Assignment 2: Internal Environmental Analysis/Strategy Analysis and
Strategy Selection (Week 6)
THE COMPANY IS: IHS MARKIT
Purpose: This assignment is the second of three assignments. Students will use
the tools and concepts learned in the course and in previous business courses to
develop an understanding of how organizations develop and manage strategies
to establish, safeguard and sustain its position in a competitive market.
Students also have the opportunity to review an organization’s objectives and
goals and the key functional areas within the organization. Performing an
internal environment analysis helps assess a firm’s internal resources and
capabilities and plays a critical role in formulating strategy by identifying a firm’s
strengths to overcome weaknesses. Students will then 1) assess long-term
objectives, 2) identify and evaluate alternative strategies and 3) recommend
strategies for a company to pursue.
NOTE: All submitted work is to be your original work. You may not use any
work from another student, the Internet or an online clearinghouse. You
are expected to understand the Academic Dishonesty and Plagiarism
Policy, and know that it is your responsibility to learn about instructor and
general academic expectations with regard to proper citation of sources as
specified in the APA Publication Manual, 6th Ed. (Students are held
accountable for in-text citations and an associated reference list only).
Instructions:
In completing the assignment, students will use the chapters in the eBook as a
guide and perform research on the company from Assignment 1 (IHS MARKIT),
answer the questions below in narrative form following the steps provided below:
Step 1: Create a double-spaced, 12-point font Word or Rich Text Format (RTF)
document. The final product cannot be longer than 16 pages in length, which
includes all tables and matrices but excludes the title page and reference
page. Those items identified in the technical analysis should appear under the
appropriate heading in the paper. Do no use an Appendix.
Step 2: Review assignment grading rubric.
Step 3: Follow the following format using these topics as headings:
•
•
Title page with title, your name, the course, the instructor’s name;
Company Background/Information
•
•
•
Internal Environmental Analysis
Strategic Analysis & Strategy Selection
Reference page
Students may use subheadings.
Step 4: In writing the analysis, writing in the third person. What this means is
that there are no words such as “I, me, my, we, or us” (first person writing), nor is
there use of “you or your” (second person writing). If uncertain how to write in
the third person, view this
link: http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/first-second-and-thirdperson
Step 5: In writing this assignment, students are asked to support the reasoning
using in-text citations and a reference list. If information is taken from a source
document, it has to be cited and referenced. A reference within a reference list
cannot exist without an associated in-text citation and vice versa. View the
sample APA paper under Week 4 content and How to Cite and Reference, also
under Week 4 content. There are also resources located under Course
Content>>Student Toolbox.
Step 6: In writing this assignment, students are expected to paraphrase and not
use direct quotes unless citing the mission statement of a company. Learn to
paraphrase by reviewing this
link: https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA_paraphrase2.html
Step 7: Read all course material for weeks 1 through 6 and perform independent
research to provide a comprehensive internal environmental analysis, strategy
analysis and selection.
Step 8: Jot down key facts about the company. Consider making an outline to
capture key points in the paper.
Step 9: In your paper, respond to the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Background analysis including vision and mission statements and
objectives
Internal Environmental Analysis
Corporate Level Strategy
Business Unit Level Strategy
Functional Level Strategy
o Explain how these strategies align with the company’s vision and
mission statements;
o Assess the company’s interactions with its stakeholders, the
organizational structure, the organizational culture, and
communication/decision making among managers within human
•
resources, marketing production, operations, finance and
accounting, R&D, and computer information systems, which can be
accomplished by viewing the company’s website, interviews, and
surveys.
Financial analysis for the last reported fiscal year:
o Use the company’s income statement and balance sheet
to calculate key, but no less than 10 key financial ratios to the
business. There must be a mix of the different ratios so that the
ratios do not all come from the same category. Show the
calculations.
o Using Excel or a Word table, record key financial ratios in the first
column;
o Research the industry average financial ratios for the same ratios
above and record in a second column. If you cannot find an
industry average, then select another ratio;
o In the third column, indicate whether the financial ratio is a strength,
a weakness or a neutral factor.
o Explain the results and compare and contrast the company
financials to the industry.
•
Technique Analysis: develop and explain an IFE, BCG matrix, Grand
Strategy Matrix, and QSPM. The expectation is not to copy from the
Internet but to develop one's own. The various tools are to appear in the
appropriate area of the paper and not in one section of the paper.
•
•
Strategy Analysis:
Identify and explain company strengths and weaknesses. Discuss
success factors and what the company must do to perform successfully in
the industry? Discuss what strategies would allow the company to
capitalize on its major strengths. Discuss strategies that would allow the
company to improve upon its major weaknesses
Generate a minimum of three possible alternative strategies for the
company;
o Identify and discuss cultural factors that should be considered in
analyzing and choosing among the alternative strategies;
Prioritize and explain the selection of alternative strategies
Recommend the best one or two strategies among the alternative
strategies and explain why these strategies are the best;
•
•
•
Step 10: Create an introductory paragraph. The Introduction should clearly and
concisely convey the main points of the assignment’s requirements. Review the
following website to learn how to write an introductory
paragraph: http://www.writing.ucsb.edu/faculty/donelan/intro.html
Step 11: Write a summary paragraph. A summary paragraph restates the main
idea(s) of the essay. Make sure to leave a reader with a sense that the essay is
complete. The summary paragraph is the last paragraph of a paper.
Step 12: Using the grading rubric as a comparison, read through the paper to
ensure all required elements are presented.
Step 13: Proofread the paper for spelling and grammatical issues, and third
person writing.
•
•
•
Use the spell and grammar check in Word as a first measure;
Have someone who has excellent English skills to proof the paper;
Consider submitting the paper to the Effective Writing Center (EWC). The
EWC will provide 4-6 areas that may need improvement.
Step 14: Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder.
Rubric Name: Assignment #2
Criteria
Outstanding
2.8 points
Superior
Good
Substandard
Failure
2.38 points
2.1 points
Background Background
including
including
vision,
vision,
mission and mission and
objective are objective are
presented
presented
with good
Content: and
Backgrou thoroughly
discussion; G
nd
ood
discussed;
including
Vision, missi discussion
Vision,
about
on, and
Mission
vision, missi
objectives
and
Objectives are
on, and
objectives
thoroughly
discussed in are
terms of the discussed in
definition. Fo terms of the
definition but
r example,
could be
vision is
more
forward
thinking and thorough.
mission is
Background
including
vision,
mission and
objective are
presented
with
some discuss
ion;
Vision, missi
on, and
objectives
are provided
but not
discussed in
any detail.
(1.96 - 2.23)
1.82 points
Attempted to
discuss
background or
vision, mission
and
objectives but
key points
were missing
or superficially
presented.
(1.68 - 1.95)
0 points
Failed to
discuss
the
backgroun
d and
vision,
mission
and
objectives.
(0 – 1.67)
about goals (2.24 - 2.51)
and values of
organization).
(2.52 - 2.8)
2.8 points
Internal
Environment
al Analysis
including
corporate,
business and
functional
analysis are
presented
and
thoroughly
discussed. T
horough
discussion of
stakeholders,
Content: organizationa
Internal
l structure,
Environm
organizationa
ental
Analysis l culture, and
communicati
on/decision
making
among
managers
within human
resources,
marketing
production,
operations,
finance and
accounting,
R&D, and
computer
information
systems
(2.52 - 2.8)
2.38 points
Internal
Environment
al Analysis
including
corporate,
business and
functional
analysis are
presented
with good
discussion; G
ood
discussion
about
stakeholders,
organizationa
l structure,
organizationa
l culture, and
communicati
on/decision
making
among
managers
within human
resources,
marketing
production,
operations,
finance and
accounting,
R&D, and
computer
information
systems but
could be
more
2.1 points
Internal
Environment
al Analysis
including
corporate,
business and
functional
analysis are
presented
with
some discuss
ion;
stakeholders,
organizationa
l structure,
organizationa
l culture, and
communicati
on/decision
making
among
managers
within human
resources,
marketing
production,
operations,
finance and
accounting,
R&D, and
computer
information
systems are
provided but
not discussed
in any detail.
(1.96 - 2.23)
1.82 points
Attempted to
discuss
Internal
Environmental
Analysis
including
corporate,
business and
functional
analysis but
key points
were missing
or superficially
presented. St
akeholders,
organizational
structure,
organizational
culture, and
communicatio
n/decision
making among
managers
within human
resources,
marketing
production,
operations,
finance and
accounting,
R&D, and
computer
information
systems was
not included.
(1.68 - 1.95)
0 points
Failed to
present th
e Internal
Environm
ental
Analysis.
(0 – 1.67)
thorough.
(2.24 - 2.51)
1.82 points
2.38 points
2.1 points
Financial Ana
lysis
was accurat
ely presented
withcalculate
d key
financial
ratios shown,
industry
averages
presented,
strength/wea
kness/neutral
identified and
company
financials to
the industry
compared
and
contrasted
but could
have been
more
thorough.
Financial Ana
lysis was
presented
with calculate
dkey financial
ratios,
industry
averages
presented,
strength/wea
kness/neutral
identified and
company
financials to
the industry
compared
and
contrasted
but were not
consistently
accurate or
thorough in
presentation.
(2.24 - 2.51)
(1.96 - 2.23)
2.38 points
2.1 points
1.82 points
Technique A
nalysis:
accurate
development
of each
technique
with
some explan
ation of IFE,
BCG matrix,
Technique A
nalysis:
development
of each
technique
with
some explan
ation of IFE,
BCG matrix,
Grand
Attempted
to complete a
technique anal
ysis: there
were several
issues related
to the
development
of each
technique -
2.8 points
Financial Ana
lysis
thoroughly
and
accurately
presented
with calculate
dkey financial
ratios,
Content: industry
Financial
averages
Analysis
presented,
strength/wea
kness/neutral
identified and
company
financials to
the industry
compared
and
contrasted.
