UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE
Jacksonian America
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
8. Discuss the evolution of American philosophies or ideals.
8.1 Describe the innovations and impact of the American System.
8.2 Discuss the political fight that emerged in the wake of the Corrupt Bargain and its impact on the
Era of Good Feelings.
8.3 Explore the landmarks of the Jackson administration and their fallout.
9. Analyze the impact new technologies had on the evolution of gender and social roles.
9.1 Identify the opportunities and limitations for women in the factory system.
9.2 Describe the shift in gender expectations in the wake of the Market Revolution.
Reading Assignment
In order to access the following resources, click the links below:
Barzun, J. (1987). Thoreau the thorough Impressionist. American Scholar, 56(2), 250. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=31h&AN=5317847&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Larson, J. L. (2005). The Market Revolution in early America: An introduction. OAH Magazine Of History,
19(3), 4-7. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=31h&AN=19570048&site=ehost-live&scope=site
O'Sullivan, J. (1839). John L. O'Sullivan on Manifest Destiny, 1839. Retrieved from
https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/osulliva.htm
O'Sullivan, J. (1839, November). The Great Nation of Futurity. Retrieved from
http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=usde;cc=usde;idno=usde00064;node=usde0006-4%3A6;view=image;seq=350;size=100;page=root
Pencak, W. (2006). Cultural change and the Market Revolution in America, 1789-1860. Journal of the Early
Republic, 26(3), 498-502. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=31h&AN=21944617&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Ronda, J. P. (2004). Washington Irving’s west. Historian, 66(3), 546-551. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=31h&AN=14353667&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Stembridge, L. (2001). Not such simple gifts. History Today, 51(1), 46. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=31h&AN=3930071&site=ehost-live&scope=site
The articles cited in the unit lesson are required reading. You may be tested on your knowledge
and understanding of that material as well as the information presented in the unit lesson.
HY 1110, American History I
1
Unit Lesson
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
The Jefferson administration would, in many ways, serve as a stabilizing agent for the young nation.
However, as was true of Franklin, Washington, and Henry before him, Jefferson and his generation had to
accept that the success of the republic depended on new leadership and the role that progress has in healing
old wounds.
As mentioned in the previous unit, the term “Jeffersonian” can be attributed to the period from 1800-1824, a
reference to the string of Republican Presidents he inspired. Coupled with the ousting of much of the lingering
Federalist support after their anti-war faux pas, the following two decades, sometimes called the Era of Good
Feeling, would essentially be a return to a one party republic—this, however, did not mean that political issues
were without debate. The Corrupt Bargain that put John Quincy Adams into the Oval Office would become a
rally cry for the next prominent politician to take over. Though they had comparable backgrounds, Jackson
and Jefferson’s “ideal” America would prove to be drastically different. While the office of the President
steadily moved into a moderate position, attitudes were clearly dividing, with the traditional conservatives
backing Adams, while the more desperate for reform helped usher in the “Jacksonian” era.
This era, however, would see more than just the political carousel start to spin once again. This would also be
a scene of necessity and reforms, both of which would directly challenge all three branches of government
and dominate conversation from the factory, to the pub, to the home. What may have been even more
unexpected than the reforms themselves was who was leading them—women, church-sponsored
organizations, and other such less-aggressive voices that had previously been drowned out under the
expectations of Republican Motherhood. What was providing them with this new influence were the changing
nature of the American market, the new structure of the home, and even expansion westward. The gains of
the Jeffersonian era were not the expansion expected by so many, however. As the nation took new shape,
there came a series of new voices. Arguably the loudest voice from this era would become the most impactful
to America’s future: the abolition debate.
First, it is important to recognize how the nation began to evolve. In the early nineteenth century, a period
collectively known as the Market Revolution became defined by a series of technological innovations and
associated economic changes that caused the partisan industry and agricultural economic lines begin to blur.
While the Industrial Revolution began in Europe, the U.S. remained an agricultural giant. However, innovation
was not completely foreign to American shores. A series of reforms would occur, impacting the nature of
labor, the laborer, the ways industry moved, and even the family structure. Starting in 1815, two major
programs would be put into motion causing this transition. The first would be the transportation revolution.
The Transportation Revolution
Much of the limitation to the United States’ economic success had been due to geographical limitations. The
Atlantic and Gulf coasts, which were essential to America’s shipping and trade, were still dependent on
rugged roads and naturally flowing water to gather exports. This left the nation’s economy squarely in the
hands of Mother Nature. This type of transportation was not only slow and unreliable, but it was also
excessively expensive, especially when compared to the more developed English infrastructure. However,
with the growth in the nation’s size, there was greater ability to utilize the natural resources to benefit North
America’s economy. From 1815 to 1840, the nation would undergo a great construction project, starting with
the national road, to the creation of a canal system, and finally a railroad.
The National (Cumberland) Road stretched from Maryland to the Ohio River. This was the nation’s first
federally funded interstate system, meant to provide a path from the Atlantic to the western territories. The
Ohio River also served as a junction point, feeding into several other major waterways, including the
Mississippi, Tennessee, and Missouri Rivers (and to their feeding branches and tributaries). The installation of
this road not only aided community development as far west as St. Louis, but it also provided quicker and
more reliable access to ports such as New Orleans, Louisiana, and Mobile, Alabama.
