10 empirical articles, writing assignment help

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Read at least 10 empirical articles

In the "Literature Review Resources" (See attached) document that you submitted in the previous course, provide the following for each source that you are adding to the document:

  1. The APA-formatted citation.
  2. A brief annotation of the key points of the source (200 to 250 words for each)

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Teacher Understanding of Classroom Management and Application of Methods for Dealing with Student Misbehavior Submitted by Deonte’ Jamar Alexander A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctorate of Education Grand Canyon University Phoenix, Arizona September 30, 2014 © by Deonte’ Jamar Alexander, 2014 All rights reserved. Abstract The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how elementary school teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies. An additional focus was on how teachers defined an effective classroom manager, and the training and support that teachers perceived they need in order to feel more confident in their approach to classroom management. The theoretical framework used for this study was based on social cognitive theory, person-centered theory, and the stimulus-response theory. The central question guiding this research focused on how elementary teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies to use in class. Data collection consisted of questionnaires and interviews as well as a researcher’s observations and focus groups over the course of four to six weeks in elementary classrooms at one school located in southern North Carolina. The results of the study included four key themes - noncompliant behavior, preparation, emotion, and training which helped to identify successful strategies and various obstacles in classroom management and student misbehaviors of these seven elementary school teachers. The results of this study provided education practitioners with ideas regarding how to benefit from helpful classroom management techniques and behavior approaches in order to increase the students’ success and effectiveness in the classroom of elementary school teachers. Overall, the study increased awareness, development, and implementation of classroom management techniques from the personal accounts of a sample of elementary school teachers and their perception of classroom management and dedication to improve the current situation and approach options. Key words: classroom management, elementary school, teachers, North Carolina v Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to numerous individuals, for all of them played an intricate part in the vision that has finally become a manifestation. I dedicate this dissertation to my mother and father, Arrita Alexander and Walter Patterson Jr.; they are the reason that I am the strong, consistent worker that I have become. I also dedicate this dissertation to my grandmothers, Sylvia Alexander and Mary Patterson. They instilled great value into me and have continued to be my life guide since I was born. I dedicate this dissertation to my sister and brother, Shaquana Alexander and Walter Malik Patterson III, who made me appreciate being a big brother. I dedicate this dissertation to all my aunts and uncles: Sutalia, Willette, Mary Jane, JoAnn, Lee, Marlon, and Malcolm. They always gave me encouraging words and were top supporters in whatever I decided to do. I dedicate this dissertation to my best friends, Tristan Williams and Danielle Allen. They both have always believed in who I was, not only to them, but who I was to the world. I dedicate this to my god brothers and sister Kimont, Kendrick, Otis, and Amanda. This group was by my side through my every high and my every low. I also dedicate this dissertation to my one and only niece, Malia, who is the light of my world. I dedicate this dissertation to all my spiritual leaders: Bishop Aaron and Lady Riley, Pastor Leroy and Lady Hamilton, Dr. James and 1st Lady Spence, and Dr. Pamela Herndon. I cannot forget Charles Caldwell who has been one of my best friends, wonderful inspiration, ideal example, and consistent leader in many ways. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to all elementary school teachers striving to become better and more effective educators, but have not due to the lack of opportunity or information. We are a team! As one of my pastors would always say, “We do it better when we do it together!” vi Acknowledgments I have had such a wonderful support system throughout the doctoral process. First, I must thank God for all He was and still is in my life. There is no way I could have made it without the mercy and grace of God, especially during the time when I wanted to give up. I want to acknowledge a wonderful committee chair and members, Dr. Jason Ward, Dr. Gayle Grant, and Dr. Daniel Smith! They were definitely a group exuding excellence, knowledge, patience and wisdom. I wanted to also recognize those former chair and committee member on my team when I first began this journey: Dr. Cristie McClendon and Dr. Deborah Rickey. The doctoral team, as a team, pushed and stretched me in ways I did not think was possible. I must acknowledge my family praying for me and talking me through. I appreciate my friends as well as associates for having the patience with me and understanding when I could not participate in the normal ‘leisure’ activities. I must also acknowledge my former church families: Word Empowerment Church and Sacrifice of Praise Ministries. These two church families supported me and became listening ears when needed. I must also acknowledge Bright Horizons Family Solutions, who allowed extended break to prepare for my initial defense call and time off, if needed for research. Finally, I must acknowledge all the members of my cohort. Some of my colleagues have become doctors and some are almost at the finish line. Through this doctoral journey, I adopted an extended family and bond like never before. When no one around me understood what I was going through during the doctoral journey, this group knew hands on what to do and say to give me that push I needed to continue. This group will always be a part of my life, educational journey and I am forever appreciative for having people to walk this journey with me. vii It was an honor and privilege to have this opportunity to see other educators with such integrity, passion, character, and strength. It was interesting to hear various situations of behavior issues and how that dealt with them. However, it was even better to hear how they all were transparent and willing to learn from others. If I had to select one thing from this study to apply to my life now, it would certainly be that regardless how long I remain an educator and obtain various degrees, there is always something else to learn. viii Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study....................................................................................1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................1 Background of the Study ...............................................................................................2 Problem Statement .........................................................................................................5 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................6 Research Questions ........................................................................................................7 Advancing Scientific Knowledge ..................................................................................8 Significance of the Study ...............................................................................................9 Rationale for Methodology ..........................................................................................10 Nature of the Research Design for the Study...............................................................11 Definition of Terms......................................................................................................12 Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ....................................................................14 Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study ........................................15 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................16 Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ......................................16 Theoretical Foundations...............................................................................................18 Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................22 Classroom management defined. ...................................................................23 Components of classroom management. .......................................................25 Types of student misbehaviors .......................................................................29 Reasons students misbehave...........................................................................30 Ethnicity, gender, and student misbehavior ...................................................33 ix Teacher views on student misbehavior...........................................................35 Student misbehavior strategies .......................................................................37 Classroom environment ..................................................................................43 Understanding diversity in the classroom ......................................................47 Summary ......................................................................................................................49 Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................52 Introduction ..................................................................................................................52 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................52 Research Questions ......................................................................................................53 Research Methodology ................................................................................................54 Research Design...........................................................................................................55 Population and Sample Selection.................................................................................57 Sources of Data ............................................................................................................59 Validity ........................................................................................................................60 Reliability.....................................................................................................................61 Data Collection Procedures..........................................................................................61 Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................................62 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................64 Limitations and Delimitations......................................................................................65 Summary ......................................................................................................................65 Chapter 4: Data Collection and Analyses ..........................................................................67 Introduction ..................................................................................................................67 Descriptive Data...........................................................................................................68 Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................................70 x Results ..........................................................................................................................73 Research Questions ......................................................................................................79 Summary ....................................................................................................................106 Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ............................................108 Introduction ................................................................................................................108 Summary of the Study ...............................................................................................108 Summary of Findings and Conclusion.......................................................................110 Key Themes ...............................................................................................................112 Implications................................................................................................................114 Theoretical implications...............................................................................114 Practical implications. ..................................................................................115 Future implications. .....................................................................................116 Recommendations ......................................................................................................117 Recommendations for future research. ........................................................118 Recommendations for practice.....................................................................121 References ........................................................................................................................125 Appendix A: Questionnaire .............................................................................................147 Appendix B: Interview Questions ....................................................................................151 Appendix C: Classroom Management Observation Checklist ........................................152 Appendix D: Focus Group Session Protocol ...................................................................153 Appendix E: Site Approval Letter ...................................................................................154 Appendix F: Author Permission Letter 1 .........................................................................155 Appendix G: Author Permission Letter 2 ........................................................................156 Appendix H: Informed Consent Form .............................................................................157 xi List of Tables Table 1. Participants’ Education and Experience ..............................................................71 Table 2. Key Themes .........................................................................................................73 Table 3. Percentage of Students Identified as Noncomplaint Students ............................ 