(2.52 - 2.8)
2.8 points
Attempted
to provide
complete
financial
analysis but
ratios were
taken from
website rather
than showing
calculations or
calculations
not
shown/Financi
alanalysis is
superficial or
fails to provide
accurate
information or
there was
evidence of
missing
information or
only partial
presentation
was seen.
0 points
Failed to
present
Financial
Analysis.
(0 – 1.67)
(1.68 - 1.95)
0 points
Technique
Analysis:
Content: accurate
Technique development
Analysis of each
technique
with
thoroughly
explanation
of IFE, BCG
Failed to
present
Technique
Analysis.
(0 – 1.67)
matrix, Grand
Strategy
Matrix and
QSPM;
techniques
are
thoroughly
discussed in
terms of
overall
analysis.
Grand
Strategy
Matrix and
QSPM;
techniques
are
discussed in
terms of
overall
analysis.
(2.24 - 2.51)
(2.52 - 2.8)
Strategy
Matrix and
QSPM;
techniques
are briefly
discussed in
terms of
overall
analysis but
there was
missing
information or
analysis
could have
been
better presen
ted.
IFE, BCG
matrix, Grand
Strategy
Matrix and
QSPM;
techniques
were
performed but
no discussion
in terms of
overall
analysis or
superficially
presented.
(1.68 - 1.95)
(1.96 - 2.23)
Content:
Strategy
Analysis
2.8 points
2.38 points
2.1 points
1.82 points
Strategy Anal
ysis
accurately
and
thoroughly
presented
with
discussion
about
strengths and
weaknesses,
success
factors, how
strategies
can capitalize
on major
strengths,
improve upon
weaknesses,
at
least fivealter
native
strategies;
cultural
Strategy Anal
ysis
accurately
and
thoroughly
presented
with
discussion
about
strengths and
weaknesses,
success
factors, how
strategies
can capitalize
on major
strengths,
improve upon
weaknesses,
at
least fouralter
native
strategies;
cultural
Strategy Anal
ysis
accurately
and
thoroughly
presented
with
discussion
about
strengths and
weaknesses,
success
factors, how
strategies
can capitalize
on major
strengths,
improve upon
weaknesses,
at
leastthree alt
ernative
strategies;
cultural
Attempted
to complete a
strategy analy
sis but
discussion
about
strengths and
weaknesses,
success
factors, how
strategies can
capitalize on
major
strengths,
improve upon
weaknesses,
alternative
strategies;
cultural factors
and prioritized
selections is
missing
information or
superficially
0 points
Failed to
present
Strategy A
nalysis.
(0 – 1.67)
factors and
selections
are
prioritized.
factors and
selections
are
prioritized.
(2.52 - 2.8)
(2.24 - 2.51)
factors and
presented.
selections
are
(1.68 - 1.95)
prioritized. T
here are
weak areas
presented
throughout
this section.
(1.96 - 2.23)
2.8 points
Recommend
ation for the
best
strategy amo
ng
alternatives
Content: strategies is
Recomme
thoroughly
ndation
discussed. T
he selected
strategy(ies)
aligns with all
elements of
the SM
process.
2.38 points
Recommend
ation for the
best
strategy amo
ng
alternatives
strategies is
briefly
discussed. T
he selected
strategy(ies)
aligns with all
elements of
the SM
process.
1.82 points
2.1 points
Recommend
ation for the
best
strategy amo
ng
alternatives
strategies is
discussed but
the selected
strategy(ies)
may not align
with elements
of the SM
process.
Attempted
to make
recommendati
on for the best
strategy amon
g alternatives
strategies but
is
superficially di
scussed. The
selected
strategy(ies)
does not align
with elements
of the SM
process.
0 points
Failed
to provide
recommen
dation for
the best
strategy.
(0 – 1.67)
(1.96 - 2.23)
(2.52 - 2.8)
(2.24 - 2.51)
2.8 points
2.38 points
2.1 points
1.82 points
0 points
Comments
reflect an
excellent
level of
analysis,
synthesis,
evaluation
and
reasoning of
the case
material and
Comments
reflect a
satisfactory
level of
analysis,
synthesis,
evaluation
and
reasoning of
the case
material and
Comments
reflect an
unsatisfactory
level of
analysis,
synthesis,
evaluation and
reasoning of
the case
material and
case study
Comments
reflect an
unsatisfact
ory level of
analysis,
synthesis,
evaluation
and
reasoning
of the case
material
Comments
reflect a
highly
Critical
accomplished
Thinking/
level of
Reasoning
analysis,
synthesis,
evaluation
and
reasoning of
the case
(1.68 - 1.95)
material and
case study
facts
resulting in
accurate,
thorough,
and soundly
reasoned
conclusions.
case study
facts
resulting in
accurately
reasoned
conclusions.
(2.24 - 2.51)
(2.52 - 2.8)
case study
facts
resulting in
partially
correct
conclusions
that lack
development
or detail that
demonstrates
insight into
reasoning.
facts, resulting
in conclusions
that are
underdevelop
ed or lack
soundly
reasoned
conclusions.
and case
study facts,
resulting in
failure to
draw little
to no
conclusions
.
(1.68 - 1.95) (0 – 1.67)
(1.96 - 2.23)
2.8 points
2.1 points
2.38 points
Presents
exceptionally
wellsupported
arguments or
positions with
evidence
from the
readings/exp
Applicatio erience;
n of
ideas go
Resources
beyond the
course
material and
recognize
implications
and
extensions of
the material
and
concepts.
Presents
excellent
arguments or
positions that
are mostly
supported by
evidence
from the
readings and
course
content;
ideas
presented
demonstrate
understandin
g of the
material and
concepts.
(2.24 - 2.51)
(2.52 - 2.8)
1.4 points
Attention
to
Instruction
s
Satisfactory
arguments or
positions are
presented but
there is a mix
of opinion or
unclear view
with
supported
arguments
using course
readings. Ca
se study facts
are
occasionally
used but
arguments
would be
much
stronger with
use of facts.
0 points
1.82 points
Arguments are
frequently
illogical and
unsubstantiate
d; Limited use
of facts in
case study
and essential
information
presented
in course
readings.
Argument
s lack
meaningfu
l
explanatio
n or
support of
ideas. Do
es not
provide
facts
presented
in case
study.
(1.68 - 1.95)
(0 – 1.67)
(1.96 - 2.23)
1.19 points
1.05 points
0.91 points
0 points
Demonstrate Demonstrate Demonstrate Fails to show Fails to
s exceptional s excellent
s satisfactory a firm
demonstra
understandin understandin understandin understanding te
g of
requirements
responding
completely to
each aspect
of
assignment
including
minor
aspects of
the
assignment
such as using
third person
writing,
required use
of course
readings, and
assignment
format.
g of
requirements;
missed one
minor aspect
of
assignment.
g of
requirements;
missed a key
element or
two minor
aspects of
assignment.
of
requirements;
missed two
key elements
or several
minor aspects
of assignment.
(0.98 - 1.11)
(0.84 - 0.97)
understan
ding of
assignme
nt
requireme
nts.
(0 – 0.83)
(1.12 - 1.25)
(1.26 - 1.4)
2.8 points
Strictly
adheres to
standard
usage rules
of written
English,
including but
not limited to
capitalization,
Writing
Mechanics punctuation,
run-on
sentences,
missing or
extra words,
stylistic
errors,
spelling and
grammatical
errors. No
errors found.
No
0 points
2.38 points
2.1 points
1.82 points
Does not
adhere to
Excellently
Satisfactorily Minimally
standard
adheres to
adheres to
adheres to
usage
standard
standard
standard
rules of
usage of
usage rules usage rules of mechanic
mechanics: of
mechanics:
s:
conventions mechanics: conventions of conventio
of written
conventions written
ns of
English,
of English,
English,
written
including
including
including
English
capitalization, capitalization, capitalization, largely
punctuation, punctuation, punctuation,
incompreh
and spelling. and spelling. and spelling. ensible; or
One to three Four to 10
More than 10 errors are
errors found. errors found. errors found. too
plentiful to
count.
(2.24 - 2.51) (1.96 - 2.23) (1.68 - 1.95)
(0 – 1.67)
contractions
or jargon
used.
(2.52 - 2.8)
1.4 points
0.91 points
1.05 points
No APA style
or usage
errors;
Proper
citation of
source
material is
used
APA Style throughout
(6th ed.) paper;
Reference
titles follow
APA with
only the first
word, the first
word after a
colon and
proper nouns
capitalized.
1.19 points
0 points
Attempts inAttempts in- text citations
Attempts in- text citations and reference
text citations and
lists; Fails to
and
reference
use APA
reference list lists; APA
citation when
but one or
style errors
appropriate 4two APA
are noted
5 times; or
style errors
throughout
presents only
noted or fails document;
1-2 in-text
to use APA
Fails to use citations and
citations
APA citations reference list
when
when
in a paper that
appropriate appropriate 3 requires APA
1-2 times.
times in
citations
document.
throughout the
document.
(1.12 - 1.25)
(0.98 - 1.11)
(0.84 - 0.97)
No
attempt at
APA style;
or
attempts
either intext
citations
or
reference
list but
omits the
other.
(0 – 0.83)
(1.26 - 1.4)
Overall
Score
Outstanding
25.2 or more
Superior
22.4 or more
Good
19.6 or more
Substandard
16.8 or more
Failure
0 or more
Chapter 5 from Mastering Strategic Management was adapted by The Saylor Foundation under
a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 license without attribution as requested
by the work’s original creator or licensee. © 2014, The Saylor Foundation.
Chapter 5
Selecting Business-Level Strategies
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand and articulate answers to the following
questions:
1.
Why is an examination of generic strategies valuable?
2.
What are the four main generic strategies?
3.
What is a best-cost strategy?
4.
What does it mean to be “stuck in the middle”?
The Competition Takes Aim at Target
On January 13, 2011, Target Corporation announced its intentions to operate stores outside the United
States for the first time. The plan called for Target to enter Canada by purchasing existing leases from a
Canadian retailer and then opening 100 to 150 stores in 2013 and 2014.