HY 1110, American History I
2
The second part of this Transportation
Revolution
also
UNIT
x STUDYwas
GUIDE
dependent on water, but would onlyTitle
be possible through the vision
of then New York Governor DeWitt Clinton: the Erie Canal.
Finished in 1826, the canal literally cut through 360 miles of
northern countryside to connect the Great Lakes to the Hudson
River; its completion meant that New York harbor could now
expand its exports to include those that were previously only
feasible by the Gulf ports. To accompany this, there would now also
be a need to travel north, east, and west along these rivers leading
to Fulton’s innovative, yet environmentally and operationally
dangerous, steamboat. Popular for their significantly lower
expense, canals would be developed throughout the nation but
were still not perfect, as their size and location geared them toward
slower moving, narrow barges. This innovation did, however,
inspire the growth of several northern towns, including Buffalo, NY,
and inspired New York City’s growth into the economic capital it is
today.
The last great transportation innovation would prove to become the
key to solving the problem of civilizing the expanding American
West: the railroad. The first rails were placed in small doses starting
Picture of the Erie Canal as seen today.
in the 1830s, but would quickly expand into the frontier over the
(Leongard G., 2005)
next decade. Quicker to construct and cheaper to maintain than
either of the previous innovations, the rails proved to be more costeffective and better able to keep the attention of the American population. More about this will be added later.
The American System
A second massive project called the American System would be promoted in 1814 and installed in 1816 to do
three things: regulate the national currency, revise foreign tariffs (taxes), and expand on the Transportation
Revolution projects. There were three fundamental issues that this system set out to address:
the timing and relationship to the transportation revolution;
the American System’s origins, which actually traced as far back as Hamilton’s Federalist Party,
which faded during Jefferson’s Presidency; and
creation of a second National Bank.
A lot would happen during Madison’s terms: a massive second military revolution, the War of 1812, the repeal
of the Embargo Act, and the Transportation and Market Revolutions. The Madison administration saw the
Federalist threat lessen. Because of these occurrences, he supported the economic program as a way to
settle the economy and as an act of good faith between former political rivals. But this was not without issues,
including the fears that came with locally beneficial improvements, such as the Erie Canal.
The idea of unequal distribution of funds had also been a hindrance for Jefferson when trying to support
similar economic projects. The message sent by Monroe supported such a program and its reflection on the
unification efforts. It was clear that the Era of Good Feeling had caused the party’s platform to evolve from
Jefferson’s agrarian dream to a more national scope. Finally, there was fallout after the First National Bank
failed to be re-chartered in 1811 due to pressure from supporters, particularly in the agricultural sector, who
had rights to fear its potential for corruption.
The American Factory
With all of this innovation, what changes promoted industry in the pre-industrial United States? One of the
more significant was the earliest form of common factory, the mill, perhaps the most famous of which was
located in Lowell, Massachusetts. This company was not only notable for its production, which spanned the
full gambit of textile production, or the worker population, which was overwhelmingly unmarried young
women. This mill was also notable because of how these women, who were drastically underpaid for their
efforts, would lead some of the first, though generally unsuccessful, strikes in American history.
HY 1110, American History I
3
It was very common for families in pre-industrial America to have and raise large
families.
ThisGUIDE
was due to
UNIT
x STUDY
several factors, including labor needs, religious beliefs, gender expectations, and
Titleinfant mortality rates. As
technology improved, both on the farm and in production, families continued to grow, but family land became
scarce. With it becoming increasingly difficult to raise such large families, mills such as Lowell would crop up
as a new employment option. They often had built-in dorms, recreation opportunities, and very strict moral
codes/rules (as part of the appeal for parental consent). All of this was a luxury, but it was also an excuse to
lower the pay for women doing the same work a man would be paid more to do in cruder environments.
Though it may not seem directly related, it would be the words of noted reform leaders Sarah and Angelina
Grimké, daughters of a prosperous plantation owner and planter, speaking on behalf of the abolitionist
crusade, that would inspire workers to look at their own situation. Moving into the mid-1830s, the situation
became worse with the lowering price of cotton. Following demands for pay cuts and greater output, the
women united and went on strike against the factory. Ultimately, however, it would be a seemingly neverending supply of replacement workers that allowed the demands of these workers to fall on deaf ears. As
women aged, those who rebelled would leave or be replaced, and eventually immigrant labor would gladly
take the work, as many had migrated from lands with significantly less economic opportunity, especially for
women.
The mill at Lowell, Massachusetts.
(Dennis, n.d.)
Though unsuccessful at Lowell, this spirit would spread to other mills, such as the Lynn shoebinders, which
fed them into independent (family-run) enterprises. This was only the first attempt at feminist equality, a fight
that we will discuss further later, and is still carried on today.
A New National Bank
Coming back to the bank issue, the main argument for a new national bank came understandably from those
with the most to gain: the elites and industrial leaders. Their fear was the rapid growth of smaller banks
throughout the United States. Often with their own independent currency, these banks caused havoc on
exchange rates, In some cases, they were ways to guarantee that skilled and trained laborers would not
attempt to save up and leave for better opportunities in other factory towns.