74 Table 4. Noncompliant Behaviors within the Class.......................................................... 75 Table 5. Number of Times Noncompliant Behaviors are Addressed ................................76 Table 6. Is your Response to Item #3 Reflective of the Past Year as well? ......................77 Table 7. Rated top Three Strategies ...................................................................................82 Table 8. Rate the Effectiveness of Classroom Management Strategies in General ...........83 Table 9. Indicate the Classroom Strategies used in the Classroom ...................................84 Table 10. How Teachers Develop their Classroom Strategies used in the Classroom ......85 Table 11. Opinions on Classroom Management Strategies and Behavior Approaches ....88 Table 12. Scores from classroom Management Observation Checklist ............................90 Table 13. Data in Correspondence to Selection, Development, and Implementation .....104 1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Introduction An understanding of proper classroom management techniques is a critical tool for teachers to possess in order to be successful within the classroom in regard to the effectiveness of their instruction as well as to deter student misconduct that might interfere with that objective. Effective classroom management is an ongoing process that can be difficult to sustain because it requires attention to detail on a daily basis (Guercio, 2011). Teachers use diverse means to promote positive and appropriate conduct in the classroom; however, there is still a question as to which methods are the most appropriate (Guercio, 2011). By collecting data on student engagement during instruction, disruptive behavior, and teacher observations, teachers can determine if changes are needed in the physical arrangement of their respective classrooms. Changing the classroom environment can increase academic engagement and decrease disruptive behavior (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010). The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how elementary school teachers select, develop, and implement classroom management strategies. This study was a replication of a study conducted by Westbrook-Spaniel (2008) and focused on a diverse sample population and grade-level group that differed from Westbrook-Spaniel’s study. Targeting a younger grade-level group diversified the scope of information and offered a different set of approaches to controlling student behavior through classroom management. Guiding research questions spotlighted how teachers discovered, chose, expanded, and executed the classroom-management techniques they use. Additional questions focused on how teachers defined an effective classroom manager, and the training and support that teachers perceived they needed in order to feel more confident 2 in their approach to classroom management. The results of the study added to the existing body of knowledge by providing teachers with information that went beyond current classroom management research in the field of education. The results offered practitioners an understanding of how effective classroom strategies are implemented and who could implement them effectively. Additionally, the study provided information on how teachers defined an effective classroom manager and what training they need in order to continue to develop their skills (Westbrook-Spaniel, 2008). Data collection in this study included the use of questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and classroom observations. Participants included teachers in elementary classrooms at one school located in southern North Carolina. In this study, some questions were answered regarding what classroom management methods were known to work best in reducing incidences of misbehavior in elementary-school classrooms. Teacher awareness of the specific strategies that work at the school targeted for this study was heightened and may have helped teachers and leaders in other elementary-school settings. It was not clear how educators were using and applying current research on classroom management to their own instructional environments. This study helped fill a gap in the existing literature and research on classroom management to illuminate how teachers learn, select, develop, and implement effective classroom-management strategies. Background of the Study Classroom management is the ongoing process by which teachers seek to enhance students’ affective growth by creating and maintaining an orderly environment (Jones, Jones & Vermete, 2013). In education, teachers and administrators are obligated to remain aware of innovative classroom management techniques that will prevent or reduce 3 incidences of misbehavior in the classroom (Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003). A well-managed classroom takes a good deal of effort to create and the person who is most responsible for creating it is the teacher (Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003). There is mounting evidence that teachers can influence the classroom’s social climate through their behavior management skills and can directly affect students’ behavioral adjustment (Farmer et al., 2006). Quite often, teachers try to apply ready-made solutions to fit every difficulty raised by a child’s misbehavior, anxieties, conflicts with other children, or learning difficulties (Tal, 2010). Despite broad recognition that teaching excellence requires meeting students’ intellectual and social needs, teachers struggle to explain the interplay between the academic and social dimensions of classroom life (Walker, 2009). Classroom management has been studied from a variety of theories and perspectives. One popular method in the 1990s was Canter’s assertive discipline model which incorporated an authoritative approach using various parental styles for managing the classroom (Swinson & Cording, 2002). Applying parenting-style theory to teacher effectiveness is important. Such a cross-disciplinary approach potentially paints a holistic portrait of adult-child interactions as developmental contexts (Walker, 2009). Similarly, this management style can advance current understanding of teacher influence on student learning and development by reconciling the dichotomy between schools’ highly controlling zero-tolerance policies and other more humanistic approaches to teaching and learning (Walker, 2009). According to Swinson and Cording (2002), the Canter model has three components: clear requirements, continuous positive feedback when students are successfully meeting requirements, and a published hierarchy of sanctions that are applied consistently when rules are broken. 4 Another classroom-management approach used in past years was the tiered approach. This approach covered three tiers: Preventative Classroom Management, FirstLine Interventions, and Intensive, Individualized Interventions. During the first tier, anything the teacher does that establishes behavioral expectations in the classroom creates the core curriculum of highly engaging instruction by providing frequent opportunities for students to respond (Sayeski & Brown, 2011). With the second tier, teachers can look for a range of intervention options that compliment the standard core practices in their classroom (Sayeski & Brown, 2011). In the last tier, behavioral supports always begin with a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) that move beyond the environmental scan of Tier 1 and the surface management or reinforcement strategies of Tier 2 to focus on an individual student's behavioral needs (Sayeski & Brown, 2011). Savage and Savage (2009) defined classroom management as two levels of management: the prevention of problems and responses when problems do occur. Doyle (2006) added that classroom management revolves around teachers’ and students’ attitudes and actions that influence students’ behaviors in the classroom. Classroom management is not a gift bestowed upon some teachers and though it is true that some teachers adapt to classroom management techniques easily, classroom management is a skill that can be gained through training and many years of experience in the field (Bosch, 2006). In order to work with students, teachers must approach challenging situations with optimistic, caring, and positive attitudes. Yet, it was not known how teachers learn, develop, and implement effective classroom strategies with today’s changing student demographics. Further, it was not known how the teachers at the research site define an effective classroom manager and what training they needed in order to continue to develop their classroom management skills (Westbrook-Spaniel, 2008). 5 This study extended the existing body of research in this area by going beyond a current summary of classroom management in the field of education. Instead, it offered practitioners an understanding of how effective classroom strategies are implemented and who can implement them effectively. It also provided information on how teachers defined an effective classroom manager and what training they needed in order to continue to develop their skills (Westbrook-Spaniel, 2008). Problem Statement It was not known how elementary school teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies. Many classroom teachers are faced with challenging student behaviors that influence their ability to facilitate learning in productive, safe environments (MacSuga & Simonsen, 2011). The need for successful classroom management skills has not diminished during a time when school reform has emphasized academic testing and student achievement (Allen, 2010). The general problem was that there was a lack of research on how teachers learned, developed, and implemented effective classroom strategies with student behaviors. Further, it was not known how teachers defined an effective classroom management and what training they needed in order to continue to develop their skills (Westbrook-Spaniel, 2008). Proper classroom management methods are necessary for all teachers to become successful within the classroom. School reform that encourages learner-centered classrooms based on what is known about new developments in the learning sciences is a positive step (Allen, 2010). Dealing with student problem behavior is one of the most pressing concerns facing educators in the classroom (Ducharme & Shecter, 2011). Unless teachers came to the classroom with skills that establish a culture that proactively minimizes behavior problems and allowed them to intervene in positive, educative, effective ways 6 when students are disruptive, there was likely to be an environment that is predisposed to behavior problems. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative case-study research was to explore how elementary school teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies. An additional focus was on how teachers defined an effective classroom manager, and the training and support that teachers perceived they needed in order to feel more confident in their approach to classroom management. The researcher employed questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and classroom observations over the course of 4 to 6 weeks in elementary classrooms at one school located in southern North Carolina. Data collection methods included questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone interviews, classroom observations, as well as focus groups facilitated by the researcher. The use of three forms of primary data collection for triangulation purposes contributed to the credibility and reliability of the study. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2003), triangulation is often employed by qualitative researchers to develop the accuracy and representation of data. Since no form of data can fully represent the phenomena explored in qualitative studies, triangulation is used to clarify the information revealed as it appears in more than one source (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). The target school for this case study was an independent, non-profit school accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. It was a state-licensed college preparatory school for pre-K through grade 12. The school housed 85 students, and had 13 teachers with a 10:1 student-teacher ratio. The administration staff included three members, and the faculty had 16 members within the school. The composition of the student body was 94% African American, 5% Caucasian, and 1% other. Students 7 were allowed to bring their lunch, or order lunch through the lunch program offered by the school. During the 2011-12 academic year, the suspension rate of students was 1% and the average number of students sent to the principal's office daily varies from zero to one, and from none to three weekly. This particular study focused on teachers in grade levels Pre-K through Grade 5. The demographics allowed the researcher to get a clear scope of the research. The sample included a diverse group of students with different personalities, academic levels, economic brackets, and race. The classroom is a very different place than it was one or even five years ago. Teachers are faced with larger, more-diverse classrooms where teacher accountability is mandated as a result of the No Child Left Behind legislation (Kariuki, 2009). Research Questions The focus of the study was to discover the methods teachers in an independent school in southern North Carolina use in the classroom that deter student misconduct. In order to clearly narrow the scope of the study following research question was addressed: R1: How did elementary teachers select, develop, and implement classroom management strategies to use in class? The current methods used by the participating teachers became evident in the classroom through the direct observation of the teachers. Only a limited number of teachers were selected for this study based on the grade level they teach. Since this study only focused on the elementary grade levels, only elementary teachers within the school were selected for sampling. Teachers instructing grades 6 through 12 were not included for this study. Data collection consisted of questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and 8 classroom observations for a period of four to six weeks in elementary classrooms at one school located in southern North Carolina. Advancing Scientific Knowledge This qualitative case study extended the current research by creating a model for future intervention for teachers within the classroom. The study is based on social cognitive theory, person-centered theory, and operant conditioning theory. A teacher may be labeled highly qualified, but can still benefit from learning additional ways to become more effective with classroom management. According to Tal (2010), to lead classrooms, teachers need conceptual tools to help clarify how effective classrooms work. Teachers also need to create a commitment to the welfare and learning of the children, and develop skills to apply these insights and commitment. Teachers often resort to reactive and punitive strategies that have many negative side effects and drawbacks because teachers lack specific training in managing problem behavior in the classroom (Ducharme & Shecter, 2011). The lack of training in managing student behavior may cause a gap in learning to the students' fullest potential. Ducharme and Shecter’s preferred approach to classroom management meets the clinical needs of children with challenging behavior while potentially serving as a more practical classroom alternative to commonly recommended strategies. This study was grounded in the field of education with research giving clear knowledge of teacher understanding of classroom management and the application of methods for dealing with student misbehavior. Therefore, understanding classroom management as it relates to the way students behave and perform in the classroom is important. As a result, this study advanced the scientific knowledge base by adding to the existing theories used as a foundation for teachers and other educators who are interested 9 in learning more classroom management and strategies for effectively preventing or reacting to misbehavior within their classrooms. These theories sustained how teachers select management strategies to use in class, the development of the strategies and skill sets they use in classroom management and the training and support teachers need in order to feel more confident in their approach to classroom management. This study also added to the limited knowledge elementary school teachers may have about classroom management and their perceptions and observations of student behavior. Significance of the Study There is mounting evidence that teachers can influence the classroom social climate through their behavior management skills and can directly affect students’ behavioral adjustments (Farmer et al., 2006). According to Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, and Sugai (2008), educators who follow current trends in educational policy, law, and research are guided to identify and implement scientifically validated or evidencebased practices, a standard that has gained popularity in the past decade. The interrelationship between teacher disciplinary practices and professional programs needs to be one where ongoing critical reflection, relevant discussions, and an ability to see various disciplinary approaches being practiced in classrooms are interwoven (Lewis & Burman, 2008). Studies are set in place to present the most pertinent information possible for other educators. The aim was not to provide an exhaustive list, but to outline those techniques that teachers believe are critical for creating contexts that foster positive and productive behavior from youths who tend to be challenging to teachers (Farmer et al., 2006). By collecting data on students' engagement during instruction, disruptive behavior, and teacher observations, teachers can identify which physical aspects of their 10 classroom may need to be improved (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010). The results from this study were expected to extend more clarity to the classroom management approach and to inform the approach in order to counteract and prevent much of the misbehavior that occurs in the classroom. The study also promoted more teacher-to-teacher interaction as it pertains to making a collaborative effort to share various methods and techniques. Though the study only targeted one elementary school, the results and approach was useful to influence other elementary schools and higher grade levels as well. The positive outcome was that the school participating in this study was able to use the results as needed, and approach classroom management and student misbehavior accordingly with that particular school. In case the results do not meet the researcher’s expectations, the sample size could be increased, a certain additional grade level could be selected, or the researcher could increase the number of schools involved in the study. Rationale for Methodology This study employed a qualitative case study design. In qualitative research, the researchers explore the meaning as understood by the participants, in a natural setting (Arghode, 2012). Therefore, with this study, the qualitative research approach was more fitting because it offered an opportunity to investigate classroom management and students with a more hands-on approach rather than by statistics only as would be the focus of a quantitative study. Another situation is when the researcher cannot manipulate the behavior of those involved in the study. Also, when the researcher wants to cover contextual conditions because you believe they are relevant to the phenomenon under study. The last situation is when the boundaries are not clear between the phenomenon and context. Yin (2003) and Stake (1995) used different terms to describe a variety of case studies. Yin categorized case studies as explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive. He 11 also differentiates between single, holistic case studies and multiple-case studies. Stake identifies case studies as intrinsic, instrumental, or collective. Discovering the effective management strategies that teachers are using may lead to developing a methodology for teaching those strategies and changes necessary to better maintain discipline while increasing student achievement. The study also gave credence to the current status of teachers' understanding of classroom management and student misbehaviors. In either suggesting change or reinforcing the current state of classroom management and student misbehavior, the results were important for not only elementary schools in southern North Carolina, but for schools at-large as well. Nature of the Research Design for the Study The design selected for this qualitative research was a case study to explore the types of student misbehavior that teachers experience in the classroom, and to discover how teachers select their discipline techniques for handling or preventing those misbehaviors. According to Yin (2003), a case study design should be considered to address the problem and research question in several situations. One situation is when the focus of the study is to answer “how and “why” questions. Qualitative case studies allow the researcher to physically go into the environment and experience the results. The sample for this study included seven teachers from an elementary school in southern North Carolina. Data collection included a letter and questionnaire designed to describe the nature of the study and to solicit demographic information from the teachers in terms of degrees held, years of teaching experience, subjects taught, and grade levels taught. There also was a focus-group session centered on questions of classroom management training as well as definitions of effective classroom management and other techniques. The focus-group questions were listed in Appendix D of this document. From the initial 12 focus group, a subset of teachers was solicited for further participation in the study. The focus group allowed the researcher to gather additional face-to-face data from participants, and information from focus groups was immediately available to the researcher. Not all sources are essential in every case study, but the importance of multiple sources of data to the reliability of the study is well established (Stake, 1995). Yin (1994) suggested using multiple sources of evidence as the way to ensure construct validity. Qualitative research requires learned practice of active waiting, striking a balance throughout a research project between moving forward and advancing the research process, and allowing adequate time for the full development of each aspect of the research. Through this study, the frequency of student misbehaviors teachers encountered in their elementary classrooms; the strategies teachers reported to work to effectively deter student misbehavior in their classrooms; how elementary teachers defined an effective classroom manager; the difference in approaches to classroom management among the teachers; how classroom-management strategies are learned, developed, and implemented; and who was able to implement those strategies effectively. This research study was designed to benefit the teachers and principals of a school in southern North Carolina. Definition of Terms Terms that were used in this study are defined as follows: Classroom management. An effective plan of creating the classroom environment, setting up materials, being ready to teach before class starts, and continually analyzing how to make teaching more productive (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007). 13 Misbehavior. Behavior that is considered inappropriate for the setting or situation in which it occurs (Allen, 2010). No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). This act of Congress is intended “to hold educational agencies and states accountable for improving the quality of education for all students. It seeks to identify low-performing schools that have failed to provide a highquality education to their students and transform them into successful schools” (Maleyko & Gawlik, 2011, p. 600). Self-discipline. Determined by people’s perceptions (e.g. feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations); how the person positively sees himself or herself; and a feeling of belonging and oneness with others (Combs, 1985). Bandura’s social cognitive theory. This theory suggests that how people interpret the results of their own behavior informs and alters their environments and the personal factors they possess which, in turn, inform and alter subsequent behavior (Pajares, 2002). Person-centered theory. This theory creates a balance between the wants of the teacher and the efforts and needs of the students, forming a collective classroom, including all persons in a classroom. (Freiburg & Lamb, 2009) Lee Canter's assertive discipline. This model is a preventative approach to behavior management, as the teacher is responsible for redirecting unwanted behaviors before they become disruptive to the entire classroom (Canter & Canter, 2001). Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning. This theory uses the structure of teaching and subsequent learning is strictly architected to optimize the behaviors through reinforcement (Lineros & Hinojosa, 2012). 14 Control theory. This theory suggests that power sharing in the classroom is used to deal with any issues including rules, behavior, and discipline. Students are allowed to discuss any topic without fear of condemnation. The outcome should be an agreement of the solution(s) to the problems by both parties (Glasser, 1985). Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations Several assumptions were made in this study. First, all participants sampled completed and returned their interview questionnaires. Second, the instruments that were used during the data-collection process presented an accurate assessment of the sample. To validate the assumptions, the researcher initially explained to each participant the importance of fully completing and returning the questionnaires, and of giving honest responses to the posed questions and prompts. Several limitations were present in this study. The data collected were limited to seven teachers, which is 69% of the total teachers employed of the school. The selection process was open to all teachers working directly with or supervising the elementary grade levels. Therefore, the methods and perceptions documented did not represent all teachers within the school. This study was limited to one elementary school; therefore, it did not represent all schools in southern North Carolina. The researcher was not employed at the school where data collection occurred; therefore, the potential chance for researcher bias was minimized. The following delimitations were presented in this study: The study gathered qualitative data, drawn from a sample of seven teachers. The teachers instructed prekindergarten through fifth grade classes in a school located in southern North Carolina. The participants were purposefully selected and, for this reason, the results were not generalizable to any other school in North Carolina or the United States. 