[1]
The chain already included
more than 1,700 stores in forty-nine states. Given the close physical and cultural ties between the United
States and Canada, entering the Canadian market seemed to be a logical move for Target.
In addition to making its initial move beyond the United States, Target had several other sources of pride
in early 2011. The company claimed that 96 percent of American consumers recognized its signature logo,
surpassing the percentages enjoyed by famous brands such as Apple and Nike. In
March, Fortune magazine ranked Target twenty-second on its list of the “World’s Most Admired
Companies.” In May, Target reported that its sales and earnings for the first quarter of 2011 (sales: $15.6
billion; earnings: $689 million) were stronger than they had been in the first quarter of 2010 (sales: $15.2
billion; earnings: $671 million). Yet there were serious causes for concern, too. News stories in the second
half of 2010 about Target’s donations to political candidates had created controversy and unwanted
publicity. And despite increasing sales and profits, Target’s stock price fell about 20 percent during the
first quarter of 2011.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books
Saylor.org
135
Concern also surrounded Target’s possible vulnerability to competition within the retail industry. Since its
creation in the early 1960s, Target executives had carved out a lucrative position for the firm. Target offers
relatively low prices on brand-name consumer staples such as cleaning supplies and paper products, but it
also offers chic clothing and household goods. This unique combination helps Target to appeal to fairly
affluent customers. Although Target counts many college students and senior citizens among its devotees,
the typical Target shopper is forty-one years old and has a household income of about $63,000 per year.
Approximately 45 percent of Target customers have children at home, and about 48 percent have a college
degree.
[2]
Perhaps the most tangible reflection of Target’s upscale position among large retailers is the
tendency of some customers to jokingly pronounce its name as if it were a French boutique: “Tar-zhay.”
Target’s lucrative position was far from guaranteed, however. Indeed, a variety of competitors seemed to
be taking aim at Target. Retail chains such as Kohl’s and Old Navy offered fashionable clothing at prices
similar to Target’s. Discounters like T.J. Maxx, Marshalls, and Ross offered designer clothing and chic
household goods for prices that often were lower than Target’s. Closeout stores such as Big Lots offered a
limited selection of electronics, apparel, and household goods but at deeply discounted prices. All these
stores threatened to steal business from Target.
Walmart was perhaps Target’s most worrisome competitor. After some struggles in the 2000s, the
mammoth retailer’s performance was strong enough that it ranked well above Target on Fortune’s list of
the “World’s Most Admired Companies” (eleventh vs. twenty-second). Walmart also was much bigger
than Target. The resulting economies of scale meant that Walmart could undercut Target’s prices anytime
it desired. Just such a scenario had unfolded before. A few years ago, Walmart’s victory in a price war over
Kmart led the latter into bankruptcy.
One important difference between Kmart and Target is that Target is viewed by consumers as offering
relatively high-quality goods. But this difference might not protect Target. Although Walmart’s products
tended to lack the chic appeal of Target’s, Walmart had begun offering better products during the
recession of the late 2000s in an effort to expand its customer base. If Walmart executives chose to match
Target’s quality while charging lower prices, Target could find itself without a unique appeal for
customers. As 2011 continued, a big question loomed: could Target maintain its unique appeal to
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customers or would the competitive arrows launched by Walmart and others force Target’s executives to
quiver?
[1] Target Corporation to acquire interest in Canadian real estate from Zellers Inc., a subsidiary of Hudson’s Bay
Company, for C$1.825 billion [Press release]. 2011, January 13. Target Stores. Retrieved from
http://pressroom.target.com/pr/news/target-corporation-to-acquire-real-estate.aspx
[2] Target fact card. 2007, January 2007. Retrieved from
http://sites.target.com/images/corporate/about/pdfs/corp_factcard_101107.pdf
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5.1 Understanding Business-Level Strategy through “Generic
Strategies”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Understand the four primary generic strategies.
2.
Know the two dimensions that are critical to defining business-level strategy.
3.
Know the limitations of generic strategies.
Why Examine Generic Strategies?
Business-level strategy addresses the question of how a firm will compete in a particular industry (Figure
5.1 "Business-Level Strategies"). This seems to be a simple question on the surface, but it is actually quite
complex. The reason is that there are a great many possible answers to the question. Consider, for
example, the restaurants in your town or city. Chances are that you live fairly close to some combination
of McDonald’s, Subway, Chili’s, Applebee’s, Panera Bread Company, dozens of other national brands, and
a variety of locally based eateries that have just one location. Each of these restaurants competes using a
business model that is at least somewhat unique. When an executive in the restaurant industry analyzes
her company and her rivals, she needs to avoid getting distracted by all the nuances of different firm’s
business-level strategies and losing sight of the big picture.
The solution is to think about business-level strategy in terms of generic strategies. A generic strategy is a
general way of positioning a firm within an industry. Focusing on generic strategies allows executives to
concentrate on the core elements of firms’ business-level strategies. The most popular set of generic
strategies is based on the work of Professor Michael Porter of the Harvard Business School and
subsequent researchers that have built on Porter’s initial ideas.
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Figure 5.1 Business-Level Strategies
6
Images courtesy of GeneralCheese, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Remodeld_walmart.jpg (top
left); unknown author, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nordstrom.JPG (top right);
NNECAPA, http://www.flickr.com/photos/nnecapa/2794736274/(bottom left); Debs,
http://www.flickr.com/photos/littledebbie11/4537337628/ (bottom right).
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According to Porter, two competitive dimensions are the keys to business-level strategy. The first
dimension is a firm’s source of competitive advantage. This dimension involves whether a firm tries to
gain an edge on rivals by keeping costs down or by offering something unique in the market. The second
dimension is firms’ scope of operations. This dimension involves whether a firm tries to target customers
in general or whether it seeks to attract just a segment of customers. Four generic business-level strategies
emerge from these decisions: (1) cost leadership, (2) differentiation, (3) focused cost leadership, and (4)
focused differentiation. In rare cases, firms are able to offer both low prices and unique features that
customers find desirable. These firms are following a best-cost strategy. Firms that are not able to offer
low prices or appealing unique features are referred to as “stuck in the middle.”
Understanding the differences that underlie generic strategies is important because different generic
strategies offer different value propositions to customers. A firm focusing on cost leadership will have a
different value chain configuration than a firm whose strategy focuses on differentiation. For example,
marketing and sales for a differentiation strategy often requires extensive effort while some firms that
follow cost leadership such as Waffle House are successful with limited marketing efforts. This chapter
presents each generic strategy and the “recipe” generally associated with success when using that strategy.
When firms follow these recipes, the result can be a strategy that leads to superior performance. But when
firms fail to follow logical actions associated with each strategy, the result may be a value proposition
configuration that is expensive to implement and that does not satisfy enough customers to be viable.
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Limitations of Generic Strategies
Examining business-level strategy in terms of generic strategies has limitations. Firms that follow a
particular generic strategy tend to share certain features. For example, one way that cost leaders generally
keep costs low is by not spending much on advertising. Not every cost leader, however, follows this path.
While cost leaders such as Waffle House spend very little on advertising, Walmart spends considerable
money on print and television advertising despite following a cost leadership strategy. Thus a firm may
not match every characteristic that its generic strategy entails. Indeed, depending on the nature of a firm’s
industry, tweaking the recipe of a generic strategy may be essential to cooking up success.
KEY TAKEAWAY
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x
Business-level strategies examine how firms compete in a given industry. Firms derive such strategies by
executives making decisions about whether their source of competitive advantage is based on price or
differentiation and whether their scope of operations targets a broad or narrow market.
EXERCISES
1.
What are examples of each generic business-level strategy in the apparel industry?
2.
What are the limitations of examining firms in terms of generic strategies?
3.
Create a new framework to examine generic strategies using different dimensions than the two offered
by Porter’s framework. What does your approach offer that Porter’s does not?
[1] Porter, M. E. 1980. Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York, NY:
Free Press; Williamson, P. J., & Zeng, M. 2009. Value-for-money strategies for recessionary times. Harvard Business
Review, 87(3), 66–74.
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5.2 Cost Leadership
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Describe the nature of cost leadership.
2.
Understand how economies of scale help contribute to a cost leadership strategy.
3.
Know the advantages and disadvantages of a cost leadership strategy.
The Nature of the Cost Leadership Strategy
It is tempting to think of cost leaders as companies that sell inferior, poor-quality goods and services for
rock-bottom prices. The Yugo, for example, was an extremely unreliable car that was made in Eastern
Europe and sold in the United States for about $4,000. Despite its attractive price tag, the Yugo was a
dismal failure because drivers simply could not depend on the car for transportation. Yugo exited the
United States in the early 1990s and closed down entirely in 2008.
In contrast to firms such as Yugo whose failure is inevitable, cost leaders can be very successful. A firm
following a cost leadership strategy offers products or services with acceptable quality and features to a
broad set of customers at a low price. Payless ShoeSource, for example, sells name-brand shoes
at inexpensive prices. Its low-price strategy is communicated to customers through advertising slogans
such as “Why pay more when you can Payless?” and “You could pay more, but why?”
Little Debbie snack cakes offer another example. The brand was started in the 1930s when O. D.
McKee began selling sugary treats for five cents. Most consumers today would view the quality of Little
Debbie cakes as a step below similar offerings from Entenmann’s, but enough people believe that they
offer acceptable quality that the brand is still around eight decades after its creation.
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Listeners of the popular radio show Car Talk voted the Yugo as the “worst car of the millennium.”
Image courtesy of Antp, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Yugo.jpg.
Perhaps the most famous cost leader is Walmart, which has used a cost leadership strategy to become the
largest company in the world. The firm’s advertising slogans such as “Always Low Prices” and “Save
Money. Live Better” communicate Walmart’s emphasis on price slashing to potential customers.
Meanwhile, Walmart has the broadest customer base of any firm in the United States. Approximately one
hundred million Americans visit a Walmart in a typical week.
[1]
Incredibly, this means that roughly one-
third of Americans are frequent Walmart customers. This huge customer base includes people from all
demographic and social groups within society. Although most are simply typical Americans, the popular
website http://www.peopleofwalmart.com features photos of some of the more outrageous characters that
have been spotted in Walmart stores.