Having multiple currencies circulating hurt the nation for multiple reasons, perhaps chief among them being
unity. Though now clearly an established country, the inability to secure a single national currency called into
question the sovereignty of the young nation. In 1816, the Second National Bank would be granted a twentyyear charter. Although led by a figurehead “president,” Mr. Nicholas Biddle, once again the cards lined up for
the wealthiest Americans to have the greatest influence on the nation’s economy, an issue that irritated the
traditional agricultural base.
Just as with any economic system, there would be prosperous (“boom”) and wanting (“bust”) years. While the
boom was beneficial, the bust hurt the lower classes drastically more than it did those influencing the bank.
Those who had significant investments also had the ability to call back loans, which led directly to drastic
economic woes for those with loans. The losses among those who could not afford to immediately repay their
creditors developed into increased disapproval of the banks. In periods of prolonged loss, otherwise known as
a “panic,” the resentment only became louder. The Panic of 1819, for example, would occur only three years
HY 1110, American History I
4
after the establishment of this new bank. This new institution showing such a fluid
with the
UNITstructure,
x STUDYalong
GUIDE
reality of a 20-year charter, drew the ire of many who blamed the changes for Title
the downturn.
Jackson Enters the Political Scene
One of the most outspoken anti-bank politicians at the time was also a highly regarded lawyer, previous lawkeeper, and nationally known war hero from his successful victory at the Battle of New Orleans. Andrew
Jackson, an agricultural supporter from the Jefferson mold, would emerge in the wake of these harsh
economic times and take up the mantle that had once formed the agrarian resistance in the form of the
Republican Party. Jackson was not new to the political scene, having served in multiple capacities in and for
his home state of Tennessee, as well as stints in both the U.S. House and U.S. Senate. He brought a
resurgent states-rights attitude, condemned the Electoral College, and gained the reputation of a “people’s
politician.”
The Corrupt Bargain of 1824, which had hand-delivered the
election to John Quincy Adams despite Jackson’s control of the
popular vote, only furthered Jackson’s crusade. Like Jefferson a
generation before, Jackson would use this perceived injustice
as a springboard and platform against the struggling
administration. The election of 1828 would once again give
Jackson the overwhelming popular vote, and new laws in more
than twenty states guaranteed that these voices would be
heard. The people came out in unprecedented numbers as the
thought of Jackson as President was either a blessing or a
curse. Politicians encouraged local political supporters to speak
out on their benefit, and the advent of new print media and the
mail system worked to spread the pressure to vote. This was
also one of the first examples of smear campaigning, as each
side took to bashing the ethics, actions, and even the families of
the other.
After the examination of over a million votes, Jackson took the
South and agrarian Mid Atlantic, whereas John Quincy Adams
only retained his expected New England. Jackson was declared
the winner with 178 electoral votes. Related, this election was
often compared to the public feuds of Thomas Jefferson and
John Adams; however, despite their fierce political rivalry, they
were able to salvage their personal friendship in retirement, and
would both die on July 4, 1826. In their post-administrative lives,
they saw their life’s work evolve from chaos into a thriving
nation—it is perhaps justice that neither lived to see what would
happen next.
Political cartoon regarding the “Corrupt
Bargain” with Henry Clay sewing General
Jackson’s mouth shut.
(Johnston, 1828)
A New White House
This result was not the only change to emerge from this campaign; however, the two sides were clearly
visible, and though both claimed Jefferson’s Party as their own, it was clear that the Era of Good Feeling had
ended. Jackson was running under the banner of Democratic-Republican—an ode to Jefferson that would,
sometime before the 1836 election, be shortened to “Democrats.” Adams claimed the name National
Republican, which would evolve into the “Whig” Party.
Another change would also emerge, this time from the media. Cartoonists, picking on Jackson’s stubbornness
and popularity, would draw him in a multitude of unflattering characterizations ranging from a poor-tempered
monarch (King Andrew I) to an ornery mule. Some were even so blunt as to label him a “jackass” as a play on
both his name and his reputation. Unexpectedly, Jackson’s supporters recognized the gift of press, and the
imagery stuck even past his administration, eventually leading to the first of two modern political mascots: the
Democratic donkey.
HY 1110, American History I
5
Jackson was quick to claim his title as the people’s President, a
move that allowed his supporters seemingly unprecedented access
to the public figure. But to his opponents, this became akin to a
rowdy bar, or, in modern terms, a fraternity house. Jackson would
continue to defy tradition by not welcoming a diverse cabinet of
advisors, but instead a committee of platform loyalists, sometimes
choosing shrewd political figures who benefitted his campaign and
shared similar beliefs over competent advisors. This was
nicknamed the “spoils system” by those left out.
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Jackson had a clear agenda—to revoke or revise the plans which
had limited the agrarian American and to utilize new territories for
future generations. Among those who would be in the way of this
plan, not including the outspoken Whigs, would be the Native
Americans and the aforementioned National Bank.
