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How Did the Byzantine Empire Decline?
Grass and bushes are shown growing upon a section of the ruined, ancient walls of Constantinople
among the remains of two towers.
A section of the ruined, ancient walls of Constantinople still stands today.
© De Agostini / G. Dagli Orti / Universal Images Group / ImageQuest 2015
In many sports, certain teams or players dominate the competition for a given time. For example, the
New York Yankees won three consecutive World Series from 1998 to 2000. The Dallas Cowboys won
three Super Bowls from 1993 to 1996. Tennis player Roger Federer won five Wimbledon titles in a row
from 2003 to 2007, and Tiger Woods was the top-ranked golfer in the world for 623 weeks total (almost
12 years), from 1997 to 2010. Such dominance does not last forever, however. Star players may retire,
be traded, or get injured. The coaching staff might change. Other teams or players in the league might
improve. All of a sudden, or even slowly over time, the teams and players that used to dominate start
losing more often. The “empire” falls, and another one (a new team or player) may take over in its place.
Like a winning sports team, the Byzantine Empire was supreme for many years. Eventually, the empire
began to fade and another empire, the Ottoman Empire, arose. During the reign of Justinian I, the
Byzantine Empire reached the height of its power. After Justinian’s death, however, the empire began a
gradual decline that lasted for nearly 900 years. This decline had many ebbs and flows, during which the
empire’s territory contracted and expanded several times. Why did this happen? Invading forces and
internal problems weakened the Byzantine Empire, but gifted leaders helped to build it up again. In
1453 CE, however, the empire succumbed to a collapse from which it would not recover. The Ottoman
Empire came to power in its place.
How Did Justinian I Contribute to the Weakening Byzantine Empire?
Picture of Germanic tribesmen going into battle around 100 CE. Two groups are shown marching to the
right. Each member of the group in front is carrying a round shield while wearing a limited amount of
clothing. The second group is carrying a stronger shield while wearing a helmet and full uniform,
including both shirts and pants.
This illustration shows Germanic tribesmen going into battle around 100 CE. Germanic peoples invaded
the Roman Empire for hundreds of years. After the split of this empire, Germanic tribes, such as the
Lombards, continued to attack the Byzantine Empire.
© Ambrose Dudley / Bridgeman Art Library / Universal Images Group / ImageQuest 2015
Sometimes, even the most carefully designed plans do not work out as intended. Have you ever started
a project, confident you knew what you were doing, only to soon find everything going wrong? Perhaps
you overlooked some key details, or encountered some unanticipated problems that prevented your
project from being a success. For Justinian I, this situation became all too familiar in his efforts to lead
the Byzantine Empire.
Justinian himself planted the seeds for the Byzantine Empire’s decline. First, his constant wars and the
rebuilding of Constantinople after the Nika Riot caused serious financial problems for the empire. The
reconstruction of the Hagia Sophia alone cost about 320,000 pounds of gold.
Second, Justinian left the Byzantine army scattered across the empire, primarily under the command of
Belisarius, a general. Many units were occupied by fighting fierce nomads. One of these nomad groups,
a Germanic barbarian tribe called the Lombards, had managed to conquer much of northern Italy. The
thinly-spread Byzantine forces fought to prevent the Lombards from pushing farther into Italy. This
situation was not uncommon. Thin lines of defense in other areas left the empire open to attack.
Finally, during the last years of Justinian’s reign, the empire suffered from several attacks of bubonic
plague. Called Justinian’s Plague by modern historians, the illness killed millions of people. This created a
severe shortage of human power, which weakened the military and the government.
How Did Invading Forces Weaken the Byzantine Empire?
Have you ever witnessed the damage termites do to homes? Termites invade homes through cracks in
wood. They are relentless, and before most homeowners know it, the structure begins crumbling down
around them. Although not silent invaders, forces invading the Byzantine Empire were much like
termites. These groups sensed a crack in the empire’s foundations, made their way in, and slowly but
surely began to weaken the empire. Which groups caused the most trouble for the Byzantines? Select
each tab to learn more.
Slavs and AvarsAvars and Sassanids Arabs Bulgars
Map of the Barbarian Invasion of the Byzantine Empire during the 6th-8th centuries. Dates and routes
are shown for each major event.
Map of the Barbarian Invasion of the Byzantine Empire.
Public Domain
In 550 CE, a group of barbarian invaders from eastern Europe named the Slavs began to raid the Balkan
territory of the Byzantine Empire. To turn back these raids, the Byzantines arranged for another
barbarian group, the Avars, to attack the Slavs.