Cost leaders tend to share some important characteristics. The ability to charge low prices and still make a
profit is challenging. Cost leaders manage to do so by emphasizing efficiency. At Waffle House
restaurants, for example, customers are served cheap eats quickly to keep booths available for later
customers. As part of the effort to be efficient, most cost leaders spend little on advertising, market
research, or research and development. Waffle House, for example, limits its advertising to billboards
along highways. Meanwhile, the simplicity of Waffle House’s menu requires little research and
development.
Many cost leaders rely on economies of scale to achieve efficiency. Economies of scale are created when
the costs of offering goods and services decreases as a firm is able to sell more items. This occurs because
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expenses are distributed across a greater number of items. Walmart spent approximately $2 billion on
advertising in 2008. This is a huge number, but Walmart is so large that its advertising expenses equal
just a tiny fraction of its sales. Also, cost leaders are often large companies, which allows them to demand
price concessions from their suppliers. Walmart is notorious for squeezing suppliers such as Procter &
Gamble to sell goods to Walmart for lower and lower prices over time. The firm passes some of these
savings to customers in the form of reduced prices in its stores.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cost Leadership
Each generic strategy offers advantages that firms can potentially leverage to enhance their success as well
as disadvantages that may undermine their success. In the case of cost leadership, one advantage is that
cost leaders’ emphasis on efficiency makes them well positioned to withstand price competition from
rivals. Kmart’s ill-fated attempt to engage Walmart in a price war ended in disaster, in part
because Walmart was so efficient in its operations that it could live with smaller profit margins
far more easily than Kmart could.
Beyond existing competitors, a cost leadership strategy also creates benefits relative to potential new
entrants. Specifically, the presence of a cost leader in an industry tends to discourage new firms from
entering the business because a new firm would struggle to attract customers by undercutting the cost
leaders’ prices. Thus a cost leadership strategy helps create barriers to entry that protect the firm—and its
existing rivals—from new competition.
In many settings, cost leaders attract a large market share because a large portion of potential customers
find paying low prices for goods and services of acceptable quality to be very appealing. This is certainly
true for Walmart, for example. The need for efficiency means that cost leaders’ profit margins are often
slimmer than the margins enjoyed by other firms. However, cost leaders’ ability to make a little bit of
profit from each of a large number of customers means that the total profits of cost leaders can be
substantial.
In some settings, the need for high sales volume is a critical disadvantage of a cost leadership strategy.
Highly fragmented markets and markets that involve a lot of brand loyalty may not offer much of an
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opportunity to attract a large segment of customers. In both the soft drink and cigarette industries, for
example, customers appear to be willing to pay a little extra to enjoy the brand of their choice. Lower-end
brands of soda and cigarettes appeal to a minority of consumers, but famous brands such as Coca-Cola,
Pepsi, Marlboro, and Camel still dominate these markets. A related concern is that achieving a high sales
volume usually requires significant upfront investments in production and/or distribution capacity. Not
every firm is willing and able to make such investments.
Cost leaders tend to keep their costs low by minimizing advertising, market research, and research and
development, but this approach can prove to be expensive in the long run. A relative lack of market
research can lead cost leaders to be less skilled than other firms at detecting important environmental
changes. Meanwhile, downplaying research and development can slow cost leaders’ ability to respond to
changes once they are detected. Lagging rivals in terms of detecting and reacting to external shifts can
prove to be a deadly combination that leaves cost leaders out of touch with the market and out of answers.
KEY TAKEAWAY
x
Cost leadership is an effective business-level strategy to the extent that a firm offers low prices, provides
satisfactory quality, and attracts enough customers to be profitable.
EXERCISES
1.
What are three industries in which a cost leadership strategy would be difficult to implement?
2.
What is your favorite cost leadership restaurant?
3.
Name three examples of firms conducting a cost leadership strategy that use no advertising. Should they
start advertising? Why or why not?
[1] Ann Zimmerman and Kris Hudson, “Managing Wal-Mart: How US-store chief hopes to fix Wal-Mart,” Wall
Street Journal, April 17, 2006.
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5.3 Differentiation
Figure 5.4Differentiation
Images courtesy of _nickd, http://www.flickr.com/photos/_nickd/2313836162/ (top left);
Guillermo Vasquez, http://www.flickr.com/photos/megavas/3302486505/ (middle); Derek
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Hatfield, http://www.flickr.com/photos/loimere/5068068920/(bottom right); Adrian
Pingstone,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fedex.a310-200.n420fe.arp.jpg (top right);
ChunkySoup, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zoom_elite_2.png(bottom left).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Describe the nature of differentiation.
2.
Know the advantages and disadvantages of a differentiation strategy.
The Nature of the Differentiation Strategy
A famous cliché contends that “you get what you pay for.” This saying captures the essence of a
differentiation strategy. A firm following a differentiation strategy attempts to convince customers to pay
a premium price for its good or services by providing unique and desirable features (Figure 5.4
"Differentiation"). The message that such a firm conveys to customers is that you will pay a little bit more
for our offerings, but you will receive a good value overall because our offerings provide something
special.
In terms of the two competitive dimensions described by Michael Porter, using a differentiation strategy
means that a firm is competing based on uniqueness rather than price and is seeking to attract a broad
market.
[1]
Coleman camping equipment offers a good example. If camping equipment such as sleeping
bags, lanterns, and stoves fail during a camping trip, the result will be, well, unhappy campers. Coleman’s
sleeping bags, lanterns, and stoves are renowned for their reliability and durability. Cheaper brands are
much more likely to have problems. Lovers of the outdoors must pay more to purchase Coleman’s goods
than they would to obtain lesser brands, but having equipment that you can count on to keep you warm
and dry is worth a price premium in the minds of most campers.
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Coleman’s patented stove was
originally developed for use by
soldiers during World War II.
Seven decades later, the Coleman
Stove remains a must-have item for
campers.
Image courtesy of B. W. Tullis,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Patent_Drawing_for_Coleman_M
odel_520_Stove.jpg.
Successful use of a differentiation strategy depends on not only offering unique features but also
communicating the value of these features to potential customers. As a result, advertising in general and
brand building in particular are important to this strategy. Few goods are more basic and generic than
table salt. This would seemingly make creating a differentiated brand in the salt business next to
impossible. Through clever marketing, however, Morton Salt has done so. Morton has differentiated its
salt by building a brand around its iconic umbrella girl and its trademark slogan of “When it rains, it
pours.” Would the typical consumer be able to tell the difference between Morton Salt and cheaper
generic salt in a blind taste test? Not a chance. Yet Morton succeeds in convincing customers to pay a little
extra for its salt through its brand-building efforts.
FedEx and Nike are two other companies that have done well at communicating to customers that they
provide differentiated offerings. FedEx’s former slogan “When it absolutely, positively has to be there
overnight” highlights the commitment to speedy delivery that sets the firm apart from competitors such as
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UPS and the US Postal Service. Nike differentiates its athletic shoes and apparel through its iconic
“swoosh” logo as well as an intense emphasis on product innovation through research and development.
Developing a Differentiation Strategy at Express Oil Change
Express Oil Change and Service Centers is a chain of auto repair shops that stretches from Florida to
Texas. Based in Birmingham, Alabama, the firm has more than 170 company-owned and franchised
locations under its brand. Express Oil Change tries to provide a unique level of service, and the firm is
content to let rivals offer cheaper prices. We asked an Express Oil Change executive about his firm.
[2]
Question:
The auto repair and maintenance business is a pretty competitive space. How is
Express Oil Change being positioned relative to other firms, such as Super Lube,
American LubeFast, and Jiffy Lube?
Don Larose, Senior
Vice President of
Franchise
Development:
Every good business sector is competitive. The key to our success is to be more
convenient and provide a better overall experience for the customer. Express Oil
Change and Service Centers outperform the industry significantly in terms of
customer transactions per day and store sales, for a host of reasons.
In terms of customer convenience, Express Oil Change is faster than most of our competitors—we do a
ten-minute oil change while the customer stays in the car. Mothers with kids in car seats especially enjoy
this feature. We also do mechanical work that other quick lube businesses don’t do. We change and
rotate tires, do brake repairs, air conditioning, tune ups, and others. There is no appointment necessary
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for many mechanical services like tire rotation and balancing, and checking brakes. So, overall, we are
more convenient than most of our competitors.
In terms of staffing our stores, full-time workers are all that we employ. Full-time workers are better
trained and typically have less turnover. They therefore have more experience and do better quality work.
We think incentives are very important. We use a payroll system that provides incentives to the store
staff on how many cars are serviced each day and on the total sales of the store, rather than on increasing
the average transactions by selling the customer items they did not come in for, which is what most of the
industry does. We don’t sell customers things they don’t yet need, like air filters and radiator flushes. We
focus on building trust, by acting with integrity, to get the customer to come back and build the daily car
count. This philosophy is not a slogan for us. It is how we operate with every customer, in every store,
every day.
The placement of our outlets is another key factor. We place our stores in A-caliber retail locations. These
are lots that may cost more than our competitors are willing or able to pay. We get what we pay for
though; we have approximately 41% higher sales per store than the industry average.
Question:
What is the strangest interaction you’ve ever had with a potential franchisee?
Larose:
I once had a franchisee candidate in New Jersey respond to a request by us for
proof of his liquid assets by bringing to the interview about $100,000 in cash to
the meeting. He had it in a bag, with bundles of it wrapped in blue tape. Usually,
folks just bring in a copy of a bank or stock statement. Not sure why he had so
much cash on hand, literally, and I didn’t want to know. He didn’t become a
franchisee.
Express Oil Change sets itself apart through superior service and great locations.
Images courtesy of Express Oil Change
Advantages and Disadvantages of Differentiation
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Each generic strategy offers advantages that firms can potentially leverage to enjoy strong performance, as
well as disadvantages that may damage their performance. In the case of differentiation, a key advantage
is that effective differentiation creates an ability to obtain premium prices from customers.