Jackson’s first act, however, would be a direct attack on one of the
opposition’s leaders. Acting on his disagreement concerning private
use of national funds, he vetoed a road project in Maysville,
Kentucky, a project which would have benefitted that region, which
just happened to be Henry Clay’s home state. This was not only a
display of his executive privilege, but also an act of defiance against
another branch: Congress. This would turn out to be only the first of
many.
Indian Removal Act
Political cartoon depicting President
Jackson’s abuse of power.
(King Andrew, 1883)
One of Thomas Jefferson’s most significant decisions as President
would be to offer Native Americans the right to stay on their tribal lands as long as they assimilated into U.S.
culture by learning the language, respecting the laws, and living as citizens. Jackson, who had earned the
reputation as an “Indian fighter” in his military years, would now choose to challenge the patriarch of the party
he claimed. Using the argument that western expansion was inevitable and would lead to unnecessary war
and fighting, Jackson ordered all Native American tribes to move west of the Mississippi River in an attempt to
“save” them.
At this time there were still five major tribes in the South, often referred to as the “Five Civilized Tribes”—the
Cherokee, Seminole, Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw. It should be noted that prior to Jefferson’s assimilation
plan, most of the major northern tribes had already vacated due to unregulated expansion and continued
frontier conflict for similar promised western lands from the Louisiana Purchase. One of the few exceptions
were the Sauk and Fox. Congress would pass the Indian Removal Act of 1830, opening 100+ million acres of
previously tribal land to farmers and American developers.
The fallout of this declaration was huge, and multiple methods of resistance were displayed. The Seminoles in
Florida would take a very direct approach, aggressively attacking any who came near their lands in a series of
skirmishes known as the Seminole Wars. They were finally subdued by the U.S. Army and forcibly moved to
the Oklahoma Territory via water and land caravan.
HY 1110, American History I
6
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Map showing the Trail of Tears routes. (For a larger image click here)
(NPS, n.d.)
The Creeks, Chickasaw, and Choctaw also would put up some resistance, but they were also ultimately
displaced. The Cherokee, however, took a different approach—in an attempt to prove their acceptance and
action on the assimilation plan, the Cherokee Nation took the U.S. government to the Supreme Court, twice.
In the cases Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Cherokee were found
to be an independent sovereign nation and not subject to U.S. law. Jackson once again ignored the decision
and pushed the Cherokee out, using less than scrupulous means. What would follow would be dubbed “the
Trail of Tears,” where the U.S. Army marched the Cherokee Nation into the Oklahoma Territory, but only after
sentencing them to disease-infested encampments. Between the strain, the heartache, and the disease,
almost a quarter of the Cherokee population died during the forced exodus.
The Bank War
Arguably the second most significant issue during Jackson’s administration would relate to Jackson’s
handling of the Second Bank of the United States. Picking up from earlier, Jackson had a very negative
perspective and opinion of Biddle’s prize bank, and the 1832 election would prove itself an opportunity to act.
Used as bait for Jackson to make a perceived political blunder, Biddle allowed for Senators Daniel Webster
and Henry Clay, who eyed the executive office for themselves, to move up the re-chartering of the bank to
1832, instead of waiting until 1836. Knowing that the bank’s failure would likely cause economic collapse, and
with that an unhappy population, these Whigs believed this would guarantee Jackson’s inability to gain
reelection.
Expectedly, Jackson took the opportunity to veto the bill. Unexpectedly, the American people approved. His
veto, putting the spotlight back on the inequality of the classes, helped to remind the American people of why
he was elected. This helped his 1832 campaign, leading to an easy victory.
To ensure that Congress did not resurrect the bank, Jackson moved the U.S.’s shares in the bank to trusted
smaller banks. Since it no longer held the same power, the bank folded in 1836, but not before calling in loans
and raising interest rates. With less regulation now, the addition of Mexican silver to the U.S. coffers, and the
forced manipulation of inflation, the nation choked itself into an economic nightmare disguised as a boom. At
the time, Jackson was again the celebrated people’s President, but when the dust settled, he found that even
he was not bulletproof. In response to Jackson’s veto, confidence was lost in the bank. Those with the most to
lose pressured Biddle to refill the coffers in any fashion, which included calling in loans. What occurred was a
devastating recession, putting many of the nation’s middle- and lower-class citizens, most of whom had
supported Jackson, in an economic hole.
By 1836, even Jackson’s supporters questioned their loyalties. During his eight-year administration, Jackson
acted like a bulldozer through the combined efforts of his predecessors to unite and govern the nation
responsibly. Though very charismatic and able to react to pressure, soon even he could not escape his
demons. He had essentially declared a one-sided war on a sovereign nation, oversaw the destruction of
America’s economic infrastructure, and outright refused, ignored, and nullified the decisions of the other two
government branches any time they impacted his plans.
HY 1110, American History I
7
Jackson might very well have run for a third term if he had not fallen ill, forcingUNIT
him to
retire and
allow the
x STUDY
GUIDE
newly recreated two-party system to sort out the disheveled nation. Van Buren,
Jackson’s second Vice
Title
President, would take over what was essentially a clean-up effort.
