaxed, more tolerant of differ-
represent country cultures. Smaller ranges
(with the last in the list being the newest):
ences, and less rule-bound.
represent subcultures within countries. But
• Power distance. To what extent do the less
powerful members of a culture or organization expect that power will be distributed
unevenly? If this is a normal expectation, it
means that the company or culture exhibits
“high power distance” and values hierarchy
and obedience. If not, the company or culture has “low power distance.”
• Individualism vs. collectivism. An individualistic culture is one in which people are expected
to look after themselves and their families,
while a collectivist culture promotes strong
identification with social groups.
• Long-term vs. short-term orientation. This
to understand individuals, you have to land
dimension was found in a study conducted
at the nearest airport and meet them at
by Chinese researchers. People with a long-
the ground level, taking into account their
term orientation are oriented toward the
unique qualities.”
future. They value persistence and thrift.
Those with a short-term orientation value
the past and present—respecting traditions,
fulfilling social obligations, and saving face
in social situations.
• Indulgence vs. restraint. An indulgent
society allows relatively free gratification of basic human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. A restrained
this practice is considered impolite. To take another example,
North Americans view personal space as a right and tend to respect this right of others; thus, they stand in line and wait their
turn. People from some other cultures view space as belonging
to all. Thus, they jostle for space when boarding trains, standing
at ticket counters, or shopping. In encounters between people
whose cultures have such different attitudes toward space, actions are likely to be misinterpreted.
frankness North Americans tend to be relatively frank in
their relationships with others, quickly getting to the point and
perhaps being blunt in the process. Germans and Israelis are
even more frank than Americans. Asians tend to be far more
reticent or implicit and sometimes go to great lengths to save
Sources: Geert Hofstede and Jean-Claude Usunier,
“Hoftstede’s Dimensions of Culture and Their Influence on
International Business Negotiations,” 1989, International
Business Negotiations, ed. Pervez N. Ghauri and JeanClaude Usunier, 2nd ed. (Amsterdam: Pergamon, 2003),
137–153, print; Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael
Minkov, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the
Mind, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010), print; John
W. Bing, “Hofstede’s Consequences: The Impact of His
Work on Consulting and Business Practices,” Academy of
Management Executive 2004 (18.1): 80–87, print.
face or not to offend. The U.S. has a low-context culture,
a culture in which different traditions have come together and
where individualism is highly valued. In this type of culture,
the communicators explicitly share all relevant background information when communicating. Asian countries, on the other
hand, tend to have a high-context culture, one with coherent, stable traditions and a strong group orientation.10 In such a
context, the communicators limit background information and
rely on shared assumptions to provide the unspoken content.
(See the Communication Matters box on page C-6 for more
about high- and low-context cultures.) Thus, Asians may appear evasive, roundabout, and indecisive to North Americans;
and North Americans may appear harsh, impolite, and aggressive to Asians. Phone customs may be an exception, especially
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communication matters
Linear-actives, Multi-actives, and Reactives:
Richard D. Lewis
British linguist Richard D. Lewis, founder of a highly successful
cross-cultural communication consulting firm, has developed a
three-part model for categorizing the world’s many cultures. He
believes they can be generally described as linear-active, multiactive, or reactive.
Linear-actives are those who tend to follow a linear path toward a desired goal. They “plan, schedule, organize, pursue action
chains, do one thing at a time.” Lewis cites the Germans and Swiss
as exemplars of this group.
Multi-actives are those who have several things going at the same
time—and not all of them overtly business related. According to Lewis,
they are “lively, loquacious people who do many things at once, planning their priorities not according to a time schedule but according to
the relative thrill or importance that each appointment brings with it.” He
puts Italians, Latin Americans, and Arabs in this group.
Then there are the reactives—those who listen and ponder
carefully and move with caution. In Lewis’s words, they “prioritize
courtesy and respect, listening quietly and calmly to their interlocutors and reacting carefully to the other side’s proposals.” The
Chinese, Japanese, and Finns would be in this group.
Lewis’s Web site, www.cross-culture.com, provides a helpful
visual showning where each culture falls in this model. But as with
all categorizing schemes, use this one only as a general guide, paying
careful attention to the actual situation you’re in.
Source: Richard D. Lewis, When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures, 3rd ed.