15 Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study This chapter explained how the researcher conducted the study and set forth the theoretical framework. According to Cohen, Pickeral, and McCloskey (2009), more districts, states, and networks of schools use data to help define school success. Chapter 1 included the significance, nature, assumptions, and limitations. Chapter 2 will present a literature review of information on classroom management and the effect it has on student behavior. The literature review will introduce the study background, present the conceptual framework of the study, and present in-depth information on classroom management and student misbehavior. Chapter 3 will discuss the methodology used throughout the study and state the instruments used, the participants in the study, and how the data was collected. Chapter 4 provides detail on how the data were analyzed including both written and graphic summaries of the study results. Chapter 5 is an interpretation and discussion of the results as it relates to the existing body of research related to the dissertation topic, the research questions, chosen theoretical foundation, and recommendations for future practice and research. 16 Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem The purpose of this qualitative case-study research was to explore how elementary school teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies. An additional focus was on how teachers defined an effective classroom manager, and the training and support that teachers perceived they needed in order to feel more confident in their approach to classroom management. This section included a compilation of scholarly sources offering in-depth information on classroom management and student behavior. Sources were obtained in various formats, including peer-reviewed journals, doctoral dissertations, scholarly web sites, and textbooks. Scholarly electronic sources were used as well, including ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, EBSCOhost, Academic Search Complete, and Education Research Complete. Public opinion trends over former decades have shown that lack of discipline has been and continues to be one of America’s top public-educational concerns (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009). In recent years, awareness about the importance of having quality interpersonal relations both with and among the children for attainment of school goals seems to be growing (Sidorkin 2002; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Pianta, 1999). Disciplinary techniques are used to channel students' behavior into acceptable patterns and disciplinary policies function to bring order to the learning environment (Grubaugh & Houston, 1990). Changing the classroom environment can increase academic engagement and decrease disruptive behavior (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010). Studies have been conducted to examine whether or not student teachers are adequately trained to use classroom management and are adequately prepared to face problems that may develop in the classroom (Pellegrino, 2010; Strett & Imig, 2011; 17 Folmer-Annevelink, Doolaard, Mascareño, & Bosker, 2009; Schmidt, 2010). Thus, understanding proper classroom management techniques is an essential tool for teachers to possess in order to be successful within the classroom as well as to prevent frustrations and problems with students. Appropriate classroom behavior should be maintaining for many students in the classroom by naturally occurring reinforcers such as positive attention from the teacher, grades, or self-reinforcement that results from task completion (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). Buck (1992) stated that teachers must be aware that students need continuous practice to fully understand and comprehend classroom procedures and routines. Yet, in order to prevent student misbehavior, understanding the relationship between classroom management and student behavior is imperative (Buck, 1992). The proposed study was designed to further define that connection. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how elementary school teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies. The researcher did notice some diverse cultures from the students within the classroom. Current literature showed cultural variances between students and teachers was a source of stress leading to the gap of learning for the students. Additional areas covered in this study were defining an effective classroom manager and the training and support that teachers perceive they need in order to feel more confident in their approach to classroom management. It is evident that the lack of information on how elementary school teachers selected, developed, and implemented classroom management strategies has become more of an epidemic throughout many classrooms. Topics in the literature review included the existing research on classroom management and strategies, student misbehaviors and strategies, and understanding 18 diverse populations. The review included definition of classroom management; components of classroom management; types of student misbehaviors; reasons students misbehave; ethnicity, gender, and student misbehavior; teachers’ views on student misbehavior; student misbehavior strategies; classroom environment; and understanding diverse populations in the classroom including cultures, languages, race, economic differences, and personalities. Theoretical Foundations During research, it is important for the researcher to determine the theoretical foundation for the study. Classroom climate and school belonging lead to experiences and perceptions that influence academic self-efficacy, consistent with the tenets in Bandura's social cognitive theory (McMahon, Wernsman, & Rose, 2009). Sokal, Woloshyn, & Funk-Unrau (2013) suggested that teacher efficacy is another affective component frequently explored in relation to effective teaching practice and it refers to teacher’s self-perceptions of his or her teaching competence in a given situation. Research has shown that self-efficacy beliefs can help predict behaviors such as those related to whether one will engage, persevere, and accomplish one’s goals (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996). Although theory and empirical research emphasize the importance of classroom climate and school belonging in relation to academic outcomes, few studies have examined connections among classroom climate, school belonging, and academic self-efficacy (McMahon et al., 2009). A study of classroom environment, perceptions of assessment tasks, academic self-efficacy, and attitudes to science revealed statistically significant links between classroom environment and academic efficacy (Dorman & Fraser, 2009). Veleyutham and Adridge’s (2012) recent study identified aspects of the psychosocial learning environment that influence student motivation including self- 19 efficacy. These results suggested that student cohesiveness, task orientation, and investigation are the most influential predictors of student self-efficacy. Pajares and Kranzler (1995) found that the influence of academic self-efficacy on performance such as mathematics was as strong as the influence of general mental ability. Roeser, Peck, & Nasir (1996) found that a greater sense of school belonging, as well as emphases on effort, understanding, and beliefs that all students can learn were associated with greater academic self-efficacy. Classroom climate has been associated with academic and interpersonal efficacy among urban youth, both directly (Cowen et al., 1991) and indirectly (Baker, 1998). Cowen et al. (1991) found that students who perceived high levels of classroom competition, friction, and difficulty felt less efficacious in managing rational problems and difficult situations. Self-regulated learning has been successfully applied to education (Clearly & Zimmerman, 2004; Zimmerman, 2000). Part of the research question guiding this study dealt with how teachers select their classroom management strategies. In order to facilitate self-regulated learning, teachers must consider the interactions of environmental influences, student perceptions, and learning behaviors (Shu-Ling & Lin, 2007). Selfefficacy beliefs and self-regulated learning can mutually enhance each other. Socialcognitive theory components have direct implications for structuring the student-learning environment so that desired learning outcomes are achieved (Erlich & Russ-Eft, 2011). Learners with a strong sense of academic self-efficacy will likely work harder and persevere longer when they encounter difficulties than will their peers with lower selfefficacy levels (Pajares, 1996). In contrast, struggling learners often resist or quickly quit activities they perceive as difficult or impossible for them (Wong, 1991). Therefore, it is 20 important for teachers to consider various types of learners in order to have the most effective approach to each student’s behaviors. Freiberg and Lamb (2009) suggested that by sharing control, learners begin the process of becoming self-disciplined. To facilitate a person-centered classroom, teachers should place themselves in the students’ condition. Person-centered approaches can be easily acceptable on ethical, humanitarian, and educational grounds (Doyle, 2009). Students often want to know how much the teacher cares long before they want to learn how much the teacher knows (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009). The Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline program (CMCD) is a classroom management model from the person-centered theory. The program was developed by two teachers from the middle- and high- school levels. The program has been researched by a teacher educator (Freiberg, 1999b). Research reports that CMCD schools have increases in student achievement (Slavin & Lake, 2007). Increased teacher and student attendance, reduced office discipline referrals, and improved classroom and school learning environments have also been recognized within the CMCD program (Eiseman, 2005; Freiberg, Connell, & Lorentz, 2001; Freiberg & Lapointe, 2006). Another part of the research question is recognizing how teachers develop their classroom management strategies. Teachers are encouraged to systematize their disciplinary role in order to minimize time spent on behavior problems. A person-centered educational experience is important in achieving the significant curricular outcome of a sustained life-long dedication to learning and responsible citizenship (Doyle, 2009). Person-centered practices are necessary, but insufficient, conditions for management success. By themselves, they will not forge productive context in the absence of attention to activities and programs of action (Doyle, 2009). Teachers may experience similar behaviors from their students. When teachers 21 become aware and educated about their past educational experience it can help them become more efficient with the students. Another approach used within the classroom is Skinner’s operant conditioning theory based on reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement refers to a consequence that influence the student to exhibit the behavior more frequently, while punishment refers to a consequence that causes the student to exhibit a behavior less frequently. Operant conditioning is not grounded in the belief that a stimulus is required to associate an unconditioned response with a new conditioned one. Instead, after a given behavior is observed, it is either rewarded or punished (Lineros & Hinojosa, 2012). These theories supported how teachers select management strategies to use in class, the development of the strategies and skill sets they use in classroom management and the training and support teachers need in order to feel more confident in their approach to classroom management. It is clear the study fits and aligns within other research based on existing theories and model on classroom management and teachers can benefits the additional updated research. When teachers make evidence-based changes to their classroom environments, these modifications are a preventative and effective strategy (Abboll, Walton, Tapia, & Greenwood, 1999; Fullerton, Conroy, & Correa, 2009). Current studies broadened previous research by examining several dimensions of classroom environment such as satisfaction, cohesiveness, difficulty, competitiveness, friction, sense of school belonging, and academic self-efficacy (McMahon et al., 2009). Reflecting back on various similar theories helps understands the relevance of a child’s purposes and goals which could be difficult unless the basic concept that all behavior is goal-oriented is accepted, thus producing a better environment throughout the classroom. 22 Review of the Literature It is important to recognize various components that are factors in the way student behave and learn within the classroom. Classroom management has become a large problem with questions and concerns regarding how to develop new teachers into experienced teachers (Strett & Amiga, 2011). Lack of preparation and the ensuing frustration with student misbehavior often leads teachers to become disillusioned with teaching and more prone to burnout (Evans, Lester, & Anfara, 2010). A knowledgeable teacher may fail in teaching due to inability to work effectively with students (Ediger, 2013). To address this challenge, teachers and administrators must collaborate and communicate, forming strong partnerships to set and enforce classroom management policies (Grode, 2009). Positive discipline has long been an essential dimension of school connectedness (Strahan, Cope, Hundley, & Faircloth, 2005). The qualitative case study design is the most befitting approach. The case study design allowed the researcher to go within different classrooms to experience how teachers select, develop, and implement classroom management strategies. Everything that happens in the classroom will affect the student and his future. Research findings continuously have shown that one of the keys to success in teaching is the teacher's ability to manage the classroom and to organize instruction (Brophy, 1988; Cakmak, 2008; Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham, 2000). Therefore, ensuring the classroom and the classroom climate are conducive to student learning is vital (Kariuki, 2009). When teachers combine effective teaching behaviors with specific behavior-management techniques, educators can significantly reduce the frequency and intensity of disruptive behavior (Buck, 1992). 