These barbarian tribes were often at war with each other over territory and power. The Byzantines
hoped to take advantage of this. The Avars lived in the Caucasus region and were related to the Huns.
The Byzantines hoped that the Slavs would be too busy fighting the Avars to raid the Balkans. However,
this plan backfired horribly.
The Slavs fled the attacking Avars and traveled south, deeper into the Balkans. Many Slavs settled in this
region. After this, the Avars themselves decided to attack the Byzantines with armies made up of
conquered Slavs.
How Did the Macedonian Dynasty Strengthen the Byzantine Empire, and How Did Internal Turmoil
Weaken It?
During the 800s, a strong group of Byzantine landowners emerged. Called the Powerful, these
landowners owned huge estates, which made them extremely wealthy. Soon the Powerful attempted to
gain control of the empire.
At that time, a Macedonian named Basil seized the throne. Basil was a Bulgar slave who, at the age of
25, escaped his captivity and traveled to Constantinople. An intelligent man, Basil soon rose in the
political ranks from a diplomat’s groom to co-emperor with Michael III. Basil assassinated Michael in
867, thereby becoming sole emperor. His rule was marked by a constant internal struggle with the
Powerful, who had taken control of a large part of the imperial army. Basil depended on troops in or
near Constantinople to put down revolts by the Powerful and their forces.
Despite this conflict, trade flourished under Basil and provided the empire with large amounts of wealth.
Also, Basil strengthened the military and conquered regions in western Anatolia (now Turkey) and
southern Italy. Indeed, the empire became almost as powerful as it had been under Justinian’s rule.
Basil established a Macedonian dynasty that ruled the empire until 1025 CE. The emperors of this
dynasty continued to conquer some of the empire’s lost territory, including Syria and Palestine. In
addition, under Macedonian rule, Byzantine arts and literature thrived, and Byzantine missionaries
spread Christianity to the Slavs and Serbs.
Accomplishments of Macedonian Dynasty
Mosaic picture of the Byzantine empress Zoe, which is located in the Hagia Sophia church in Istanbul.
Zoe is wearing a royal robe and crown, each made of jewels. A circle is drawn around her head.
Located in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, this mosaic shows the Byzantine empress Zoe.
© 2012 Associated Press
Improved Byzantine economy
Strengthened the army and navy
Reconquered former Byzantine territory, including parts of Italy, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and the
Balkans
Supported arts and literature
Weakened the control of the Powerful
Sent missionaries to the Slavs and Serbs
In 976 CE, Basil II took the throne and soon passed laws that broke up many of the Powerful’s estates.
He also gained control of lands in the Balkans, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. With no children as heirs,
the Macedonian dynasty ended upon his death. After Basil’s death, co-empresses Zoe and Theodora
ruled fairly and exposed many corrupt officials. They could do nothing, however, to decrease the
influence of the Powerful. The internal problems caused the empire to become unstable. Using their
influence, the Powerful managed to repeal the laws passed under Basil II that broke up their estates.
As the Powerful acquired land, they needed labor to keep up the land. At the same time, prices for land
and other necessities increased, and peasants were responsible for paying those taxes.
The burden soon became overwhelming. As a result, the peasants sought refuge by going to work for
the large landowners. By working for the landowners, the peasants were no longer required to pay
taxes. However, it also meant that the number of peasant soldiers decreased. The empire was left with
both a weakened treasury and army. Most of the emperors that followed Zoe and Theodora proved to
be incompetent and were powerless to solve the empire’s problems.
The Powerful regained control of much of the military, and the armies loyal to the emperor were
depleted. In addition, political corruption spread throughout the government. All this internal turmoil
once again weakened the empire.
How Did the Crusades Weaken the Byzantine Empire?
During the 1000s, the Seljuk Turks gained control of Byzantine territory in Anatolia. The Turks also
defeated the Arabs and captured Palestine and the city of Jerusalem. The Byzantine Empire was
shrinking.
Oil painting on the Capture of Antioch using a dark and light painting technique. Dead men and horses
are scattered on the ground. A building with columns lines the background.
Have a look at this painting of a battle during the First Crusade. Do you think that this painting is from
the European or Byzantine perspective? What led you to your conclusion?