Political cartoon depicting a less-than-flattering farewell message to Jackson, who had
lost much of his popular support due to economic woes.
(Robinson, 1850)
Two massive economic panics would cost Van Buren a second term. William Henry Harrison would take the
office as both the first Whig President and the first non-Republican since John Adams lost to Jefferson four
decades earlier. Ironically, this was done using Jackson’s own tricks—Harrison was a war hero, he was
touted as a frontiersman (a lie), and he even introduced log toys to attract children. In earnest, the voter
turnout showed how desperately the American people simply wanted to move past anyone and anything
associated with Jackson.
The Rising Middle Class
While Jackson’s “Chuck Norris” style of government was often the headliner during this era, his was not the
only influence of note. With the Market Revolution, the family expectation shifted, and with the help of reform
movements, the spheres of expectation started to contour.
The Market Revolution had an unexpected side effect, as it took what was once a very small population of
citizens who fit neither the upper- nor the lower-class models, and quickly boosted the middle class into a
significant population that changed expectations, dress, society, and convention. These men were now more
commonly in semi-managerial positions, whereas they had previously been single entrepreneurs or skilled
labor. Those in these positions now earned enough to support a small family and worked a schedule that
allowed for such luxuries.
Women started to move out of the workplace. Mothering again became an understood profession, as it
ensured the success of future generations, like it had under the height of Republican Motherhood. General
responsibilities of the wife included the careful education of the children and keeping the house a refuge from
the unforgiving world. Even for families on the lower end of this new class, the one-payroll household was
common, though in earnest, many times the house became a place of business for women (e.g., laundry,
sewing, teaching, boarding, cooking) while the husband was out. Family sizes shrunk drastically. No longer
HY 1110, American History I
8
on the farm or needing cheap, trustworthy labor, huge families were much rarer,
butxnot
without
some
UNIT
STUDY
GUIDE
controversy. Though intended to ensure that the husband’s wage would suffice
for the middle-class lifestyle,
Title
this often led to dangerous procedures and actions by women to ensure that the family stayed the ideal size,
including abortion, which quickly resulted in questions and conflicts with religion and morality.
America’s Cultural Revolution
Another interesting occurrence that would spawn from this new economic class would be new luxuries,
philosophies, and interests. The American culture was drastically different, even from the heavy English and
German origins of many American citizens. One reason for this was the very limited history and tradition
associated with the American ideal. This opened the nation to embracing new ideas; accompanying this
would also be increased levels of literacy and spendable income for luxury items, among the most popular of
which were reading materials. Authors such as James Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving wrote books
that romanticized the American West, which was a far cry from the urban city that most Americans knew, as
the frontier was the land of opportunity once taken by their forefathers.
The key to spreading these stories was continued evolution of print. New
novels and print type would make these works accessible, and with them
new ways of thinking. Among the major philosophies to emerge during
this time was Transcendentalism. This philosophy was dominated by the
works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Their works
fed into the lure of the frontier, away from the sin and pain of the city—a
cry to embrace nature once again and reform their own world into a more
natural scene. In addition, this would be a golden age for Folk Tales and
Songs, which are still common today. All too often, this was not so much a
call to leave the populated environment, but to find a way to embrace
nature and connect with the “Oversoul.” On the other end, some less
beloved philosophies also emerged, such as the Utopian community
founded by John Humphrey Noyes, who took this idea and ran much
further with it. This led to extreme behaviors but still developed a
community of dedicated believers despite the outward pressures.
Religion Influences Reform
Religion would also adapt to this new culture. Women vastly outnumbered
Image of Emerson's "transparent
men in church attendance, including young boys, but with a new sense of
eyeball" concept.
(Cranch, ca. 1837)
morality came a revised religious expectation. That expectation spread in
a series of revivals known as the Second Great Awakening. Like the First
Great Awakening, this series of religious gatherings was intended to whitewash corruption of the past, spread
the word to a new generation, and put families back into the pews. Once again, this was a success.
Congregation attendance skyrocketed, and the main attraction was a former lawyer from New York named
Charles Finney. Finney used the urban sins to attract and provoke his would-be congregations, and he even
used Jackson’s successful methods to focus people’s attentions against the dangers of lewdness and drink.
From religious teachings to outright moral reform, women too would take the stage as prominent figures in
this evolving American scene. Now no longer constrained by factory labor or massive families, women could
campaign for their ideal nation, just as the mill girls had done before. Women, especially those of recent
immigration, knew that one of the most prominent and dangerous vices was alcohol. Drinking was
everywhere, and civic or cultural norms lured fathers, sons, husbands, and brothers into the pub on a daily
basis. To put it into perspective, the estimated amount of drinking taking place back then doubles even the
most prominent issues today. This is especially true in urban environments with easy access and limited need
for driving or operation of complicated machinery.
HY 1110, American History I
9
Lyman Beecher,UNIT
a minister
fromGUIDE
Connecticut,
x STUDY
would form the American
Temperance Society,
Title
but it would be women who made it successful.