This enables a firm to enjoy strong profit margins. Coca-Cola, for example, currently enjoys a
profit margin of approximately 33 percent, meaning that about thirty-three cents of every dollar it
collects from customers is profit. In comparison, Walmart’s cost leadership strategy delivered a margin of
under 4 percent in 2010.
In turn, strong margins mean that the firm does not need to attract huge numbers of customers to have a
good overall level of profit. Luckily for Coca-Cola, the firm does attract a great many buyers. Overall, the
firm made a profit of just under $12 billion on sales of just over $35 billion in 2010. Interestingly,
Walmart’s profits were only 25 percent higher ($15 billion) than Coca-Cola’s while its sales volume ($421
[3]
billion) was twelve times as large as Coca-Cola’s. This comparison of profit margins and overall profit
levels illustrates why a differentiation strategy is so attractive to many firms.
To the extent that differentiation remains in place over time, buyer loyalty may be created. Loyal
customers are very desirable because they are notprice sensitive. In other words, buyer loyalty makes a
customer unlikely to switch to another firm’s products if that firm tries to steal the customer away
through lower prices. Many soda drinkers are fiercely loyal to Coca-Cola’s products. Coca-Cola’s
headquarters are in Atlanta, and loyalty to the firm is especially strong in Georgia and surrounding states.
Pepsi and other brands have a hard time convincing loyal Coca-Cola fans to buy their beverages, even
when offering deep discounts. This helps keep Coca-Cola’s profits high because the firm does not have to
match any promotions that its rivals launch to keep its customers.
Meanwhile, Pepsi also has attracted a large set of brand-loyal customers that Coca-Cola struggles to steal.
This enhances Pepsi’s profits. In contrast, store-brand sodas such as Sam’s Choice (which is sold at
Walmart) seldom attract loyalty. As a result, they must be offered at very low prices to move from store
shelves into shopping carts.
Beyond existing competitors, a differentiation strategy also creates benefits relative to potential new
entrants. Specifically, the brand loyalty that customers feel to a differentiated product makes it difficult
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for a new entrant to lure these customers to adopt its product. A new soda brand, for example, would
struggle to take customers away from Coca-Cola or Pepsi. Thus a differentiation strategy helps create
barriers to entry that protect the firm and its industry from new competition.
The big risk when using a differentiation strategy is that customers will not be willing to pay extra to
obtain the unique features that a firm is trying to build its strategy around. In 2007, department store
Dillard’s stopped carrying men’s sportswear made by Nautica because the seafaring theme of Nautica’s
brand had lost much of its cache among many men.
[4]
Because Nautica’s uniqueness had eroded, Dillard’s
believed that space in its stores that Nautica had been occupying could be better allocated to other brands.
In some cases, customers may simply prefer a cheaper alternative. For example, products that imitate the
look and feel of offerings from Ray-Ban, Tommy Bahama, and Coach are attractive to many valueconscious consumers. Firms such as these must work hard at product development and marketing to
ensure that enough customers are willing to pay a premium for their goods rather than settling for
knockoffs.
In other cases, customers desire the unique features that a firm offers, but competitors are able to imitate
the features well enough that they are no longer unique. If this happens, customers have no reason to pay
a premium for the firm’s offerings. IBM experienced the pain of this scenario when executives tried to
follow a differentiation strategy in the personal computer market. The strategy had worked for IBM in
other areas. Specifically, IBM had enjoyed a great deal of success in the mainframe computer market by
providing superior service and charging customers a premium for their mainframes. A business owner
who relied on a mainframe to run her company could not afford to have her mainframe out of operation
for long. Meanwhile, few businesses had the skills to fix their own mainframes. IBM’s message to
customers was that they would pay more for IBM’s products but that this was a good investment because
when a mainframe needed repairs, IBM would provide faster and better service than its competitors
could. The customer would thus be open for business again very quickly after a mainframe failure.
This positioning failed when IBM used it in the personal computer market. Rivals such as Dell were able
to offer service that was just as good as IBM’s while also charging lower prices for personal computers
than IBM charged. From a customer’s perspective, a person would be foolish to pay more for an IBM
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personal computer since IBM did not offer anything unique. IBM steadily lost market share as a result. By
2005, IBM’s struggles led it to sell its personal computer business to Lenovo. The firm is still successful,
however, within the mainframe market where its offerings remain differentiated.
Firms following a differentiation strategy must “watch” out for counterfeit goods such as the faux
Rolexes shown here.
Image courtesy of US Customs and Border Patrol,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Counterfeit_Rolex_Watch, _dsc4577_5f270.jpg.
KEY TAKEAWAY
x
Differentiation can be an effective business-level strategy to the extent that a firm offers unique features
that convince customers to pay a premium for their goods and services.
EXERCISES
1.
What are two industries in which a differentiation strategy would be difficult to implement?
2.
What is an example of a differentiated business near your college or university?
3.
Name three ways businesses that provide entertainment that might better differentiate their services.
How might they do this?
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[1] Porter, M. E. 1980. Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York, NY:
Free Press.
[2] Excerpted from Ketchen, D. J., & Short, J. C. 2010. The franchise player: An interview with Don Larose. Journal
of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 15(4), 94–101.
[3] Profit statistics drawn from Standard & Poor’s stock reports on Coca-Cola and Walmart.
[4] Kapner, S. 2007, November 1. Nautica brand losing ground. CNNMoney. Retrieved from
http://money.cnn.com/2007/10/31/news/companies/Kapner_Nautica.fortune/index.htm
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5.4 Focused Cost Leadership and Focused Differentiation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Describe the nature of focused cost leadership and focused differentiation.
2.
Know the advantages and disadvantages of focus strategies.
Companies that use a cost leadership strategy and those that use a differentiation strategy share one
important characteristic: both groups try to be attractive to customers in general. These efforts to
appeal to broad markets can be contrasted with strategies that involve targeting a relatively narrow
niche of potential customers. These latter strategies are known as focus strategies. [1]
The Nature of the Focus Cost Leadership Strategy
Focused cost leadership is the first of two focus strategies. A focused cost leadership strategy requires
competing based on price to target a narrow market. A firm that follows this strategy does not
necessarily charge the lowest prices in the industry. Instead, it charges low prices relative to other firms that
compete within the target market. Redbox, for example, uses vending machines placed outside grocery
stores and other retail outlets to rent DVDs of movies for $1. There are ways to view movies even cheaper,
such as through the flat-fee streaming video subscriptions offered by Netflix. But among firms that rent actual
DVDs, Redbox offers unparalleled levels of low price and high convenience.
Another important point is that the nature of the narrow target market varies across firms that use a
focused cost leadership strategy. In some cases, the target market is defined by demographics. Claire’s, for
example, seeks to appeal to young women by selling inexpensive jewelry, accessories, and ear piercings.
Claire’s use of a focused cost leadership strategy has been very successful; the firm has more than three
thousand locations and has stores in 95 percent of US shopping malls.
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Redbox machines are available on university campuses nationwide.
Image courtesy of Valerie Everett, http://www.flickr.com/photos/valeriebb/2224649723.
In other cases, the target market is defined by the sales channel used to reach customers. Most pizza
shops offer sit-down service, delivery, or both. In contrast, Papa Murphy’s sells pizzas that customers cook
at home. Because these inexpensive pizzas are baked at home rather than in the store, the law allows Papa
Murphy’s to accept food stamps as payment. This allows Papa Murphy’s to attract customers that might
not otherwise be able to afford a prepared pizza. In contrast to most fast-food restaurants, Checkers Drive
In is a drive-through-only operation. To serve customers quickly, each store has two drive-through lanes:
one on either side of the building. Checkers saves money in a variety of ways by not offering indoor
seating to its customers—Checkers’ buildings are cheaper to construct, its utility costs are lower, and
fewer employees are needed. These savings allow the firm to offer large burgers at very low prices and still
remain profitable.
The Nature of the Focused Differentiation Strategy
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Focused differentiation is the second of two focus strategies. A focused differentiation strategy requires
offering unique features that fulfill the demands of a narrow market. As with a focused low-cost
strategy, narrow markets are defined in different ways in different settings. Some firms using
a focused differentiation strategy concentrate their efforts on a particular sales channel, such as
selling over the Internet only. Others target particular demographic groups. One example is Breezes Resorts,
a company that caters to couples without children. The firm operates seven tropical resorts where
vacationers are guaranteed that they will not be annoyed by loud and disruptive children.
While a differentiation strategy involves offering unique features that appeal to a variety of customers, the
need to satisfy the desires of a narrow market means that the pursuit of uniqueness is often taken to the
proverbial “next level” by firms using a focused differentiation strategy. Thus the unique features provided
by firms following a focused differentiation strategy are often specialized.
When it comes to uniqueness, few offerings can top Kopi Luwak coffee beans. High-quality coffee beans
often sell for $10 to $15 a pound. In contrast, Kopi Luwak coffee beans sell for hundreds of dollars per
pound.
[2]
This price is driven by the rarity of the beans and their rather bizarre nature. As noted in a 2010
article in the New York Times, these beans
are found in the droppings of the civet, a nocturnal, furry, long-tailed catlike animal that prowls
Southeast Asia’s coffee-growing lands for the tastiest, ripest coffee cherries. The civet eventually
excretes the hard, indigestible innards of the fruit—essentially, incipient coffee beans—though
only after they have been fermented in the animal’s stomach acids and enzymes to produce a
brew described as smooth, chocolaty and devoid of any bitter aftertaste.
[3]
Although many consumers consider Kopi Luwak to be disgusting, a relatively small group of coffee
enthusiasts has embraced the coffee and made it a profitable product. This illustrates the essence of a
focused differentiation strategy—effectively serving the specialized needs of a niche market can create
great riches.
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Larger niches are served by Whole Foods Market and Mercedes-Benz. Although most grocery stores
devote a section of their shelves to natural and organic products, Whole Foods Market works to sell such
products exclusively. For customers, the large selection of organic goods comes at a steep price. Indeed,
the supermarket’s reputation for high prices has led to a wry nickname—“Whole Paycheck”—but a sizable
number of consumers are willing to pay a premium to feel better about the food they buy.