(Boston: Nicholas Brealey International, 2006), print.
among the Chinese, who tend to end telephone calls abruptly
after their purpose has been accomplished. North Americans,
on the other hand, tend to move on to friendly talk and clearly
prepare the listener for the end of the call.
social hierarchy In many cultures, strict social classes
exist, and class status determines how intimately people are
addressed and treated in communication. For this reason, a
person from such a culture might quiz a person from another
culture to determine that person’s class status. Questions concerning occupation, income, title, and origin might be asked.
People from cultures that stress human equality are apt to
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take offense at such questioning about class status. This
difference in attitude toward class status is also illustrated
by differences in the familiarity of address. Some Americans are quick to use first names. This practice is offensive
to people from some other cultures, notably the English and
the Germans, who expect such intimate address only from
long-standing acquaintances.
Similarly, how people view superior–subordinate relations
can vary by culture. Hofstede calls this dimension power
distance (see the Communication Matters box on page C-7).
The dominant arrangement in Latin America, for example, is a
strong boss with weak subordinates doing as the boss directs.
In other words, these cultures tend to exhibit “high power distance.” In contrast, Israel, New Zealand, and Denmark have
“low power distance,” which means that authority is widely
shared and decisions are often made by consensus. The U.S.
falls somewhere in between.11 These widely differing practices
have led to major communication problems in joint business
ventures involving people from these cultures.
Communicators from different cultures can bring their views
of human relations to online communication, too. In one study,
social networking preferences were found to line up with cultural differences. The U.S. users who were studied formed connections that were much broader and looser than those of their
Chinese and South Korean counterparts, who cultivated online
relationships more carefully and maintained them longer.12
Another researcher found that Asians, fearful of overstepping
their authority and reluctant to speak to strangers, can be hesitant to offer comments during online conversations.13
workplace values Also differing by culture are our values regarding work. Americans, for example, have been steeped
in the Protestant work ethic. It is the belief that if one puts hard
work ahead of pleasure, success will follow. The product of this
thinking is an emphasis on planning, working efficiently, and
maximizing production. Of course, not all of us subscribe to
this ethic, but it is a strong force in our culture. The prevailing
view in some other cultures is quite different. In Spain, for example, business is more relaxed because of the emphasis placed
on interpersonal relationships and the view that planning can
be futile.14
Views about the relationships of employers and employees
also may differ by culture. North American workers expect to
move freely from job to job, and they expect employers to hire
and fire as their needs change. Expectations are quite different in some other cultures. In Japan, for example, employment
tends to be for a lifetime. The company is viewed much like a
family, with loyalty expected from employees and employer.
Such differences have caused misunderstandings in American–
Japanese joint ventures.
expression of emotions
From culture to culture,
norms for personal expression differ. To illustrate, some Asian
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cultures strongly frown upon public displays of affection—in
fact, they consider them crude and offensive. Westerners, on
the other hand, accept at least a moderate display of affection.
To Westerners, laughter is a spontaneous display of pleasure,
but in some cultures (Japanese, for one), laughter also can be
a controlled behavior—to be used in certain social situations.
Even such emotional displays as sorrow are influenced by
culture. In some Middle Eastern cultures, sorrow is expressed
with loud wailing. In similar situations, Westerners typically
respond with more controlled emotions, which could be seen as
cold and uncaring by Middle Easterners.
Many more such differences exist. It is common in some cultures to combine business and social pleasure; in others, the
two are kept separate. Businesspeople in some cultures expect
to engage in aggressive bargaining in business transactions;
others prefer straightforward dealings. Some talk loudly and
with emotion; others communicate orally in a subdued manner.
Some communicate with emphasis on economy of expression;
others communicate with an abundance of verbiage.
There are countless differences between cultures. You do not
need to learn them all. But you do need to recognize their existence, respect them, and study them when necessary. Only then
can you adapt your communication style accordingly.
PROBLEMS OF
LANGUAGE
The people on earth use more than 3,000 languages. Because
few of us can learn more than one or two other languages well,
problems of miscommunication are bound to occur in international communication.
Lack of Language Equivalency
Unfortunately, wide differences among languages make precisely equivalent translations difficult. One reason for such
differences is that languages are based on the concepts, experiences, and views of the particular cultures that developed them.