Men would be faced with messages of
temperance at work, and women would
reinforce the message at home. However, the
most successful deterrent ended up being
money. In the same pattern, moral reform would
attack sexual deviance, including direct action
to deter stimuli for such behaviors as public
prostitution. As discussed earlier, the ultimate
goal was to create a nation that promoted civil,
equal behaviors for all, regardless of class,
creed, gender, or race.
Seneca Falls
As determined as women were about
temperance, there was unfortunately still limited
success in attracting the necessary attention or
support to gain lasting change. What was not
lost, however, was the passion for this reform.
Even toward the middle of the century, new
faces and events prompted further discussion.
One of the most significant of these events
would take place at Seneca Falls, New York,
where Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia
Mott would preside over more than 300 likeminded supporters to draft a Declaration of
Sentiments, outlining the goals of the
convention and reform. This document, a clear
comparison to the Declaration of Independence,
made a very loud point about excluding genderspecific perspectives from American society.
The range of demands was wide and almost
universal; the lone exception was also the most
cumbersome: the right to vote. Suffrage was
essential to these women’s plans because no
matter how loud their voices were, they still had
no say in politics and thus no guarantee for
change. Who would prove to be another key
voice attempting to unite reformers towards this
Graph of Benjamin Rush’s moral and physical thermometer.
goal? Interestingly enough, it would be the
(Rush, 1790)
leader from another prominent movement, Mr.
Frederick Douglass, who was a major author and orator in the cause for race equality.
The Abolition Debate
What was perhaps the most incendiary issue seeking reform would be abolition. The promotion for the
equality of all races was multifaceted and all too often uncivil, even among the reformers. The debate on
slavery in America can be traced as far back as the Constitutional Convention itself, but abolition was a direct
attack on the economic welfare of a significant enough amount of the population that sufficient support was
never there to make a serious run at success. In the nineteenth century, however, this would change as the
nature of the American economy evolved around technology and social views.
One of the more established views was that of the Quaker church. Vehemently against the subjugation of any
person based on any such characteristic, this following was among the first to champion many reforms,
though not always in a traditional form. Such is the case with abolition. Members from the Mid Atlantic came
together as a group called the American Colonization Society to offer to purchase slaves’ freedom and pay
HY 1110, American History I
10
their way back to Africa, specifically to the nation of Liberia. However,
there was great outcry against this, not so much by slave owners, but
by other abolitionists. Not only was this plan economically faulty, but it
actually promoted segregation, as the slaves being sent to Africa were
American, usually by more than a couple generations.
Such was the nature of the debate at this point. With the evolution of
laws geared directly toward the benefit of the owner, the only way to
ensure equality, including for free African Americans, was to prohibit
slavery. Among the key leaders in this reform would be members of the
freed community, such as David Walker, who published An Appeal . . .
to the Coloured Citizens of the World; progressive-minded Whites such
as William Lloyd Garrison, who published the Liberator; and key
representatives from the influential community, such as Frederick
Douglass, Sojourner Truth, and finally Harriet Tubman, who would incite
further anger by freeing many slaves via the underground railroad.
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Frederick Douglas
(Miller, ca. 1847-1852)
Though increasingly vocal, this is one reform that would gain little
traction in Jacksonian America, apart from the oft-debated free-labor
ideal, but it set the stage for the political, social, and economic divide that would eventually plunge the nation
into war. At the time, however, the law and politics favored the White man, including the right to any claims of
a wife. As long as that was the case, the desires of these other populations were not going to be a national
concern.
Industrial America
As the nation finally began to recoup from Jackson’s influence in the 1840s and 1850s, the more recognizable
antebellum society became prominent. Interestingly enough, despite the political ruins left in the wake of the
Era of Good Feeling, it is clear that despite the troubles, four decades of progress had been very beneficial for
the American economy.
Not only was this a time of great growth in the nation’s size, but growth occurred in its industrial capacity too.
Although still far from equaling the British giant, the new accessibility and renewed entrepreneurial spirit did
begin to turn the nation into a world power for the first time. Mechanization and the American System created
less reliance on the skilled worker, thus allowing owners to pay unskilled labor at cost and not have to worry
about losing skilled workers to strikes.
So what led to this? First, it is important to reconsider the Market Revolution. Though the middle class had
risen at an exponential rate, there was still a labor class, and the divide between the haves and have-nots
only continued to grow. Starting in 1800, agricultural innovations from the cotton gin to the mechanical reaper
emerged on the local farm. The ability to enhance the work of one farmhand to equal that of many there was
a population migration to the city for work. (Recall this was discussed earlier with the falling sizes of families
and rise of mills.) For many, this left a choice: move to the factory or try to build a new farm in the seemingly
endless, and very dangerous, frontier. However, even with millions filing into the U.S. from Europe, and more
moving from the farm to the city, the western migration still posed a danger to industrial growth.
With western opportunity, either from the purchase or simple claim of lands, the population was not reliant on
factory positions. Add in the effectiveness of steam power, as noted with the railroad, access to production
was at an all-time high, making rural life more realistic. The first half of the 1800s saw the East become
swamped with railroad track, more than 9,000 miles in total. Only a decade later, the west too was quickly
benefitting from the cheap, quick, and reliable transportation infrastructure. With it, so too was communication
building. The telegraph, with its lines able to be built literally right behind the rails, now served those reliant on
the railroads the same as on the east coast.