Public Domain
Afraid the Turks would attack Constantinople, the Byzantine emperor Alexius I asked the Roman Church
for help. He proposed that eastern and western Christians should join forces and drive out the Turks
from Anatolia and Palestine. This endeavor would be called a Holy War, or Crusade. The pope, Urban II,
agreed to this plan for two reasons. First, he thought a combined East-West war against the Turks could
reunite the eastern and western churches. Second, he wanted to free Palestine and Jerusalem from
Muslim rule.
At first, the Crusade was successful. The European armies reconquered parts of Anatolia and then
captured Jerusalem in 1099 CE. Also, the crusaders returned the land they conquered in Anatolia to the
Byzantine Empire. Then the crusaders set up four kingdoms in East Asia. The Muslims, however, soon
regrouped and conquered these domains.
The most significant impact to the Byzantine Empire came in 1203 CE, when crusaders and Venetians
attacked Constantinople, causing the emperor to flee the city. It all started years before when the
crusaders arrived in Venice. Alexius Angelus, the nephew of the Byzantine emperor, offered them a deal.
Alexius offered to pay for the necessary warships for the crusaders if they would defeat the current
Byzantine emperor and make Alexius the ruler. The crusaders and Venetians agreed.
When the Byzantine Emperor fled Constantinople, Alexius then declared himself emperor. The
crusaders, encamped around the city, waited for their pay. The Byzantines, however, discovered
Alexius’s deal with the crusaders and killed him. Left with no pay, the crusaders captured and plundered
Constantinople, destroying part of the city. After this, the crusaders established a Latin Empire, which
controlled only Constantinople. The Byzantines set up a government in exile.
The Latin emperors had little money and were surrounded by hostile states. In 1259 CE, the exiled
Byzantine emperor, Michael VIII, defeated the Latin army. Then in 1261 CE, he led a small army into
Constantinople, which was undefended.
Michael attempted to build up the empire and reconquered a few lost territories. The effect of the
Latins on the Byzantine Empire, however, was devastating; it never fully recovered. Indeed, the
plundering of Constantinople was so extensive that the resulting damage was only partially repaired
even 50 years later.
Who Were the Ottoman Turks?
During the late 1200s, Turkish tribes began to expand their territory in northwest Anatolia. Osman I was
an early leader of this group. He formed a dynasty of Turkish rulers called Osmanli, which means “sons
of Osman.” Over time, English speakers came to call this group Ottomans.
The Ottoman Turks strictly followed Islam but allowed the people they conquered to practice their own
faiths. They built mosques, which served as social and religious centers. Also, the Ottomans made
significant contributions in tile making, carpet weaving, and architecture. In rural areas, most Ottomans
worked as farmers; in urban areas, many of them were craft workers and merchants.
The Ottoman government was led by the sultan, who made all the important political decisions. The
power of the sultan, however, was limited in a few ways. For instance, new laws could not take effect
without the approval of the chief religious judge, called the Grand Mufti. Select each tab to learn more
about important Ottoman leaders and their efforts to expand the empire.
1300-1359
1360-1451
1452-1481
1512-1520
1520-1566
1566-1683
A map including portions of Europe, Africa, and Asia with the bodies of water shaded in white while the
land is shaded grey. A portion of land around Constantinople is highlighted in orange showing the
growth of the Ottoman Empire between 1300 and 1359 C.E. A Portrait of Osman I is in the left corner.
He is wearing a green robe, decorated with white and gold embellishments and a white turban
decorated with green and gold. He is kneeling on red cushions and is holding a long, curved sword.
© De Agostini / A. Dagli Orti / Universal Images Group / ImageQuest 2015
Osman I began to merge powers in the Anatolian Peninsula. By 1360 BCE, his son Orkhan had enlarged
their territory to include the area between the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Ottoman leaders now
began to claim the title of sultan.
How Did the Final Collapse of the Byzantine Empire Happen?
Picture of Mehmet II, the sultan of the Ottomans. Mehmet I is facing to the left and wearing a sultan
hat. An arch encases Mehmet I.
Mehmet II, the sultan of the Ottomans. Before his siege of Constantinople, the Ottomans had tried to
take the city but failed. However, Mehmet used gunpowder artillery, thereby starting an age of
gunpowder weapons. Supported by the artillery, Mehmet captured the city.
© akg Images / Universal Images Group / ImageQuest 2015
In 1453 CE, led by the Sultan Mehmet II, the Ottoman Turks laid siege on Constantinople.