Thus, even a word that seems the same in two languages may
have different meanings. For example, we think of a florist as
someone who sells flowers and related items in a store. In some
cultures, however, flowers are sold by street vendors, mainly
women and children. Obviously, our florist does not have a precise equivalent in the language of such cultures.
Sometimes a word in one language has no corresponding word
in another. For example, supermarket has no equivalent in some
languages. The French have no word to distinguish between
house and home, mind and brain, and man and gentleman. The
Spanish have no word to distinguish between a chairman and
a president, while Italians have no word for wishful thinking.
And Russians have no words for efficiency, challenge, and having fun. However, Italians have nearly 500 words for types of
pasta. And so it is with words for many other objects, actions,
and concepts.
Another explanation for the lack of language equivalency is
that there are grammatical and syntactic differences among languages. Some languages (Urdu, for example) have no gerunds,
and some have no adverbs and/or adjectives. Not all languages
deal with verb mood, voice, and tense in the same way. The
obvious result is that even the best translators often cannot find
literal equivalents between languages.
Adding to these equivalency problems is the problem of multiple word meanings. Like English, other languages have more
than one meaning for many words. Think, for example, of our
numerous meanings for the simple word run (to move fast, to
compete for office, a score in baseball, a break in a stocking, a
fading of colors, and many more). The Oxford English Dictionary uses over 15,000 words to define what. Unless one knows
a language well, it is difficult to know which of the meanings
is intended.
Within a culture, certain manners of expression may be used in
a way that their dictionary translations and grammatical structures do not explain. Those within the culture understand these
expressions; those outside may not. For example, we might say,
“Business couldn’t be better,” meaning business is very good.
Someone from another culture might understand the sentence to
mean “Business is bad” (impossible to improve). Or we might
say, “We could never be too nice to our customers,” meaning
that try as we may, we couldn’t be overly nice. To someone
from another culture, the sentence might mean “We cannot be
nice to our customers.”15
Similarly, words can be used in different ways in different cultures. For example, as one business communication scholar
explains, “The Chinese yes, like the Japanese yes, can often
be understood by Americans and British as their English yes.
But the Chinese yes often means ‘I am listening.’ Or it may
be understood in English as the opposite. For example, when
an American says to a Chinese counterpart, ‘I see you don’t
agree with this clause,’ the Chinese will usually reply, ‘Yes’
meaning a polite agreement with the negative question: ‘Yes,
you are right. I do not agree with the clause.’ ”16
Overcoming such language problems is difficult. The best
way would be to learn your partner’s language well, but when
this is impractical, you can be aware that translation problems exist and ask questions to determine what the other person means or understands you to mean. For very important
messages, you might consider using a procedure called back
translating. This procedure involves using two translators, one with first-language skills in one of the languages
involved and one with first-language skills in the other language. The first translator translates the message into his or
her language, and the second translator then translates the
message back into the original. If the translations are good,
the second translation matches the original.
Cross-Cultural Communication
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communication matters
Blundering with Words
Companies can make blunders in international business through
their products, practices, and words. Here are some of those where
words were the culprit.
that Greek did in the ancient world of the West and Chinese
did in the East.”17
We must keep in mind, though, that English is not the primary
language of many of those who use it. Since many of these
users have had to learn English as a second language, they are
likely to use it less fluently than native speakers and to experience problems in understanding it. Some of their more troublesome problems are reviewed in the following pages.
• When Coca-Cola first attempted to market its drink in China, the
characters representing it sounded like Coca-Cola but translated
to a wax-flattened mare. Now the characters that represent it
translate to happiness in the mouth.
• Olympia tried to introduce a copier in Chile under the name Roto,
which is the Spanish word for broken.
• American Motor Company’s Matador translated into killer in
Puerto Rico, clearly not a good name in a place with high traffic
fatality rates.
• Toyota’s MR2 did well in most countries, but in France it was often
pronounced merde, meaning human waste.
• Ford encountered problems when it introduced a low-cost truck it
named Fiera into Latin American countries. The name translates
to ugly old woman.
• Bacardi developed and launched a fruity drink, calling it Pavian. In
German it means baboon.