The dedication of Mercedes-Benz to cutting-edge technology, styling, and safety innovations has made the
firm’s vehicles prized by those who are rich enough to afford them. This appeal has existing for many
decades. In 1970, acid-rocker Janis Joplin recorded a song called “Mercedes Benz” that highlighted the
automaker’s allure. Since then Mercedes-Benz has used the song in several television commercials,
including during the 2011 Super Bowl.
Janis Joplin’s musical tribute to Mercedes-Benz underscores the allure of the brand.
Image courtesy of de.wp, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S-Klasse_W221.jpg.
Developing a Focused Differentiation Strategy at Augustino LoPrinzi
Guitars and Ukuleles
Augustino LoPrinzi Guitars and Ukuleles in Clearwater, Florida, builds high-end custom instruments. The
founder of the company, Augustino LoPrinzi, has been a builder of custom guitars for five decades. While
a reasonably good mass-produced guitar can be purchased elsewhere for a few hundred dollars, LoPrinzi’s
handmade models start at $1,100, and some sell for more than $10,000. The firm’s customers have
included professional musicians such as Dan Fogelberg, Leo Kottke, Herb Ohta (Ohta-San), Lyle Ritz,
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Andrés Segovia, and B. J. Thomas. Their instruments can be found athttp://www.augustinoloprinzi.com.
We asked Augustino about his firm.
[4]
Question:
Were there other entrepreneurial opportunities you considered before you began making
guitars?
Augustino
Loprinzi:
I originally thought of pursuing a career in commercial art, but I found my true love was in
classical guitar building. I was trained by my father to be a barber from a very young age,
and after my term in the service, I opened a barbershop.
Question:
What is the most expensive guitar you’ve ever sold?
Loprinzi:
$17,500.
Question:
How old were you when you started your first business in the guitar industry?
Loprinzi:
I was in my early twenties.
Question:
How did you get your break with more famous customers?
Loprinzi:
I think word of mouth had a lot do with it.
Question:
You have been active in Japan. Do the preferences of Japanese customers differ from those
of Americans?
Loprinzi:
Yes. The Japanese want only high-end instruments. Aesthetics are very important to the
Japanese along with high-quality materials and workmanship. The US market seems to care
in general less about ornamentation and more about quality workmanship, tone, and
playability.
Question:
How do you stay ahead in your industry?
Loprinzi:
Always try to stay abreast on what the music industry is doing. We do this by reading
several music industry publications, talking with suppliers, and keeping an eye on the
trends going on in other countries because usually they come full circle. Also, for the past
several years by following the Internet forums and such has been extremely beneficial.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Focused Strategies
Each generic strategy offers advantages that firms can potentially leverage to enhance their success as well
as disadvantages that may undermine their success. In the case of focus differentiation, one advantage is
that very high prices can be charged. Indeed, these firms often price their wares far above what is charged
by firms following a differentiation strategy. REI (Recreational Equipment Inc.), for example,
commands a hefty premium for its outdoor sporting goods and clothes that feature name brands,
such as The North Face and Marmot. Nat Nast’s focus differentiation strategy
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centers on selling men’s silk camp shirts with a 1950s retro flair. These shirts retail for more than $100.
Focused cost leaders such as Checkers Drive In do not charge high prices like REI and Nat Nast do, but
their low cost structures enable them to enjoy healthy profit margins.
A second advantage of using a focus strategy is that firms often develop tremendous expertise about the
goods and services that they offer. In markets such as camping equipment where product knowledge is
important, rivals and new entrants may find it difficult to compete with firms following a focus strategy.
In terms of disadvantages, the limited demand available within a niche can cause problems. First, a firm
could find its growth ambitions stymied. Once its target market is being well served, expansion to other
markets might be the only way to expand, and this often requires developing a new set of skills. Also, the
niche could disappear or be taken over by larger competitors. Many gun stores have struggled and even
gone out of business since Walmart and sporting goods stores such as Academy Sports and Bass Pro
Shops have started carrying an impressive array of firearms.
In contrast to tacky Hawaiian
souvenirs, the quality of Kamaka
ukuleles makes them a favorite of
ukulele phenom Jake Shimabukuro
and others who are willing to pay
$1,000 or more for a high-end
instrument.
Image courtesy of
Wikimedia,http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/File:Jake_Shimabukuro.jpg.
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Finally, damaging attacks may come not only from larger firms but also from smaller ones that adopt an
even narrower focus. A sporting goods store that sells camping, hiking, kayaking, and skiing goods, for
example, might lose business to a store that focuses solely on ski apparel because the latter can provide
more guidance about how skiers can stay warm and avoid broken bones.
Strategy at the Movies
Zoolander
One man’s trash is another man’s fashion? That’s what fashion mogul Jacobim Mugatu was counting on
in the 2001 comedy Zoolander. In his continued effort to be the most cutting-edge designer in the fashion
industry, Mugatu developed a new line of clothing inspired “by the streetwalkers and hobos that surround
us.” His new product line, Derelicte, characterized by dresses made of burlap and parking cones and pants
made of garbage bags and tin cans, was developed for customers who valued the uniqueness of
his…eclectic design. Emphasizing unique products is typical of a company following a differentiation
strategy; however, Mugatu targeted a very specific set of customers. Few people would probably be
enticed to wear garbage for the sake of fashion. By catering to a niche target market, Mugatu went from a
simple differentiation strategy to a focused differentiation. Mugatu’s Derelicte campaign in Zoolander is
one illustration of how a particular firm might develop a focused differentiation strategy.
KEY TAKEAWAY
x
Focus strategies can be effective business-level strategies to the extent that a firm can match their goods
and services to specific niche markets.
EXERCISES
1.
What are three different demographics that firms might target to establish a focus strategy?
2.
What is an example of a business that you think is focused in too narrow a fashion to be successful? How
might it change to be more successful?
[1] Porter, M. E. 1980. Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York, NY:
Free Press.
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[2] http://www.catsasscoffee.com/order3.html
[3] Onishi, N. 2010, April 17. From dung to coffee brew with no aftertaste. New York Times. Retrieved
from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/18/world/asia/18civetcoffee.html?pagewanted=all
[4] Excerpted from Short, J. C. 2007. A touch of the masters’ hands: An interview with Augustino and Donna
Loprinzi. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 12, 103–109.
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5.5 Best-Cost Strategy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Describe the nature of a best-cost strategy.
2.
Understand why executing a best-cost strategy is difficult.
The Challenge of Following a Best-Cost Strategy
Some executives are not content to have their firms compete based on offering low prices or unique
features. They want it all! Firms that charge relatively low prices and offer substantial differentiation are
following a best-cost strategy. This strategy is difficult to execute in part because creating unique
features and communicating to customers why these features are useful generally
raises a firm’s costs of doing business. Product development and advertising can both be quite expensive.
However, firms that manage to implement an effective best-cost strategy are often very successful.
Target appears to be following a best-cost strategy. The firm charges prices that are relatively low among
retailers while at the same time attracting trend-conscious consumers by carrying products from famous
designers, such as Michael Graves, Isaac Mizrahi, Fiorucci, Liz Lange, and others. This is a lucrative
position for Target, but the position is under attack from all sides. Cost leader Walmart charges lower
prices than Target. This makes Walmart a constant threat to steal the thriftiest of Target’s customers.
Focus differentiators such as Anthropologie that specialize in trendy clothing and home furnishings can
take business from Target in those areas. Deep discounters such as T.J. Maxx and Marshalls offer another
viable alternative to shoppers because they offer designer clothes and furnishings at closeout prices. A
firm such as Target that uses a best-cost strategy also opens itself up to a wider variety of potentially lethal
rivals.
Developing a Best-Cost Strategy at Plain Ivey Jane
According to government statistics, women are 60 percent less likely than men to become entrepreneurs.
Meanwhile, succeeding within the specialty fashion retailing market is notoriously difficult. These trends
do not worry Sarah Reeves, a young entrepreneur and 2007 graduate of Auburn University who is rapidly
becoming a key player within the Austin, Texas, retail scene by offering high-end fashion at low prices.
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On her website (http://www.plainiveyjane.com), Sarah describes Plain Ivey Jane as “the go-to place for
women who want to elevate their wardrobes. We offer high end designer names at a discount, and the new
overstocked apparel is handpicked from over 70 different brands to offer exactly what Austin needs at a
price every girl can afford. To pair with your fabulous new wardrobe, Plain Ivey Jane carries accessories
from undiscovered local artisans.” We asked Reeves to discuss her firm.
[1]
Photo courtesy of Shanti Matulewski.
Question:
Can you tell us a little about your Plain Ivey Jane concept?
Sarah
Reeves,
Owner:
Plain Ivey Jane sells overstock from Anthropologie, Urban Outfitters, Bloomingdales, and
other high-end and small designers. Although I buy from the same designers as the big and
famous retailers, our dresses and accessories are sold at a fraction of their prices.
Question:
What differentiates your boutique from competitors?
Reeves:
I’m one of the lowest-priced retailers in the shopping district that people in Austin call the
Second Street area. My niche in the fashion retailing business is that my merchandise is
overstock from great brands. There’s maybe one other business in Austin that sells
overstock. What makes my concept different is that it has the feel of a high-end retail store
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versus a basement feel of the typical discount retailer.
Question:
Do have a lot of regular customers?
Reeves:
Yes. Once people find out what I offer, they’re in here all the time. I see the same group of
people every few months, but getting in new faces is the challenge. I think a lot of people
walk by and assume that our clothes are expensive, but nothing could be further from the
truth.
Question:
Were you fearful of starting your own business so young?
Reeves:
No, I figured this was a great time since I had nothing to lose. I thought getting it out of my
system now was a good idea, and it was a good time since I was able to get a great deal on
my lease. With the downturn in the economy, the time was right for my lower-priced
strategy.
Question:
What would you say is the biggest key to success for small business?