Manifest Destiney
Americans now had the means, motivations, and modes for migration westward; what was still missing was
the claim over previous/current owners. John O’Sullivan, editor for the United States Democratic Review,
would in 1839 provide that claim. Speaking directly to the heart of the heavy-handed, Democratic Partysupporting American agricultural base, O’Sullivan would publish the most influential, and infamous, article of
HY 1110, American History I
11
his career: “The Great Nation of Futurity” (For more information, see
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/osulliva.htm.) In this article, O’Sullivan would
Title make the case that
America had the obligation, granted by God, to take its place as the next chosen society.
Providence is with us, and no earthly power can. We point to the everlasting truth on the first page of
our national declaration, and we proclaim to the millions of other lands, that "the gates of hell" -- the
powers of aristocracy and monarchy -- "shall not prevail against it."
– John O’Sullivan
As powerful as this rhetoric was, what it gave to Americans was a reason to infiltrate, squat, and steal claimed
lands from other settlements, including Native Americans in the West, British in the North, and Mexicans in
the Southwest, the last of which would prove the next staging ground for the much-embattled American
military. What Americans expected was an untouched and
unblemished prairie, an open frontier just waiting for
civilization. Lewis and Clark had blazed a trail to the Pacific
Ocean only generations earlier, and now there was a great
impulse to claim that land for the United States by any
means.
The first example of this imperialistic enthusiasm would be
the emergence of three major roads into the West starting
from Independence, Missouri: the Oregon Trail, which
spawned the California Trail and the Santa Fe Trail. As
Americans moved to the West, issues such as disease,
property rights, and interruption of Native American hunting
patterns were so common that there developed a need to
build strategic forts along these trails to guarantee safe
passage. Disease, especially, would become a killer of
Native Americans, many of whom had no previous
experience with Europeans. From these encounters
emerged hostile feelings and reactions towards anyone
Map image showing different trail routes
seen trying to settle in what was claimed Native American
(Emigrant trails, 2011)
territory. Eventually, a more organized system emerged.
Called concentration, this property restriction was sold as mutually beneficial, ensuring safe passage through,
but not on, Native American lands, while in reality it was the first inroad to the reservation system.
A second example reflected diverse religious interests. Just as some of America’s first settlers wanted
freedom of religion, so too did these western migrants. Appropriately called an “exodus,” trailblazer Brigham
Young would lead Joseph Smith Jr.’s followers, called “Mormons” in reference to their holy text, into the West.
Upon reaching the Salt Lake community in 1846, in what is now modern Utah, the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints, which had been founded in the 1830s, founded its modern capital. A much embattled
religion, mostly due to its controversial allowance of what Smith called “plural-marriage,” these pilgrims
received a reception not unlike the early Puritans and Huguenots who settled the American East. Like those
explorers, they were able to develop a working society. Still, when the U.S. came to incorporate the territory,
the religious fight was renewed, and after brief occupation, Utah fell under U.S. policy with respect to Mormon
beliefs. Though relatively non-violent, this is an example of the actions willingly taken by the U.S. government
to expand its national claims and fulfill its charge of Manifest Destiny.
Mexican-American War
Not all expansion efforts were without bloodshed. As Americans entered into the Southwestern and California
territories, the Mexican government quickly took notice. In much of what is Texas today, government and
enforcement of such, was actually quite lax. Mexico had recently ousted Spain, and like the U.S. was intent
on developing an American power. Also like the U.S. had been, less than a decade removed from gaining
independence, Mexico had not yet bounced back, and the outlying territories (in this case the north) were less
guarded or enforced.
Prior to even independence, the Santa Fe Trail had been ushering American settlers into the region known for
its furs and precious metals. The first major population would be the province of Texas, with Mexico’s blessing
to populate (and protect) the land. Put under the rule of Stephen F. Austin in the 1820s, Texas was to be
HY 1110, American History I
12
retained by Mexico, just with shared inhabitants. With vast amounts of land at UNIT
insignificant
prices,
Americans
x STUDY
GUIDE
outnumbered Mexicans 35,000 to 8,000 in Texas within ten years. At that time,
to ensure the survival and
Title
longevity of the Mexican culture, the border was ordered closed to any further migration. This sparked
rebellion in the Texans, only to be marched on by the famous Mexican General, Antonio López de Santa
Anna.
Drawing of the Alamo in 1854 showing the tattered ruins of the mission after the battle of 1836.
(Alamo, 1854)
In response, America amassed its own defense. Being only an informal conflict, the U.S. Army was not called
out to interfere with the Texans’ fight for independence. Taking the matter into their own hands, some of
America’s most legendary figures, including Davy Crockett and James Bowie, came out to defend the
American stakes. A small former Franciscan monastery on the outskirts of San Antonio would be the stage for
one of the most publicized American losses ever: the Alamo.
In February 1836, Santa Anna, with 2,000 men at his disposal, made relatively quick work of the 187
American volunteers, and later another 400 suspected rebels at Goliad. These two slaughters would be
enough for the U.S. to respond. Under the leadership of General Sam Houston, the Texas region was won
from Mexico and became the independent Lone Star Republic.