• When Nike attempted to place a graphic of flames on its shoes, it
two-word verbs One of the most difficult problems for
nonnative speakers of English is the use of two-word verbs. By
two-word verbs we mean a wording consisting of (1) a verb
and (2) a second element that, combined with the verb, produces
a meaning that the verb alone does not have. For example, take
the verb break and the word up. When combined, they have
a meaning quite different from the meanings the words have
alone. And look how the meaning changes when the same verb
is combined with other words: break away, break out, break in,
break down. Exhibit C-1 lists some of the more common words
that combine with verbs.
Of course, nonnatives studying English learn some of these
word combinations, but many of them are not covered in language textbooks or listed in dictionaries. For this reason, you
should use these word combinations sparingly when communicating with nonnative speakers of English. Following are
some two-word verbs and suggested substitutes:
Two-Word Verbs
Suggested Substitutes
give up
surrender
discovered that the illustration resembled the Arabic script meaning
speed up, hurry up
accelerate
Allah, the word for God. The Council on American–Islamic Relations
go on, keep on
continue
demanded an apology and withdrawal of the shoes from the market.
put off
defer, delay
take off
depart, remove
come down
descend
go in, come in, get in
enter
go out, come out, get out
exit, leave
blow up
explode
think up
imagine
Difficulties with English
figure out
solve
English is the primary language of international business.
This is not to say that other languages are not used. When
business executives from different countries have a common language, whatever it may be, they are likely to use it.
For example, an executive from Iraq and an executive from
Saudi Arabia would communicate with each other in Arabic, while an executive from Venezuela would use Spanish
in dealing with an executive from Mexico. However, when
executives have no common language, they are likely to use
English. The members of the European Free Trade Association conduct all their business in English. In the words
of one international authority, “English has emerged as the
lingua franca of world commerce in much the same way
take out, take away
remove
go back, get back, be back
return
Selected from David A. Ricks, Blunders in International Business, 4th ed.
(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), print.
C-10
Additional problems result from the fact that some two-word
verbs have noun and adjective forms. These also tend to confuse nonnatives using English. Examples of such nouns are
breakthrough, cover-up, drive-in, and show-off. Examples of
such adjectives are going-away (a going-away gift), cover-up
(cover-up tactics), cleanup (cleanup work), and turning-off
(turning-off place). Fortunately, some nouns and adjectives
of this kind are commonly used and appear in standard dictionaries (words such as hookup, feedback, breakthrough,
lookout, and takeover). In writing to nonnative readers, you
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EXHIBIT C-1
Verb Plus Away
give away
keep away
lay away
pass away
throw away
Verb Plus Back
cut back
feed back
keep back
play back
read back
take back
turn back
win back
Verb Plus Down
calm down
die down
hand down
keep down
let down
lie down
mark down
pin down
play down
put down
run down
shut down
sit down
wear down
Some Two-Word Verbs That Confuse Nonnative Speakers
Verb Plus In
cash in
cave in
close in
dig in
give in
run in
take in
throw in
Verb Plus Off
break off
brush off
buy off
check off
clear off
cool off
cut off
finish off
let off
mark off
pay off
run off
send off
slow off
shut off
sound off
start off
take off
write off
Verb Plus Out
blow out
clean out
crowd out
cut out
die out
dry out
even out
figure out
fill out
find out
give out
hold out
lose out
pull out
rule out
tire out
wear out
work out
Verb Plus Over
check over
do over
hold over
pass over
put over
roll over
run over
stop over
take over
talk over
think over
win over
Verb Plus Up
blow up
build up
call up
catch up
cover up
dig up
end up
fill up
get up
hang up
hold up
keep up
look up
mix up
pick up
save up
shake up
shut up
slow up
wrap up
Verb Plus
Miscellaneous
Words
bring about
catch on
get across
pass on
put across
put forth
set forth
In the United States we tend to use colloquial expressions often in our everyday communicating.
They are colorful, and they can communicate
clearly to those who understand them. But when
you are communicating with nonnative English
speakers, try to replace them with words that are
clearly defined in the dictionaries that these people are likely to use in translating your message.
Following are some examples:
Not This
But This
This is just off the top of
my head.
Here’s a quick idea.
He frequently shoots
from the hip.
He frequently acts
before he thinks.
We would be up the
creek without a paddle.