Reeves:
Flexibility. Rolling with the punches and definitely the ability to follow up with people. I
thought that people who owned their own business must know what they are doing, but
many people don’t. At this point, I prefer to do everything myself. At least I can blame
myself when things go wrong.
Another key is networking with other small-business owners. A lot of the other boutique owners nearby
have become close friends. I learn what works for them and what might possibly apply to my concept.
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The success that 2007 college graduate Sarah Reeves has enjoyed with Plain Ivey Jane may inspire
other young women to become entrepreneurs.
Photo courtesy of Shanti Matulewski.
Figure 5.10 Driving toward a Best-Cost Strategy by Reducing Overhead
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Images courtesy of Kari Sullivan,http://www.flickr.com/photos/ilovemypit/3726649397/ (top
left); Sarah B. Brooks, http://www.flickr.com/photos/foodclothingshelter/4753507671/(bottom
left); Samantha Marx,http://www.flickr.com/photos/spam/5166429482/
Pursuing the Best-Cost Strategy through a Low-Overhead Business Model
One route toward a best-cost strategy is for a firm to adopt a business model whose fixed costs and
overhead are very low relative to the costs that competitors are absorbing (Figure 5.10 "Driving toward a
Best-Cost Strategy by Reducing Overhead"). The Internet has helped make this possible for some firms.
Amazon, for example, can charge low prices in part because it does not have to endure the expenses that
firms such as Walmart and Target do in operating many hundreds of stores. Meanwhile, Amazon offers an
unmatched variety of goods. This combination has made Amazon the unquestioned leader in e-commerce.
Another example is Netflix. This firm is able to offer customers a far greater variety of movies and charge
lower prices than video rental stores by conducting all its business over the Internet and via mail. Netflix’s
best-cost strategy has been so successful that $10,000 invested in the firm’s stock in May 2006 was worth
more than $90,000 five years later.
[2]
Hey Cupcake! in Austin, Texas, is a low-overhead bakery that has become a delicious success.
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Image courtesy of Evan Bench, http://www.flickr.com/photos/austinevan/3237785474.
Moving toward a best-cost strategy by dramatically reducing expenses is also possible for firms that
cannot rely on the Internet as a sales channel. Owning a restaurant requires significant overhead costs,
such as rent and utilities. Some talented chefs are escaping these costs by taking their food to the streets.
Food trucks that serve high-end specialty dishes at very economical prices are becoming a popular trend
in cities around the country. In Portland, Oregon, a food truck called the Ninja Plate Lunch offers large
portions of delectable Hawaiian foods such as pulled pork for around $5. Another Portland food truck is
PBJ’s, whose unique and inexpensive sandwiches often center on organic peanut butter. Beyond keeping
costs low, the mobility of food trucks offers important advantages over a traditional restaurant. Some food
trucks set up outside big-city nightclubs, for example, to sell partygoers a late-night snack before they
head home.
KEY TAKEAWAY
x
A best-cost strategy can be an effective business-level strategy to the extent that a firm offers
differentiated goods and services at relatively low prices.
EXERCISES
1.
What is an example of an industry that you think a best-cost strategy could be successful? How would you
differentiate a company to achieve success in this industry?
2.
What is an example of a firm following a best-cost strategy near your college or university?
[1] Excerpted from Ketchen, D. J., & Short, J. C. Forthcoming. The discount diva: An interview with Sarah
Reeves. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship.
[2] Statistics drawn from Standard & Poor’s stock report on Netflix.
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5.6 Stuck in the Middle
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Describe the problem of being stuck in the middle of different generic strategies.
2.
Understand why trying to please everyone often creates problems when crafting a business-level
strategy.
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Images courtesy of F33, http://www.flickr.com/photos/f33/3204789700/(top right); Ethan
Prater,http://www.flickr.com/photos/eprater/4592959910/ (top left);
Caldorwards4,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Big_Kmart,_Ontario,_Oregon_2006.jpeg(botto
m right); Rachel P. Maines, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sears__Aids_That_Every_Woman_Appreciates.jpg (bottom left).
Stuck in the Middle: Neither Inexpensive nor Differentiated
Some firms fail to effectively pursue one of the generic strategies. A firm is said to be stuck in the middle if
it does not offer features that are unique enough to convince customers to buy its offerings, and its prices
are too high to compete effectively based on price. Arby’s appears to be a good example.
Arby’s signature roast beef sandwiches are neither cheaper than other fast-food
sandwiches nor standouts in taste. Firms that are stuck in the middle generally perform poorly because
they lack a clear market or competitive pricing. Perhaps not surprisingly, parent company Wendy’s has
been trying to sell Arby’s despite having recently acquired the company in 2008. Stockholders apparently
agreed with the plan to cut Arby’s loose—the price of Wendy’s stock rose 7 percent the day the plan was
announced.
[1]
Doing Everything Means Doing Nothing Well
Michael Porter has noted that strategy is as much about executives deciding what a firm is not going to do
[2]
as it is about deciding what the firm is going to do. In other words, a firm’s business-level strategy
should not involve trying to serve the varied needs of different segment of customers in an industry. No
firm could possibly pull this off.
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This illustration from 1887 captures the lesson of Aesop’s fable “The Miller, His Son, and Their Ass”—a lesson that
executives need to follow.
Image courtesy of Walter Crane,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Can%27t_please_everyone2.jpg.
The fable “The Miller, His Son, and Their Ass” told by the ancient Greek storyteller Aesop helps illustrate
this idea. In this tale, a miller and his son were driving their ass (donkey) to market for sale. They soon
encountered a group of girls who mocked them for walking instead of riding. The father then told his son
to ride the animal. Not long after, father and son overheard a man claim that young people had no respect
for the elderly. On hearing this opinion, the father told the boy to dismount the animal and he began to
ride. They progressed a short distance farther and met a company of women and children. Several of the
women suggested that it was both ridiculous and lazy for the father to ride while the young son was forced
to walk alone; once again the two changed positions. Another bystander suggested that they could not
believe that the man was the owner of the beast, judging from the way it was weighted down. In fact, it
would make more sense for the man and his son to carry the ass. On hearing this, the father and his son
tied the animal’s legs together and carried it on a pole. As they crossed a bridge near town, the
townspeople began to gather and laugh at the unorthodox sight. The noise and the chaos frightened the
beast, leading it to thrash around until it tumbled into the river. With tongue in cheek, we note that the
moral of the story is that if you try to please everyone, you may lose your ass.
[3]
Getting Outmaneuvered by Competitors
In many cases, firms become stuck in the middle not because executives fail to arrive at a well-defined
strategy but because firms are simply outmaneuvered by their rivals. After six decades as an electronics
retailer, Circuit City went out of business in 2009. The firm had simply lost its appeal to customers. Rival
electronics retailer Best Buy offered comparable prices to Circuit City’s prices, but the former offered
much better customer service. Meanwhile, the service offered by discount retailers such as Walmart and
Target on electronics were no better that Circuit City’s, but their prices were better.
The results were predictable—customers who made electronics purchases based on the service they
received went to Best Buy, and value-driven buyers patronized Walmart and Target. Circuit City’s demise
was probably inevitable because it lacked a competitive advantage within the electronics business.
Although Target was on the winning end of this battle, Target executives need to worry that their firm
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could become stuck in the middle between Walmart’s better prices on one side and the trendiness of
specialty shops on the other.
IBM’s personal computer business offers another example. IBM tried to position its personal computers
via a differentiation strategy. In particular, IBM’s personal computers were offered at high prices, and the
firm promised to offer excellent service to customers in return. Unfortunately for IBM, rivals such as Dell
were able to provide equal levels of service while selling computers at lower prices. Nothing made IBM’s
computers stand out from the crowd, and the firm eventually exited the business.
At its peak in the mid-2000s, Movie Gallery operated approximately 4,700 video rental stores. By 2010,
the firm was dead. This rapid demise can be traced to the firm becoming outmaneuvered by Netflix. When
Netflix began offering inexpensive DVD rentals through the mail, customers defected in droves from
Movie Gallery and other video rental stores such as Blockbuster. Netflix customers were delighted by the
firm’s low prices, vast selection, and the convenience of not having to visit a store to select and return
videos. Movie Gallery was stuck in the middle—its prices were higher than those of Netflix, and Netflix’s
service was superior. Once individuals lacked a compelling reason to be Movie Gallery customers, the
firm’s fate was sealed.
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Netflix and Redbox have left video rental stores such as Movie Gallery and Blockbuster stuck in the
middle. Blockbuster filed for bankruptcy in late 2010.
Image courtesy of Stu pendousmat,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BlockbusterMoncton.JPG.
KEY TAKEAWAY
x
When executing a business-level strategy, a firm must not become stuck in the middle between viable
generic business-level strategies by neither offering unique features nor competitive pricing.
EXERCISES
1.
What is an example of a firm that you would consider to be “stuck in the middle”? What would your
advice be to the executives in charge of this firm?
2.
Research a company that has gone bankrupt or otherwise stopped operations in the past decade because
their strategy was “stuck in the middle” of otherwise viable generic business-level strategies. Could its
demise have been prevented?
[1] McWilliams, J. 2011, January 21. Wendy’s/Arby’s to try to sell Arby’s. Atlantic Journal-Constitution. Retrieved
from http://www.ajc.com/business/wendys-arbys-to- try-810320.html
[2] Porter, M. E. 1996. What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, reprint 96608.
[3] Excerpted from Short, J. C., & Ketchen, D. J. 2005. Using classic literature to teach timeless truths: An
illustration using Aesop’s fables to teach strategic management.Journal of Management Education, 29(6), 816–
832.
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5.7 Conclusion
This chapter explains generic business-level strategies that executives select to keep their firms
competitive. Executives must select their firm’s source of competitive advantage by choosing to
compete based on low-cost versus more expensive features that differentiate their firm from
competitors. In addition, targeting either a narrow or broad market helps firms further understand
their customer base. Based on these choices, firms will follow cost leadership, differentiation,
focused cost leadership, or focused differentiation strategies. Another potentially viable business
strategy, best cost, exists when firms offer relatively low prices while still managing to differentiate
their goods or services on some important value-added aspects. All firms can fall victim to being
“stuck in the middle” by not offering unique features or competitive prices.