23 Classroom management defined. Researchers generally described classroom management as the full range of teacher’s efforts to oversee classroom activities, including learning, social interaction, and student behavior (Burden, 2005; Good & Brophy, 2006). According to Rekabdarkolaei (2011), classroom control and management has become more frustrating and difficult for teachers of all grade levels. Teachers view both control and management as manifestations of the social problems of the outside world that have found their way into the schools (Rekabdarkolaei, 2011). Yet, classroom management is a task that every educator must face on a daily basis (Backes & Ellis, 2003). According to Clement (2010), without sufficient knowledge of classroom management strategies, new teachers may begin using strategies from other teachers in the past. As for the support of this study, classroom management is as a cyclical process that includes advance planning, implementation, assessment during the implementation, and a final evaluation that takes into account factors related to the children and their environment, intended to bring about progress in the activities carried out for the emotional well-being and learning of the children in the class (Tal, 2010). Classroom management is the ability of the teacher to lead the class, both children and staff, toward achieving the socio-emotional welfare and learning of the students. Embedded in the definition of classroom management is a moral orientation being the pursuit of well-being and learning opportunities for every child (Tal, 2010). Classroom management is a critical area for teachers because classroom management skills are related to pupil achievement (Yilmaz, 2009). Regardless of differences in the definition, the value of classroom management knowledge for teachers has been consistently supported through research literature (Shinn, Walker, & Stoner, 2002; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993) 24 and classroom management strategies have been referred to as “the most valuable skills set a teacher can have” (Landau, 2001, p. 4). In addition to the conventional measures of classroom management (involvement of all the children in learning, on-task behavior, and cooperating with the rules), studies propose a dynamic measure of effective classroom management, including the ability to modify classroom activities in the wake of difficulties in order to facilitate the children’s learning and well-being (Tal, 2010). Many teachers first have to experience the classroom and then learn how to deal with students and their behaviors (Clement, 2010). Teachers face challenges to find classroom management strategies that are proactive, relatively easy to implement, and which provide minimal disruption to the classroom (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010). Management skills of teachers are one of the main factors in the classroom, since classroom management style is parallel with classroom management efficiency (Yilmaz, 2009). Yilmaz presented styles of classroom management that range from authoritarian to laissez-faire. “Authoritarian classroom management is based on teachers’ control over pupils and the restrictions imposed by teachers. Laissez-faire classroom management is where teachers display little action to control pupils and demand little from them” (p. 158-159). Therefore, teachers must discover what classroom management style they are considered to be and begin to develop their style. Palumbo and Sanacore (2007) conducted a case study of two teachers that offers a glimpse into the characteristics of effective classroom management. In the study, data collection consisted of observing two teachers (Teacher X and Teacher Y) teaching the same grade at the same school with nearly identical demographics in the classroom. In the classroom of Teacher Y there was chaos. Instruction was stopped to address students that arrived late. Students absent the day before had to wait for the teacher to find 25 yesterday's worksheet and hand it out. Teacher X, however, did not experience the same issues. In this classroom, expectations were clear and students began quietly working upon arrival in the classroom. Students that were absent knew where to find yesterday's worksheets. Tardy students quietly came in and added their own name to the detention list on the board and then took a seat. Teacher X also used student leadership as part of classroom management. (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007, p. 68) In the case, the student was responsible for assisting the teacher within the class and helped to keep the class focused and on task. Teacher Y realized that she was not prepared for the arrival of the students, giving her less of a chance to gain their initial attention. Teacher X reflected on management problems. She planned not only what she wanted to teach, but also how she wanted to teach it. She anticipated that with thirty students, minor problems would occur, and she dealt with them easily (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007). The study showed that with proper classroom management techniques, such as preparation, many student misbehaviors were prevented. The results of that study outlined characteristics of effective classroom management. These included helping students become academically engaged, organizing instruction to accommodate students’ strengths and needs, and motivating students to be interactive during instructional activities (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007). Additionally, effective classroom managers establish clear preparation, expectations, rules, procedures, and routines. Components of classroom management. According to Trussell (2008), classroom management is a complex task consisting of planning lessons, providing a safe learning environment, teaching students, and, perhaps the most daunting task of all, appropriately responding to student behavior problems. Although teachers do not have 26 the power to control the number of students assigned to their classrooms, they do have control over the way in which the classroom is set up, and this consists of a safe classroom environment (Trussell, 2008). Classroom space can be modified in a variety of ways including arranging classroom furniture to define learning areas, improving accessibility and availability of materials, delineating traffic patterns, improving organization of materials (Bullard, 2010; Guardino, 2008; Lawry, Danko, & Strain, 1999). This section of the literature review covered classroom rules, classroom environment, and the structure of effective lessons. Classroom rules. In addition to effective lesson planning, classroom management also consists of rules. The primary purpose of classroom rules is to provide for positive interactions between teachers and students (Hardman & Smith, 1999). Teachers are expected to follow a set of procedures that should help maintain order in the classroom and involve both proactive and reactive procedures that can be combined to provide a comprehensive approach to classroom management (Little & Little-Akin, 2008). Teachers should ensure the classroom rules are clear, simple, number no more than five, and are stated in a positive layout. In other words, tell students what to do rather than what not to do. This allows for a focus on praise rather than on punishment (Babkie, 2006). Buck (1992) stated that teachers whose students exhibit better classroom behavior set and maintain clear and concise classroom rules. They keep the rules simple and limited in number. Further, they post the rules and review them routinely. Teachers should be consistent both in enforcing rules and in managing the classroom. Being consistent allows students to feel comfortable knowing that behavior and responses are predictable (Babkie, 2006). Allen (2010) expanded on this by elaborating that rules should be stated positively, and role-played and practiced so that students know what to 27 do to follow them. What happens in the classroom immediately prior to the lesson can have a tremendous impact on the amount of learning that takes place (Veverka, 2011). The goal of classroom management is to help students develop and shape their character, as well as to promote self-discipline (Garrett, 2003). Rules and routines helped accomplish this. Teachers should make sure to reinforce all boundaries on an ongoing basis so that students are sure about class expectations for interactions. Teachers are not their students’ friend; they are the teacher (Babkie, 2006). Classroom structure and environment. Another part of management is for the teacher to plan the structure of the classroom and establish an environment conducive to learning. Additionally, modifying the classroom environment may serve as a direct intervention for children who demonstrate ongoing disruptive behavior (Conroy, Davis, Fox, & Brown, 2002). Schools should set rules that are enforceable and reasonable, a process that means balancing legal obligations with the realities of student culture and tools (Diamantes, 2010; Humble-Thaden, 2011). Successful teachers prepare the room to minimize disruptions, plan lessons to flow smoothly, and design routines to maintain momentum (Strahan, Cope, Hundley, & Faircloth, 2005, p. 26). While preparing the classroom, teachers should use routines for all classroom activities so students know what to do at all times. Students should be certain where to put materials, when to transition, what the schedule is, and so forth, (Babkie, 2006). Additionally, effective teachers respond to teachable moments. When disruptions occur, successful teachers think about the causes of misbehavior and respond to students as individuals, using disruptions as teachable moments and opportunities to model self-discipline (Strahan et al., 2005). Teachers who use planned seating arrangements reduce opportunities for misbehavior (Buck, 1992). They observe the students within the classroom environment, noting where 28 and when disruptive behavior is occurring and how different areas of the classroom were utilized (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010). Arranging the class is helpful so that students who are in the immediate vicinity of a student with challenging behaviors are not provoked and are less likely to be pulled into a problem (Farmer et al., 2006). Teachers should organize the classroom and materials in a way that avoids clutter and that allows students to know where to find items and where to return them (Babkie, 2006). Babkie (2006) also suggest teachers to cue students as to what comes next, teaching them a set of cues to let them know when they want a certain response. Structure of lessons. Buck (1992) suggested structuring the curriculum for learning. The key to good classroom management is the use of techniques that increase student cooperation. Essentially, teachers should teach students how to change from one activity to another and from one location to another. Transition goes back to the concept of having routines, but beyond that, it involves teaching a set of skills for students to use (Babkie, 2006). Another technique is involvement in classroom activities, thus averting problems from occurring such as reducing downtime to help maintain discipline in the classroom as well as helping set limits on what all the students can or cannot do (Rahman, Jumanl, Basit, Chishil, & Ajmal, 2010). Teachers can reduce misbehavior by helping students become academically engaged, organizing instruction to accommodate students’ strengths and needs, and motivating students to be interactive during instructional activities (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2007). Maximizing the time that students spend in academic activities could minimize the problems of discipline. When a teacher provides well-planned lessons that provide a smooth flow of instruction delivered at a sustained pace, it helps to prevent off-task behaviors (Unal & Unal, 2012). Therefore, the manner in which tasks are managed contributes to the general classroom atmosphere and 29 classroom management style (Burden, 1995; Weinstein & Mignano, 1993). Teachers should pace lessons on the basis of student needs and responses. If students are clearly struggling with a concept, it may be necessary to change the planned lesson and reteach in a different way (Babkie, 2006). Issues can also be improved by resolving incidents of minor inattention before they develop into major disruptions (Rahman et al., 2010). Babkie suggested ensuring active engagement by making learning purposeful. Teachers are expected to provide a rationale for real-world use, match the content taught to students’ levels, consider students’ interests in planning instruction, and plan activitybased instruction rather than worksheets or lectures (Babkie, 2006). Most problems with discipline could be prevented by efficient teaching, in addition to a relevant curriculum that corresponds to students’ ability levels (Weishew & Peng, 1993). If students are demonstrating off-task behavior, teachers should consider either increasing or decreasing the pace, depending on the consistency and content of student responses (Babkie, 2006). Preparation and proper training are two themes that were extracted from the literature. It is evident that these themes can help teachers become well aware of their classroom environments. Having the proper tools and training to manage within the classroom can help students will become more effective. Types of student misbehaviors. Classroom misbehavior is taken as any activity which (a) annoys, upsets or distresses teachers, (b) is disorderly of good order in the classroom and causes trouble, and (c) leads teachers to comment frequently (Houghton, Wheldall, & Merrett, 1988; Ding et al., 2010). Students misbehave for a variety of reasons, and knowing the underlying cause of a student's misconduct can help the teacher to determine which intervention strategies may or may not be successful (Buck, 1992). Some behavioral problems are often the result of the teacher's failure to adapt their 30 instruction to their pupils' abilities (Palardy, 1995). Additionally, teacher expectations can predict student behavior as well. If teachers