We would be in a
helpless situation.
They couldn’t make heads They couldn’t
or tails of the report.
understand the report.
The sales campaign was
a flop.
The sales campaign
was a failure.
I’ll touch base with
you on this problem in
August.
I’ll talk with you again
about this problem in
August.
I’ll share our research
with the committee so
they won’t have to start
from scratch [or reinvent
the wheel].
I’ll share our research
with the committee to
save them some work.
We will wind down
manufacturing operations
in November.
We will end
manufacturing
operations in
November.
Your prediction was right
on target.
Your prediction was
correct.
Don’t let him get your goat. Don’t let him upset you.
will need to use sparingly those that do not appear in standard dictionaries.
slang and colloquialisms As Chapter 4 points
out, slang and colloquialisms can cause problems when your
reader or listener is unfamiliar with them. The odds of this
being the case are dramatically increased in cross-cultural
communication.
For example, will non-U.S. communicators understand the
expressions nerd, couch potato, control freak, 24/7, pumped,
or basket case? How about words derived from U.S. sports,
such as kickoff, over the top, out in left field, strike out,
touch base, and get the ball rolling? Such expressions are
sometimes defined on English as a Second Language (ESL)
Web sites but rarely in dictionaries. They would be risky to
use except with those very familiar with U.S. English. (See
Exhibit C-2 for more colloquialisms to avoid.)
ADVICE FOR
COMMUNICATING
ACROSS CULTURES
As the preceding sections make clear, cross-cultural communication is fraught with potential barriers and misunderstandings. And even with the best effort on your part, not every
act of cross-cultural communication will succeed. Like other
kinds of communication, cross-cultural communication involves people—and people are unpredictable. In every culture, some persons are uncooperative, deceitful, prejudiced,
or insensitive, while others are respectful, welcoming, sincere,
and harmony-seeking. You can only make sure that you are as
prepared as possible. Keeping in mind the following advice
will help.
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EXHIBIT C-2
Examples of Colloquialisms to Avoid with Nonnative Speakers
head for home
shoot from the hip
in a rut
seal the deal
over the top
priming the pump
grasp at straws
on the same page
make heads or tails of it
flat-footed
back to the drawing board
tearjerker
on target
start at square one
countdown
out to pasture
a flop (or bust)
shortcut
sitting duck
up the creek without a paddle
educated guess
in the groove
a fish out of water
all ears
nuts (crazy)
a chicken with its head cut off
slower than molasses
circle the wagons
in the ballpark
break the ice
Do Your Research
This chapter cites many helpful resources on different cultures and their communication practices, and Exhibit C-3
lists additional Web sites and books. The online Web library,
Bizcom Tools & Tips, provides yet more resources. Before
any international business encounter, be sure you have done
your homework. Learn something about the topography,
climate, and location of your potential partners’ countries of
origin. Learn something about their language—and learn to
speak it if you can. Study descriptions of their history, their
ways of life, their values, their manners, and even their food
and recreation.
Besides doing library and online research, talk with people who
have had experience with those in other cultures, and if they
have writing samples, ask to see them. Take an intercultural
business course or even a course designed for those preparing
to do business in a specific country. Pursue opportunities to socialize or do teamwork with nonnatives in your own country.
The more effort you make to reach out beyond your own world,
the better your cross-cultural relations will be.
Know Yourself and Your Company
As several books by international communication experts point
out, a frequent mistake made by those preparing to do business
abroad is that they focus all their research on people in the culture they’re about to engage with and forget to research themselves. Yet knowing yourself is a good way to anticipate and
prevent likely frustations. For example, if you know you tend
to be a “low-context,” “low power distance,” “individualistic,”
“masculine,” “long-term goals” kind of person, you will be less
caught off guard by people at the opposite ends of these spectrums. You can remind yourself to watch and listen carefully
for visual and vocal cues, to be patient, to show respect, and to
act with due dignity yourself.
It is also important to understand the business you represent. Is
yours a rulebound, procedure-governed operation or one that is
C-12
more loose and trusting? Do you solve
problems by leaving them to management, by hiring an expert, or by pooling
everyone’s ideas? Does your company
avoid mixing business with pleasure?