Even after independence, however, it was necessary to defend the borders. This would set the scene for the
1844 Presidential election debate between Whig Henry Clay and Democrat James K. Polk, who is sometimes
referred to as the last Jacksonian. The major debate topics were slavery and the need to admit equally for
slave and non-slaveholding regions. Before Polk even took office, annexation of Texas was complete in 1845,
with Oregon (June 1846) in the works to even up the numbers.
California would have similar results but from different means, using instead the resurgent themes of Manifest
Destiny and war. California would become the next major region to be inundated by American settlers, an
invasion that would reflect Polk’s “stop at no cost” attitude towards expansionism. Using recent frontier battles
as reason to claim that Mexico could not protect its borders, Polk offered to buy the California territory, but to
no avail. In response, Polk, expecting a quick resolution after a show of military power, sent in zealous
veteran (and fervent nationalist) General Zachary “Old Rough and Ready” Taylor to the Rio Grande,
drastically south of the understood border, where he met an overpowering Mexican cavalry reacting to the
invasion. With the attack, Polk asked Congress to declare war against the southern neighbor.
Standing enlistments were pitiful. Volunteers, notably immigrants, were abundant, however, despite the
disagreement towards the war, especially in the Whig-concentrated North who felt that this was just a ploy to
extend the influence of Southern, slave-holding states. Nevertheless, Taylor (a Whig) was the right choice to
lead, and Polk officially gave him command of the entire campaign after taking Palo Alto in 1846. From here,
he would secure major victories in Monterrey and Buena Vista, which pleased Polk with his progress at first.
HY 1110, American History I
13
Soon, however, Taylor’s informal methods caught the ire of Polk, and GeneralUNIT
Winfield
Scott would
be
x STUDY
GUIDE
granted the command to take Mexico City via an amphibious landing at Veracruz
Title– an unprecedented move
that solidified Taylor’s contempt for Polk. Although a slaveholder himself, Taylor would soon bring his
opposition to Polk’s policies onto another battlefield: politics. The Presidential 1848 election would see the
war hero Taylor receive the Whig nomination and his combination of Southern roots and Whig platform
endeared him to the quickly splintering nation.
A Golden Dream
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo would be signed in February 1848, and the United States now spread its
borders south to the Rio Grande and west to the Pacific Ocean, just in time for the California Gold Rush. Had
Santa Anna known of the Pacific Coast reserves, it is difficult to guess what the status of Mexico and the
United States would be today. Seemingly overnight, people poured into the American West, desperately
digging for fortune, including 25,000 Chinese whose presence would set off great concerns in the West just
as the Irish had in the East.
The United States was now bordered by two nations, neither of which was looking for continued hostilities,
and the federal borders stretched “from sea to shining sea.” But all was not clear on the horizon; years of
bitter division and political distrust would soon erupt on center stage. The young nation, which had faced and
survived so many outward pressures, was about to rip itself apart from the inside.
References
Alamo [Drawing]. (1854). Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1854_Alamo.jpg
Cranch, C. (ca. 1837]). Transparent eyeball. [Illustration]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ralph_Waldo_Emerson#/media/File:Houghton_MS_A
m_1506_(4)_-_Cranch,_edit.jpg
Dennis, R. (n.d.). Hamilton mills [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hamilton_Mills,_from_Robert_N._Dennis_collection_of_stere
oscopic_views.jpg
Emigrant trails [Map]. (2011, June 20). Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emigrant_trails__Various_emigrant_trails_showing_California_gold_fields.svg
Johnston, D. (1828). Plain sewing done here. Symptoms of a locked jaw. [Caricature]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1834_Bank_War_Jackson_Clay_Johnston.jpg
King Andrew [Cartoon]. (1833, May 17). Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kingandrew.jpg
Leonard, G. (2005, June 30). Erie Canal [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Erie_Canal#/media/File:ErieCanalAtNiagaraEscarp.jpg
Miller, S. [ca. 1847-1852]. Frederick Douglass [Photograph]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Douglass_by_Samuel_J_Miller,_1847-52.jpg
National Park Service. (n.d.). Trail of Tears [Map]. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trail_of_tears_map_NPS.jpg
O'Sullivan, J. (1839). The great nation of futurity. Retrieved from
https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/osulliva.htm
Robinson, H. (1837). Jackson and Van Buren, 1837 [Caricature]. Retrieved, from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jackson_and_Van_Buren,_1837.jpg
HY 1110, American History I
14
Rush, B. (1790). The moral thermometer [Photograph]. Retrieved from
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1790_EffectsOfSpiritousLiquors_byBenjaminRush.png
Title
Suggested Reading
To hear the reading of In re Booth, the 1854 ruling the effectively nullified the Fugitive Slave Act in Wisconsin,
click on the link below.
Brown, Caleb. (Producer). (2016, May 22). In re booth [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from
https://www.libertarianism.org/media/classics-liberty/abram-d-smith-re-booth-part-1
HY 1110, American History I
15
Purchase answer to see full
attachment