believe that pupils can and will act in socially acceptable ways, pupils will tend to do so. But if teachers believe, for any number of reasons, that pupils neither can nor will behave appropriately, they will tend not to (Palardy, 1995). Four top categories of challenging behaviors have emerged over the past few years. One category is physical behaviors including temper tantrums, kicking, pushing, hitting, and running away. Another category is verbal behaviors including screaming, yelling, swearing, and lying. Academic disengagement is the next category which includes lack of time management and no priorities. The last category is miscellaneous non-compliance including opposition, social conflicts, and stubbornness. (McCready & Soloway, 2010, p. 117) Misbehavior is further classified into one of five different types: Aggression, immorality, defiance of authority, class disruptions, and behaving mischievously (Durmuscelebi, 2010). Another type of misbehavior a teacher may face in the classroom is lack of respect. Teachers should consider the possibility that the way teachers behave in class can cause students to behave in ways that diminish our respect for them (Giampetro-Meyer & Holc, 1997). Reported problems included noncompliance, defiance, teasing and bullying peers, and disruptive behaviors such as talking out of turn or being out of seat without permission (Anderson & Spaulding, 2007). These noncompliant behaviors are just a few of many behaviors that teachers may encounter during the day in the classroom. Reasons students misbehave. On a daily basis, students bring many complicated issues to school (Durmuscelebi, 2010). Students with challenging behavior tend to be 31 skilled at getting under the skin of adults (Farmer et al., 2006). There are many students coming from home environments where they are not receiving adequate support to develop the social skills for interacting appropriately in school (Durmuscelebi, 2010). Family related reasons are one of the most prevalent reasons of inappropriate behaviors (Atici, 2007; Weishew & Peng, 1993). Beginning teachers showed that they favor shared responsibility for classroom control, shared work on developing classroom rules, focus on not only behaviors but also feelings, and paid attention to what the student does to alter the external environment, as well as what the environment does to shape the student (Cakiroglu & Gencer, 2007; Martin & Baldwin, 1992). According to Anderson and Spaulding (2007), discipline problems in the classroom occur with alarming frequency. Disruptive behavior, such as speaking without permission and getting out of one’s seat, often interferes with students' engagement in the learning process (Guardino & Fullerton, 2010). Associating with the right or wrong peers can greatly affect students’ status; improving and protecting their position in the social structure is a common concern for many youths. Therefore, conflict and aggression can build as individuals and groups jockey for power within the social structure (Farmer et al., 2006). Durmuscelebi (2010) observed 245 teachers working in state primary schools and private primary schools. Results from this study showed similarity between these two types of school according to the most encountered and the least encountered misbehaviors. The most encountered misbehaviors were complaint about friends, talking without permission, studying without a plan, not listening to the teacher, doing other things during the lesson, and fighting with friends (p. 380). Durmuscelebi also stated that “the least unwanted behaviors that the teachers faced with were cheating, eating 32 something during the lesson, coming late to school, not respecting to teacher, taking and using friend’s equipment without permission, and despising and excluding friends” (p. 380). Students may or may not perceive misbehavior in the same ways as their teachers, so it is worthwhile to learn more about misbehavior from student perspectives (Supaporn, 2000). If a student’s disruptive behavior is assumed to serve an escape function during difficult tasks, then the contextual modification might involve reducing demands to determine the effect on the misbehavior (Ducharme & Shecter, 2011). Students with challenging behavior tend to view behavior intervention in a negative manner. This can impede helping them to learn positive alternatives (Farmer et al., 2006). Teachers must realize that there is always a reason behind a student’s behavior. Children rarely act appropriately simply because the teacher expects them to act in that manner. Rather, children act appropriately because of what they have learned either at home or in the classroom (Almeida, 1995). Students who misbehave are usually trying to establish control in inappropriate ways. One way is avoiding schoolwork such as protecting self-esteem by not trying, rationalizing failure, and fear of ridicule from classmates. Another way is seeking attention such as clowning around, and learned helplessness. The next way is creating diversions such as poking fun at tasks or classmates. The final way is playing power games such as playing tough and choosing resistance as an identity. (Strahan et al., 2005, p. 26) According to Farmer et al. (2006), youth form peer groups with others who are like them. Students who associate with each other tend to have one or more similar social characteristics (i.e., level of aggression, popularity, academic ability, and athletic ability). 33 Students may also associate with peers who complement their behavior (e.g., followers with leaders). Students who are actively engaged are less likely to be off task or to present management problems. Ethnicity, gender, and student misbehavior. Students with challenging behaviors often come from nondominant racial or ethnic, economic, or cultural backgrounds (Thompson & Webber, 2010). The change in the racial, cultural, and linguistic diversity of the student population is not the main problem with students behaving in the classroom; rather, the way educators have responded to that change is perhaps the largest component of the problem (Brown, 2007). However, there are barriers and challenges that are common to teachers including difficulty with communicating and interacting with students, a lack of resources, a restrictive or overloaded curriculum, and establishing relationships with parents (Humphrey et al., 2006). This difference in socialization can increase barriers for these nondominant students as they negotiate unfamiliar expectations at school (Thompson & Webber, 2010). Many teachers are inadequately prepared to teach students from cultural and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Brown, 2007). Differences in how teachers respond to students can be explained in part by racial/ethnic differences in family backgrounds and school bonding (Sung Joon, 2002). For instance, past studies have noted that African American students’ classroom behavior is rated more favorably by African American teachers than by White teachers (Downey & Pribesh, 2004). This racial comparison is evident in the education community and could be a function of White teachers’ bias rating African American students more harshly than they deserve or African American students’ acting out more when placed with White teachers than African American teachers (Downey & Pribesh, 2004). Racial 34 comparison is evident in other races as well. Asian-American adolescents commit less deviance in the form of school misbehavior than White, African American, Hispanic, or Native-American adolescents (Sung Joon, 2002). In these diverse groups, gaps in learning could contribute to classroom management issues. The disruptive behaviors of a few difficult students often interfere with instruction practices, leaving both the noncompliant students and their classmates without adequate exposure to the curriculum (Canter & Canter, 1993). According to Downey and Pribesh cultural differences between students and teachers are a source of strain and have been modified by some scholars. The outcome for some students could be gaps in learning, and could enable existing gaps to plague learners and their teachers in the future. Gender is frequently associated with the amount and quality of teacher-student interactions (McClowery et al., 2013). When dealing with gender, one should consider the influence of feminism on the classroom interactions between teachers and their students (Beaman, Wheldall, & Kemp, 2006). Beaman, Wheldall, and Kemp stated that boys have a higher tendency to display disruptive behaviors in the classroom. Research also demonstrated that male behaviors are perceived as more serious, even when both genders engage in the same behavior (Borg, 1998; Kokkinos, Panayiotou, & Davazoglou, 2004). In one study, 153 diverse preschool children and their teachers were observed; the researchers noted that girls received more positive interactions (Dobbs, Arnold, & Doctoroff, 2004). Greater teacher experience would be likely to reduce the amount of time spent on student misbehaviors, and boys would be more likely to be seen as exhibiting misbehaviors than girls (Jiliang et al., 2009). McClowery et al. observed 883 children and results explicate the critical need to untangle temperament from gender when studying child disruptive behavior. When the effects of gender were examined 35 alone, boys were, as expected, more disruptive than girls. However, when temperament was also taken into account, the effect of gender on student disruptive behavior reduced to non-significance. In other words, temperament was a stronger predictor of student disruptive behavior than child gender. These studies demonstrated that while teachers are gentler toward girls, they interact with boys in a more robust way (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004). Within the classroom, gender differences in attention distribution appear more in Puerto Rican, African American, and White students (Dobbs et al., 2004). Therefore, being aware and prepared for the various backgrounds of students within the classroom is important. Teachers’ views on student misbehavior. Overall, studies showed that elementary school teachers provide much more negative than positive feedback to their students. When provided, positive feedback is associated with good academic performance (McClowery et al., 2013). Teachers set themselves up for disappointment when viewing challenging student behaviors as technical problems (McCready & Soloway, 2010). These problems are solved through professional development led by experts who are unfamiliar with the social and cultural context of the school community (McCready & Soloway, 2010). Successful teachers can help students understand that they choose their behaviors and guide them in accepting responsibility for their choices (Strahan et al., 2005). Researchers have also found that teacher perceptions tend to be influenced by classroom setting (Jiliang et al., 2009). Erden and Wolfgang (2004) studied 130 female prekindergarten, kindergarten, K/1, and first-grade teachers employed in public schools located in a mid-sized southeastern city with a population of approximately 239,000. Erden and Wolfgang’s study explored the differences in teachers’ beliefs related to discipline, stating that 36 student behavior is major component of education for two reasons. First, if the teacher does not maintain discipline in the classroom, teaching and learning are not accomplished. Second, as socialization agents, teachers have to teach students which behaviors are expected in which situations (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004). With the assistance of the Beliefs about Discipline Inventory (BADI), the researchers were able to find the teachers’ beliefs related to discipline philosophies while disciplining male and female students (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004). Teachers often experience habitual patterns of reacting to challenging behaviors in the classroom (McCready & Soloway, 2010). Episodes of misbehavior are fraught with complications. Setting events, stimulus complexity, and the availability of competing reinforcements are just a few of the factors that confound clear analysis (Morin & Battalio, 2004). Teachers should be respectful at all times toward students. According to Babkie (2006), respect given leads to respect gained. For example, a teacher should use quiet individual discussion with students but don’t call out students on their misbehavior in front of the class, use appropriate language when speaking with students, avoid sarcasm, and speak to students at their physical level (e.g., crouching down rather than looming over). The circumstances heighten episodes of misbehavior, the student’s social and emotional orientation toward these circumstances, a teacher’s professional attitude about personal responsibility, and a teacher’s skill in managing such episodes are all part of the construal process (Morin & Battalio, 2004). An important finding of research was the consistency in both teacher and students’ perceptions concerning the promotion of prosocial skills in their classrooms, such as attentive listening, mutual respect and working together creatively, skills considered to be fundamental for healthy classroom interactions (Goleman, 1998; Poulou, 37 2005). Knowing how to control emotions from perspectives is an important trait to adopt within the classroom in order to have a clear focus on effectively teaching the students. Student misbehavior strategies. Although many strategies are available for educators' use in schools to manage students whose challenging behaviors present frequent disciplinary problems, the most familiar disciplinary methods are punitive (Thompson & Webber, 2010). Studies have shown that the predominant teacher response to disruptive student behavior is reactive and punitive rather than proactive and positive (Thompson & Webber, 2010). Identifying what a student learns from the behavior can help a teacher be more strategic in dealing with the behavior. If the function of a student’s behavior can be identified, then identifying an alternative, replacement behavior is possible (Mitchem & Downing, 2005). In the classrooms, students not only learn more about the