Do employees socialize only with their
peers, or does everyone in the company feel free to relax together? Does
your company tend to take a straight,
efficient route to its goals or learn and
adjust as it goes? Just as you will view
your international business partner as
representative of his or her company,
so he or she will view you. Be sure you
send accurate signals.
Be Aware—and
Wary—of Stereotypes
One of the most sensitive issues in cross-cultural communication
is the extent to which generalizing about a culture perpetuates
stereotypes. We have come to regard stereotyping as negative, with good reason: Stereotyping can prejudice us and blind
us to others’ true natures. But the reason stereotypes are powerful
is that they are based to some degree on observable likenesses
within groups of people. They appeal because they are tempting
mental shortcuts. But as the international business consultants at
Canning point out, that is also their downside. They “are fixed
and conventionalized” and for that reason “suggest a failure to
learn from experience.” Well-researched cultural stereotypes can
be useful as basic models that you then adjust as you accumulate additional information. The generalizations can be a beginning point of reference, but you should quickly let them go when
someone clearly doesn’t represent the general type.18
Another reason it is important to be aware of stereotypes is
that your prospective international business partners are likely
to see you through the lens of a cultural stereotype. The more
familiar you are with the way people from your culture or
country are seen by those in another, the better prepared you
will be to show them the ways in which you differ from the
stereotype.
Adapt Your English
to Your Audience
The nonnative English speakers you meet will vary widely in
their skill. Some may speak better English than you do, while
others may have only the barest grasp of the language. As we
have suggested, erring on the side of simplicity is your best
bet for clear communication. Write or talk simply and clearly.
Talk slowly and enunciate each word. Remember that because
most nonnative speakers learned English in school, they are acquainted mainly with primary dictionary meanings and are not
likely to understand slang words or shades of difference in the
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EXHIBIT C-3
Additional Resources for Cross-Cultural Communication
Web sites:
www.state.gov. The U.S. government’s main diplomatic Web site. The
“Countries and Regions” tab on the main menu bar gives you access
to the site’s Backgound Notes. These provide extensive, frequently
updated information on all countries with which the United States has
relations.
www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/. Resources
from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. The site “provides
information on the history, people, government, economy, geography,
communications, transportation, military, and transnational issues for
267 world entities.”
http://trade.gov/index.asp. Web site of the International Trade
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, whose purpose is to
promote international trade. Through the “Publications” tab on the
main menu bar, you can access the agency’s latest publications,
including its monthly newsletter, as well as previous articles and
reports.
www.export.gov/. Web site of the U.S. Commercial Service (under the
International Trade Administration), offering assistance of all types
on international trade. Of particular value are its Country Commercial
Guides, regularly updated for each country (access these through
“Find Opportunities” > “Market Research” > “Market Research
Library”).
www.sba.gov/aboutsba/sbaprograms/internationaltrade/
exportlibrary/index.html. Resources from the U.S. government for
small businesses interested in doing international trade.
www.oecd.org/home/0,3305,en_2649_201185_1_1_1_1_1,00.html.
Web site for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD)—originally the Organisation for European
Economic Co-operation (OEEC)—an organization of 34 member
countries that share their knowledge and resources on over 200
countries (click the “Countries” tab).
www.uscib.org. Web site of the United States Council for
International Business, a nongovernmental organization. Can access
recent issues of the USCIB’s journal International Business and news
articles for free (must belong to a member company, law firm, or
organization to access additional material).
www.fita.org/index.html. Site of the Federation of International Trade
Organizations, another nongovernmental organization promoting
international trade. Has links to over 8,000 international trade-related
Web sites on such topics as maps and geography, international
business terms, trade law, and many more. (A good place to start is
“Really Useful Links” in the “Tools of Trade” section of the left-hand
main menu bar.) Some links lead to free resources; some are for
paying members only.
http://globaledge.msu.edu/. Sponsored by Michigan State University
in the United States. Can find extensive resources by country and
state, including not only geography, history, and vital statistics but also
news, trade, and industry information.
http://timeticker.com. Can find out what time it is in any country or
which countries are in which time zone.
www.NationMaster.com. A popular educational Web site started by
an Australian statistics enthusiast. Offers maps, flags, and country
profiles, but its greatest strength is statistics on many countries, which
the site will graph for you.
www.calliope.be/. An online learning center for international
communication at the University of Antwerp. Offers theory, exercises,
and cases on intercultural communication in three languages: Dutch,
English, and French. You can see what readers in these different
cultures prefer to see in such documents as résumés, press releases,
and persuasive messages.
www.kwintessential.co.uk/etiquette/doing-business-in.html. Site of
a UK consulting firm that offers free guides for doing business in 46
countries.