Constantinople was an economic and cultural center. Situated between the Black Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea, it served as a major trade hub between the Middle East and Western Europe. It was
also a place known for its art, literature, and architecture. Much of this was inspired by Christianity. The
Ottomans knew that conquering Constantinople would give them religious and economic power over
the entire region. They would make it a Muslim empire, and the Ottomans would be able to control the
trade routes. The Byzantine Empire would fall, once and for all.
Knowing that an attack was coming, the Byzantines asked for aid from Western Europe. Unfortunately
for them, only a few volunteers arrived. The Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, managed to form an
army of about 5,000 Byzantine soldiers and 3,000 Westerners living in the city. Many of these
Westerners were Venetians. The Ottoman army consisted of about 100,000 troops.
Despite the relatively small Byzantine forces, Constantinople was still a difficult city to capture. The
Ottomans attacked it for more than a month with a constant barrage of artillery fire. Ottoman soldiers
charged the city’s walls many times, only to be turned back. The Byzantines prevented Ottoman ships
from approaching the city by laying a chain across the mouth of the Golden Horn, an inlet of the
Bosporus Strait. Mehmet bypassed the Byzantine defenses, however, by having his ships dragged
overland across to the harbor on the seaward side.
Then on May 29, 1453 CE, the Ottomans launched an all-out attack, charging at the city from three
sides. During hours of intense fighting, the Ottomans managed to lay many ladders against the walls,
which allowed their soldiers to climb into the city. Eventually, enough Ottomans entered the city to turn
the tide of the battle. Thousands of people died during the conflict, including Constantine XI.
After capturing the city, Mehmet allowed his soldiers to loot for three days. However, abiding by the
Muslim tradition of respecting the religion of conquered people, Mehmet gave the Patriarch of
Constantinople a large amount of authority over Christians living under Ottoman rule.
The fall of Constantinople by the Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire. It had endured for more than a
thousand years. Even after its fall, the influence of this empire continued.
What Were the Effects of the Fall of the Byzantine Empire?
Inspired by their capture of Constantinople, the Ottoman Turks conquered all of the Byzantine territory
and much more. Ottoman armies overtook most of southeast Europe, the area near the Black Sea, Syria,
and Egypt. Then in 1520 CE, Süleyman I became the sultan of the Ottoman Empire and started a
powerful military campaign. He captured Belgrade in 1521 CE and in following years, swept across
Hungary. In 1529 CE, he attacked Vienna but was forced to retreat. The Ottoman Empire reached the
height of its power, or golden age, under his rule.
There are moments in your life when big, life-altering changes occur. Maybe it happened when you
moved to a new town and had to meet new friends and get used to calling a new place home. Or maybe
it will happen when you graduate from high school, and you have to make adult decisions about college
or a career. After the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire, many big changes occurred there, too.
Changes in the Ottoman Empire
When the Ottomans conquered the Byzantines, they began to make their influence known in the social,
cultural, and political fabric of the region. The Ottomans made Islam the primary religion in the region,
replacing Orthodox Christianity. They did allow the practice of Christianity and other religions, however.
How else did the Ottomans affect the society?
Role of Women
Social Causes
Byzantine Influences
What Was the Impact of the Byzantine Empire?
Although the Byzantine Empire fell, it continued to have a widespread influence. For example, as
you have learned, the legal system set up by Justinian I shaped legal systems throughout Europe.
Also, Byzantines preserved many of the classic literary works of ancient Greece and Rome, which
were later read by European thinkers. Inspired by these works as well as those preserved in Arabic
translation, later thinkers helped to start the Renaissance in Western Europe.
In addition, the Byzantine Empire had a major religious and political influence on Russia.
The Russians converted to Orthodox Christianity in the 900s. After the empire collapsed, the ruler of
Russia became the only remaining Orthodox monarch in the world. In fact, some people looked at
Russia as the continuation of the Byzantine Empire and, in this way, of the old Roman Empire.
Indeed, the name for the Russian ruler, tsar, comes from the ancient Roman title of Caesar. Finally,
the Byzantine Empire prevented Muslim states from overrunning Western Europe.
During the Middle Ages in Europe, Muslim states were focused on conquering the powerful and rich
Byzantine Empire. Because of this, they did not attempt to invade Western Europe, which was
weakly organized at the time. The Byzantines successfully repelled various Muslim forces for
hundreds of years. By the time Suleyman attacked Western Europe at Vienna, European states had
grown strong enough to defend themselves against the Muslim army.