subject matter and performed better on tests, they also learned more about how to understand themselves and make better decisions (Strahan et al., 2005). According to Babkie (2006), teachers should use antecedent control by changing the environment and other variables identified in the analysis of the function of the behavior. For example, if teachers have determined that a student misbehaves during math time, perhaps the content is too easy or too difficult, the surrounding students may bother the student, or the time of day is the problem. Preventive strategies can reduce the probability that students will misbehave. The teacher should be a role model for students; instead of using extra work, fines, and verbal abuse as punishment technique in the classroom, they should focus on motivational techniques (Rahman et al., 2010). Reactive classroom management involves use of techniques focused on immediate termination of problem behavior, typically by means of consequences assumed to be aversive to the student (Ducharme & Shecter, 38 2011). Many teachers use reactive techniques, such as reprimands and classroom ejections, to manage misbehavior in their classrooms (Clunies-Ross, Little, & Kienhuis 2008; Infantino & Little, 2005; Maag, 2001). Considering the disadvantages and negative side effects of reactive approaches, research has increasingly promoted the use of more proactive methods to manage student problem behavior, particularly those involving functional assessment (Ducharme & Shecter, 2011). Research and experience showed that students are likely to cease misbehaving when a different response more effectively and efficiently satisfies the same need (Gable & Hendrickson, 2000). Both general and special educators consistently report that they have children in their classes who have challenging behaviors; such students are defiant, throw tantrums, and make verbal and physical threats (Peterson, 2007). If the student’s mistaken goal is to gain a sense of power, then teachers should look for productive ways to allow that student to feel powerful and, consequently, valued and recognized (Malmgren, Trezek, & Paul, 2005). Attempting to put a student in his or her place will only increase that student’s feelings of neglect or inferiority and lead to increased acting out (Malmgren et al., 2005). When teacher-student relationships improve, concurrent improvements in classroom behavior such as reductions in aggression and increases in compliance with rules can be expected (Alderman & Green, 2011). Teachers must remain cognizant of their student and what works within that particular classroom and the possible cause of the behavior. Popular and conventional peers that are often viewed as good students by teachers may use social aggression (i.e., covert and concealed tactics such as gossiping, starting rumors, triangulating friendships) to manipulate others. Such tactics can be highly provocative for youths with challenging behavior. Several techniques can be used to promote positive classroom communities. 39 According to (Cartledge & Loe, 2001; Farmer, 2000; Lo et al., 2002), one technique is monitoring classroom social dynamics (i.e., become aware of the social hierarchy and the strategies that students use to preserve the boundaries of their peer groups, including bullying and social aggression). The second technique is to develop and enforce meaningful social consequences for social aggression and bullying (e.g., students must have an adult escort during hall transitions, student must have lunch at an adultmonitored table) and apply these consequences in ways that foster positive alternative behaviors. The next technique is to create a climate that downplays social status by promoting activities that positively reinforce students’ acceptance and tolerance of each other. In addition to this technique, teacher can provide positive social consequences (e.g., free time, special activities) for exemplary displays of favorable inter and intragroup relationships. Lastly, teacher can identify peer groups that routinely engage in activities (e.g., testing, bullying, social aggression) that promote interpersonal conflict. An adult “mentor” (i.e. teacher, administrator, counselor) should be assigned to each problematic group and should work to develop a positive rapport with the group (pp. 4243). Teachers’ managerial abilities have been found to positively relate to student behavior and achievement in the most recent process-product study (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). Researchers consistently identified the components necessary for effective classroom management (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). Classroom organization combined with an effective discipline plan is important and helps the teacher to see important steps in dealing with discipline problems that may arise in the classroom. Texts on classroom management and discipline often suggest strategies that are organized into models that reflect philosophical approaches (Allen, 2010). Some 40 researchers suggest programs to assist with various types of behavior and how to selfmanage them. Additional qualities of effective self-management programs included the gradual shift from external process instruction to hands-on that affords students opportunity to learn problem-solving skill and to target behavior training that addresses specific skill deficits (Gable & Hendrickson, 2000). Effective intervention strategies can be thought of as points along a continuum. Each choice of a strategy to use for an individual student or group of students is, however, highly individualized (Buck, 1992). A variety of strategies can help to foster positive social relationships for youths with challenging behavior (Farmer et al., 2006). More helpful strategies include giving students’ leadership responsibilities, developing mindfulness and empathy, engaging parents beyond traditional parent–teacher conferences, making time to connect with students in and out of class, and developing cultural awareness (McCready & Soloway, 2010). On the other hand, if a student likes his teacher, he or she will enjoy spending time with the teacher and will want to please the teacher by doing what is requested (Mitchem & Downing, 2005). The importance of teaching students the rules lies in providing a definition and rationale for each rule, and then providing students with many of opportunities to practice saying and doing examples of rule-following behavior (Mitchem & Downing, 2005). For example, Slider, Noell, and Williams (2006) showed various types of instruction-giving and their operational definitions. The first type is to get the child’s attention, provide a clear instruction, and wait 5 to 10 seconds. Then, the teacher models the appropriate response and waits for the child to respond. Thereafter, the teacher physical guides the student to comply with the request and then provide feedback following the student’s response to the teacher’s request (p. 218). 41 Some of the strategies Mitchem and Downing (2005) provided are to help students develop affiliations with peers who are supportive of positive social behavior, anticipate and avoid placing bullied students in situations that promote being picked on. These strategies also provide students who are frequently picked on with opportunities that highlight social strengths. Teaching strategies that are less intrusive require the teacher to directly intervene with the disruptive student (Buck, 1992). Teachers need to feel effective in order to act in ways that will likely result in positive student outcomes, yet teachers also need the confirmation that these same actions will result in positive outcomes in order to feel efficacious (Morin & Battalio, 2004). Effective teachers must provide instruction in the step-by-step process, model each of the steps for the student, and train across multiple stimuli (Gable & Hendrickson, 2000). Cognitive mediation strategies enable students to take responsibility for their behavior and, through identification and analysis of problem situations, self-instruction, and selfevaluation, increase the likelihood of maintenance of positive changes in their behavior (Gable & Hendrickson, 2000). In order to remain effective, teachers should be proactive, organized, and always uphold a level of professionalism in the classroom. Effective teachers decrease student disruption by starting class on time, conducting themselves in a professional manner, and setting clearly defined goals for each class lesson, usually communicated to students through the use of an advance and post organizer (Buck, 1992). Studies have shown that the predominant teacher response to disruptive student behavior is reactive and punitive rather than proactive and positive (Thompson & Webber, 2010). The Positive Behavior Supports (PBS) program encourages teachers to be proactive and positive rather than reactive and negative with regards to behavioral management strategies (Allen, 2010). 41 Babkie (2006) suggest designing contracts, if necessary, in which the teacher and the student examine the behavior of concern and determine together how to change it. Contracts should specify not only what a student will do but also what the teacher will do to assist the student in meeting his or her goals. While many great teachers are confident that they have the resources, knowledge, and energy needed to handle misbehaviors, other teachers indicate that they have received relatively little training and support to handle them (Almeida, 1995). In fact, to assume that only behavior management strategies that incorporate punishment will be capable of managing student behavior can be extremely naive (Buck, 1992). Sometimes no matter how interesting or stimulating teachers think their lesson is, competing with peer attention can be difficult (Buck, 1992). Misbehavior of students interferes with the learning of others, and it prevents the student who is misbehaving from doing what he or she is supposed to do in order to learn (Morin & Battalio, 2004). Two approaches that have proven effective in teachers' dealings with student misbehavior are the diagnostic approach (preferred), and the behaviorist approach, which fails to treat the causes of misbehavior and does not emphasize prevention (Palardy, 1995). Dealing with disruptive students can be a challenge for any teacher. If students are off task, for example, the teacher can move quietly to where they are (proximity control) or provide information if they need assistance getting started or returning to work. It is important for teachers to redirect students without embarrassing or calling attention to them (Babkie, 2006). When teachers confront frequent discipline problems that disrupt their teaching activities, stress and burnout are inevitable consequences (Buck, 1992). Babkie suggested redirecting students by prompting appropriate behavior using the cues 42 and strategies, as well as intervening as soon as potential problems develop. Responding predictably to inappropriate behavior is the key to consistency in the classroom. One way to accomplish this is to have a set routine for responding to students who behave inappropriately (Mitchem & Downing, 2005). Mitchem and Downing suggested what is called Planned Ignoring. For example, the first time a student calls out, it makes sense to ignore the behavior. By this, teachers do not call on the student. Another response is called Prompt when teachers look to prompt a student to be quiet or raise his or her hand. The look refers to a person who can communicate with another person simply by using their eyes without verbalizing. Praise Around is another response when other students who are following rules are praised as another method of prompting the student who is not following the rules. The last response is called Catch Student Being Good when a student who typically always calls out actually raises his hand, catching him or her being good is important so that you increase the chance of him doing it again. (Mitchem & Downing, 2005, pp. 189-190) Although many strategies are available for educators' use in schools to manage students whose challenging behaviors present frequent disciplinary problems, the most familiar disciplinary methods are punitive (Thompson & Webber, 2010). Results from completed studies are published for teachers to read concerning classroom management and how an educator can learn to become more efficient in that area (Farmer et al., 2006). Deciding which variables changed and changing them allows teachers to handle the problem behavior by preventing it from happening rather than having to react after it has occurred (Babkie, 2006). The aim was to outline those techniques that are critical for 43 creating contexts that foster positive and productive behavior from youths who tend to be challenging to teachers (Farmer et al., 2006). Classroom environment. Student misbehaviors can threaten the effectiveness of a class learning environment (Kulinna, 2007). Rather than structuring the school environment to prevent problem behavior, many school discipline systems continue to rely on consequences, depending on punitive or reactive strategies such as detention and suspension to curb behavioral violations (Gottfredson & Gottfredson, 2001; Kincaid, Childs, Blasé, & Wallace, 2007). With knowledge of the motivation for student misbehavior, modifying one or more aspects of the physical or social environment to facilitate maintenance and generalization of behavior changes can be useful (Gable & Hendrickson, 2000). Creating a learning environment where all students can thrive academically requires an understanding of the complexities of classroom management (Jones, Jones, & Vermete, 2013). Positive classroom climates also reduce disruptive behaviors in two ways: The teacher’s use of effective discipline and management strategies that discourage student misbehavior and via the instruction and modeling teachers provide to help students manage conflicts adaptively, including support for appropriate emotional expression and social problem-solving skills (Hamre & Pianta, 2005; Howes, 2000). In primary school, students are not able to conc...
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College of Doctoral Studies