Selected Books:
Jag Bhalla, I’m Not Hanging Noodles on Your Ears and Other
Intriguing Idioms from Around the World (Washington, DC: National
Geographic, 2009). A compilation of colorful expressions in different
languages.
Mary Murray Bosrock, Asian Business Customs & Manners: A
Country-by-Country Guide (Minnetonka, MN: Meadowbrook, 2007).
Other books in this popular series focus on Europe, United States,
Mexico/Canada, Russia, and the Middle East.
Martin J. Gannon and Rajnandini Pillai, Understanding Global Cultures:
Metaphorical Journeys Through 30 Nations, Clusters of Nations,
Continents, and Diversity, 5th ed. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2013). An
insightful, innovative approach that interprets cultures through their
popular metaphors, such as “the Japanese garden” and “the Finnish
sauna.”
Jeanette S. Martin and Lillian H. Chaney, Global Business Etiquette:
A Guide to International Communication and Customs (Westport,
CT: Praeger, 2012). Comprehensive guide to world business
communication and behavior.
Terri Morrison and Wayne A. Conaway, Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands:
How to Do Business in Sixty Countries, 2nd ed. (Avon, MA: Adams
Media, 2006). An alphabetically arranged country-by-country
guide describing the overall culture, behavioral styles, negotiating
techniques, protocol, and business practices of each country.
Mustafa F. Ozbilgin and Ahu Tatli, Global Diversity Management: An
Evidence-Based Approach (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). Case
studies and advice concerning many countries and issues.
Kirk St. Amant and Sigrid Kelsey, Computer-Mediated Communication
across Cultures: International Interactions in Online Environments, IGI
Global, 2012, Web, 5 May 2013.
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of
Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business, 3rd ed.
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012).
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meanings we give words. They will understand you better if
you avoid these pitfalls.
You also will communicate better if you carefully word your questions. Be sure your questions are not double questions (for example, avoid a question like “Do you want to go to dinner now or
wait until after the rush hour is over?”). Also, avoid the yes/no
question that some cultures may have difficulty answering directly.
Use more open-ended questions such as “When would you like to
go to dinner?” And avoid negative questions such as “Aren’t you
going to dinner?” If the respondent says “yes,” it could mean either
“right, I am not going to dinner,” or “Yes, I’m going.”
Finally, try to confirm that you understand and are being understood correctly. Even in Britain, whose culture is similar to ours
in the United States, similar words can have different meanings.
For example, we use a billion to mean 1,000,000,000, whereas
the British use it to mean 1,000,000,000,000. If a British English speaker asks to table an item, an American English
speaker will probably interpret that as a request to put it off,
when the real request is to bring it to attention.19 Continually
checking for shared meaning can help ensure the accuracy of
the communication process.
Be Open to Change
International communication can be a broadening experience
if you approach it with openness and tolerance. In addition to
learning about new and better ways to do business, you can also
grow personally and enlarge your world.
Is adapting to the practices of one’s international partners always feasible? No. You may find that the culture of the company you represent will simply not mesh with those of some
potential business partners. Is adapting to others’ practices always ethical? Here, too, the answer is no. For example, JeanClaude Usunier lists several practices to avoid in international
negotiations, including bribing, buying information, buying
influence, giving misleading information, exploiting the other
party’s ignorance, undermining the competition by buying out
their people, and negotiating without intending to keep any
promises.20 Unfortunately, these practices are all fairly widespread, even though some have been made expressly illegal by
such acts as the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. And other
ethical problems—racism, sexism, homophobia, disregard for
the environment, exploitation of labor, and so forth—may arise.
If put in a situation where you must choose between making a
deal or behaving ethically and legally, seek advice from others
in your company. You are likely to be advised to do the ethical
thing—not only because most businesspeople are honorable but
also because, in the Internet age, news about scandalous company dealings travels fast, often with disastrous results.
If approached patiently, humbly, and sincerely, forming international business relations can be incredibly exciting. Be ready
to make and acknowledge mistakes, and to forgive them in
others. Mutual respect is key—perhaps the key—to successful
cross-cultural communication.
C-14
DISCUSSION
QUESTIONS
1. Put yourself in the shoes of the trainer described in this
chapter’s Workplace Scenario. What might have been a
better way to handle the situation? Explain why.
2. What are the prevailing attitudes in our culture toward the
following, and how can those attitudes affect our communication with nonnatives? Discuss.
a. Negotiation methods
b. Truth in advertising
c. Company–worker loyalty
d. Women’s appropriate roles in society
e. The Protestant work ethic
3. Some of our message-writing techniques are said to be unacceptable to people from such cultures as those of Japan
and England. Which techniques in particular do you think
would be most inappropriate in these cultures? Why?
4. Think of English words (other than this chapter’s examples)
that probably do not have precise equivalents in some other
culture. How would you attempt to explain each of these
words to a person from that culture?
5. Select a word with at least five meanings. List those meanings and consider how you would communicate each of
them to a nonnative.
6. Is a conversational style appropriate in writing to nonnative
readers? Discuss.
7. Select a country or region and analyze the likely impact of its
topography, history, and religious background on its culture.
8. Study a country’s culture and then infer its people’s likely
attitudes toward American values and behaviors.
9. If you were trying to persuade your boss to implement some
kind of cross-cultural training in the company, what kind of
evidence might help you make a convincing case?
10. On a recent trip to India, Mr. Yang, a prominent Chinese
executive, dined with his client Himanshu Jain. Mr. Yang
commented that the food was spicy, which Mr. Jain interpreted as an opportunity to discuss Indian cuisine. After
lengthy explanations, Mr. Yang commented again that the
food was spicy.
What happened here? What barrier is likely getting in the
way of clear communication? (Adapted from Danielle Medina Walker, Thomas Walker, and Joerg Schmitz, Doing
Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross-Cultural Success [New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003] 237, print.)
11. Compare the two email messages on the next page.
Both were written to inform the reader that the writer’s
Bonus Chapter C
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company had been charged too much for an ad published
in the reader’s magazine. The first (with both Japanese
and English versions displayed) was written by a Japanese author to a Japanese reader. The second was written by a U.S. author to a U.S. reader. What differences
in the two approaches do you see? What cultural differences might account for these writing differences?
Japanese version in Japanese:
料金についての問い合わせ
トラベルジャパン雑誌広告部
U.S. version:
Subject: Adjustment needed for the Hocking Hills account
Dear Mr. Dugan,
As the attached purchase order shows, The Hocking Hills Resort
& Spa submitted a request for a 2/3 page ad to run in the
March issue of Travel Ohio. Our 2/3 page appeared on page 32
of that issue, but the receipt we just received indicates that we
were charged for a full-page ad.
Will you please credit our account for $800, the difference
between the two ad rates?
吉田一郎様
Thank you,
この度は貴誌トラベルジャパンの4月号32ページに弊社の広告
を掲載して頂き、ありがとうございました。
Source for Japanese message: Yukie Aoyagi, Language
Education Center, Seitoku University, Japan. ■
本日広告料37万円引き落としの連絡を受取りました。しかしこの
金額はフルページ用のもののようです。
弊社の広告は2/3ページ
でしたので、貴社の広告料リストによれば29万円のはずです。
御参照のため注文書の写しを添付いたしました。ご確認のう
え、
ご対応頂けますよう、
お願い申し上げます。
多摩リゾート 経理部
鈴木美智子
tel:
email:
Japanese version in English:
Subject: Inquiry about the charge
Dear Mr. Yoshida,
Thank you for putting our advertisement on page 32 in the
April issue of your magazine, Travel Japan.
We received today a notice that \370,000. was charged
to our account for the ad. However, this amount seems for
a full-page ad. Since our ad covers 2/3 of the page, the
amount should be \290,000. according to your list of the
advertising rates.
I have attached a copy of the purchase order for our 2/3
page ad for your reference. We would appreciate your checking into the matter and making a necessary adjustment as
soon as possible.
Sincerely,
Michiko Suzuki
Cross-Cultural Communication
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