RES-811 Literature Review Resources
Number

Article Information

Added to
Ref
Works?
(Y or N)

1.

Bibliographic Information

N

Hanushek, E. A. (1992). The trade-off between child quantity and
quality. journal of Political Economy, lm, 84-117. .
Sanders, W., & Rivers, J. C. . (1996, November). Cumulative and
residual effects of teachers on future student academic
achievement. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Value-Added
Research and Assessment Center .
.

Link
www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/4969

1

Annotation
Teacher’s quality can be identified in the terms of student
performance outcomes. The difference between being taught by a
good and a bad teacher can translate into a full grade level of
achievement in a single school year. The teacher quality is the most
important school related factor influencing student achievement.
Although school quality is an important determinant of the
performance of student, the most important determinant is the quality
of the teacher. In addition to that class size, teacher education and
teacher experience play a small role in improving the performance of
the student. Difference between having a good teacher and having a
bad teacher can exceed one grade level equivalent in annual
achievement growth. Resources are not symmetrically related to
outcome but a “highly qualified” teacher is based on the premise that
teacher excellence is vital to realizing improved student achievement.
Teacher effects can be enduring and cumulative, whether they
advance student achievement or leave children behind. The most
important factor that affect student performance is the teacher and
what the effect the teacher have on the student performance are both
additive and cumulative. Lower achieving students are likely to
© 2014. Grand CanyonUniversity. All Rights Reserved.

benefit from improvement of teacher effectiveness. Quality teachers
are a critical determinant of student performance.

2.

Bibliographic Information
DuFour, R. (2004). What is a professional learning community.
Educational leadership, 6-12.
DuFour, R.Eaker R AND mNY, t. (2010). ). Learning by doing: A
handbook. Bloomington: Solution Tree Press.

Link

© 2014. Grand CanyonUniversity. All Rights Reserved.

Annotation
Discipline policies are the primary policy mechanism through which
behavioral infractions and their associated consequences are
conveyed to the larger school community

Analysis of discipline codes of behavior has been carried out and
rated into various categories ranging from less severe to more severe.
Reactive consequences are punitive in nature and ranges from minor
to severe and include suspension while proactive is global in nature
and involve skill building.

Promising alternatives to suspension include Prevention-oriented
approaches to discipline, such as universal school-wide positive
behavior support and social–emotional learning approaches are being
advocated in contemporary research.

Reviewing school discipline policies and integrating these prevention
oriented efforts into them could align what is advocated in the
educational literature and what school districts adopt as educational
policy. Suspensions and expulsions are the most common discipline
© 2014. Grand CanyonUniversity. All Rights Reserved.

responses seen in school though evidence collected over many years
indicate that they are not effective in their desired outcome of
reducing undesirable behaviors, nor are they effective in promoting
pro-social expected behaviors

3.

Bibliographic Information
Burden, P. (1995). Classroom management and discipline. Longman:
white plains.
Burden, P. (2005). PowerfulClassroom management strategies. New
York: Corwin press.

Link

Annotation
Classroom management is the full range of teacher’s efforts to
© 2014. Grand CanyonUniversity. All Rights Reserved.

oversee classroom activities,
Include ng learning, social interactio...


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