EXERCISES
1.
Divide your class into four or eight groups, depending on the size of the class. Each group should select a
different industry. Find examples of each generic business-level strategy for your industry. Discuss which
strategy seems to be the most successful in your selected industry.
2.
This chapter discussed Target and other retailers. If you were assigned to turn around a struggling retailer
such as Kmart, what actions would you take to revive the company?
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Chapter 6
Supporting the Business-Level Strategy: Competitive
and Cooperative Moves
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand and articulate answers to the following
questions:
1.
What different competitive moves are commonly used by firms?
2.
When and how do firms respond to the competitive actions taken by their rivals?
3.
What moves can firms make to cooperate with other firms and create mutual benefits?
Can Merck Stay Healthy?
On June 7, 2011, pharmaceutical giant Merck & Company Inc. announced the formation of a strategic
alliance with Roche Holding AG, a smaller pharmaceutical firm that is known for excellence in medical
testing. The firms planned to work together to create tests that could identify cancer patients who might
benefit from cancer drugs that Merck had under development.
[1]
This was the second alliance formed between the companies in less than a month. On May 16, 2011, the
US Food and Drug Administration approved a drug called Victrelis that Merck had developed to treat
hepatitis C. Merck and Roche agreed to promote Victrelis together. This surprised industry experts
because Merck and Roche had offered competing treatments for hepatitis C in the past. The Merck/Roche
alliance was expected to help Victrelis compete for market share with a new treatment called Incivek that
was developed by a team of two other pharmaceutical firms: Vertex and Johnson & Johnson.
Experts predicted that Victrelis’s wholesale price of $1,100 for a week’s supply could create $1 billion of
annual revenue. This could be an important financial boost to Merck, although the company was already
enormous. Merck’s total of $46 billion in sales in 2010 included approximately $5.0 billion in revenues
from asthma treatment Singulair, $3.3 billion for two closely related diabetes drugs, $2.1 billion for two
closely related blood pressure drugs, and $1.1 billion for an HIV/AIDS treatment.
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Despite these impressive numbers, concerns about Merck had reduced the price of the firm’s stock from
nearly $60 per share at the start of 2008 to about $36 per share by June 2011. A big challenge for Merck
is that once the patent on a drug expires, its profits related to that drug plummet because generic
drugmakers can start selling the drug. The patent on Singulair is set to expire in the summer of 2012, for
example, and a sharp decline in the massive revenues that Singulair brings into Merck seemed
inevitable.
[2]
A major step in the growth of Merck was the 2009 acquisition of drugmaker Schering-Plough. By 2011,
Merck ranked fifty-third on the Fortune 500 list of America’s largest companies. Rivals Pfizer (thirty-first)
and Johnson & Johnson (fortieth) still remained much bigger than Merck, however. Important questions
also loomed large. Would the competitive and cooperative moves made by Merck’s executives keep the
firm healthy? Or would expiring patents, fearsome rivals, and other challenges undermine Merck’s
vitality?
Friedrich Jacob Merck had no idea that he was setting the stage for such immense stakes when he took
the first steps toward the creation of Merck. He purchased a humble pharmacy in Darmstadt, Germany, in
1688. In 1827, the venture moved into the creation of drugs when Heinrich Emanuel Merck, a descendant
of Friedrich, created a factory in Darmstadt in 1827. The modern version of Merck was incorporated in
1891. More than three hundred years after its beginnings, Merck now has approximately ninety-four
thousand employees.
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Merck’s origins can be traced back more than three centuries to Friedrich Jacob Merck’s purchase
of this pharmacy in 1688.
Image courtesy of
Wikimedia,http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/ENGEL_APHOTHEKE.png.
For executives leading firms such as Merck, selecting a generic strategy is a key aspect of business-level
strategy, but other choices are very important too. In their ongoing battle to make their firms more
successful, executives must make decisions about what competitive moves to make, how to respond to
rivals’ competitive moves, and what cooperative moves to make. This chapter discusses some of the more
powerful and interesting options. As our opening vignette on Merck illustrates, often another company,
such as Roche, will be a potential ally in some instances and a potential rival in others.
[1] Stynes, T. 2011, June 7. Merck, Roche focus on tests for cancer treatments. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from
online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240527023044323045 76371491785709756.html?mod=googlenews_wsj
[2] Statistics drawn from Standard & Poor’s stock report on Merck.
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6.1 Making Competitive Moves
Figure 6.1 Making Competitive Moves
Image courtesy of 663highland, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enchoen27n3200.jpg
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.
Understand the advantages and disadvantages of being a first mover.
2.
Know how disruptive innovations can change industries.
3.
Describe two ways that using foothold can benefit firms.
4.
Explain how firms can win without fighting using a blue ocean strategy.
5.
Describe the creative process of bricolage.
Being a First Mover: Advantages and Disadvantages
A famous cliché contends that “the early bird gets the worm.” Applied to the business world, the cliché
suggests that certain benefits are available to a first mover into a market that will not be available to later
entrants (Figure 6.1 "Making Competitive Moves"). A first-mover advantage exists when making the
initial move into a market allows a firm to establish a dominant position that other firms struggle to
overcome. For example, Apple’s creation of a user-friendly, small computer in the early 1980s helped
fuel a reputation for creativity and innovation that persists today. Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC)
was able to develop a strong bond with Chinese officials by being the first Western restaurant chain
to enter China. Today, KFC is the leading Western fast-food chain in this rapidly growing market.
Genentech’s early development of biotechnology allowed it to overcome many of the
pharmaceutical industry’s traditional entry barriers (such as financial capital and distribution networks)
and become a profitable firm. Decisions to be first movers helped all three firms to be successful in their
respective industries.
[1]
On the other hand, a first mover cannot be sure that customers will embrace its offering, making a first
move inherently risky. Apple’s attempt to pioneer the personal digital assistant market, through its
Newton, was a financial disaster. The first mover also bears the costs of developing the product and
educating customers. Others may learn from the first mover’s successes and failures, allowing them to
cheaply copy or improve the product. In creating the Palm Pilot, for example, 3Com was able to build on
Apple’s earlier mistakes. Matsushita often refines consumer electronic products, such as compact disc
players and projection televisions, after Sony or another first mover establishes demand. In many
industries, knowledge diffusion and public-information requirements make such imitation increasingly
easy.
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One caution is that first movers must be willing to commit sufficient resources to follow through on their
pioneering efforts. RCA and Westinghouse were the first firms to develop active-matrix LCD display
technology, but their executives did not provide the resources needed to sustain the products spawned by
this technology. Today, these firms are not even players in this important business segment that supplies
screens for notebook computers, camcorders, medical instruments, and many other products.
To date, the evidence is mixed regarding whether being a first mover leads to success. One research study
of 1,226 businesses over a fifty-five-year period found that first movers typically enjoy an advantage over
rivals for about a decade, but other studies have suggested that first moving offers little or no advantages.
Perhaps the best question that executives can ask themselves when deciding whether to be a first mover
is, how likely is this move to provide my firm with a sustainable competitive advantage? First moves that
build on strategic resources such as patented technology are difficult for rivals to imitate and thus are
likely to succeed. For example, Pfizer enjoyed a monopoly in the erectile dysfunction market for five years
with its patented drug Viagra before two rival products (Cialis and Levitra) were developed by other
pharmaceutical firms. Despite facing stiff competition, Viagra continues to raise about $1.9 billion in sales
for Pfizer annually.
[2]
In contrast, E-Trade Group’s creation in 2003 of the portable mortgage seemed doomed to fail because it
did not leverage strategic resources. This innovation allowed customers to keep an existing mortgage
when they move to a new home. Bigger banks could easily copy the portable mortgage if it gained
customer acceptance, undermining E-Trade’s ability to profit from its first move.
Disruptive Innovation
Some firms have the opportunity to shake up their industry by introducing a disruptive innovation—an
innovation that conflicts with, and threatens to replace, traditional approaches to competing within an
industry. The iPad has proved to be a disruptive innovation since its introduction by Apple in 2010.
Many individuals quickly abandoned clunky laptop computers in favor of the sleek tablet format offered
by the iPad. And as a first mover, Apple was able to claim a large share of the market.
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The iPad story is unusual, however. Most disruptive innovations are not overnight sensations. Typically, a
small group of customers embrace a disruptive innovation as early adopters and then a critical mass of
customers builds over time. An example is digital cameras. Few photographers embraced digital cameras
initially because they took pictures slowly and offered poor picture quality relative to traditional film
cameras. As digital cameras have improved, however, they have gradually won over almost everyone that
takes pictures. Executives who are deciding whether to pursue a disruptive innovation must first make
sure that their firm can sustain itself during an initial period of slow growth.
Footholds
In warfare, many armies establish small positions in geographic territories that they have not occupied
previously. These footholds provide value in at least two ways. First, owning a
foothold can dissuade other armies from attacking in the region. Second, owning a foothold gives an army
a quick strike capability in a territory if the army needs to expand its reach.
Similarly, some organizations find it valuable to establish footholds in certain markets. Within the context
of business, a foothold is a small position that a firm intentionally establishes within a market in which it
[3]
does not yet compete. Swedish furniture seller IKEA is a firm that relies on footholds. When IKEA enters
a new country, it opens just one store. This store is then used as a showcase to establish IKEA’s brand.
Once IKEA gains brand recognition in a country, more stores are established.
[4]
Pharmaceutical giants such as Merck often obtain footholds in emerging areas of medicine. In December
2010, for example, Merck purchased SmartCells Inc., a company that was developing a possible new
treatment for diabetes. In May 2011, Merck acquired an equity stake in BeiGene Ltd., a Chinese firm that
was developing novel cancer treatments and detection methods. Competitive moves such as these offer
Merck relatively low-cost platforms from which it can expand if clinical studies reveal that the treatments
are effective.
Blue Ocean Strategy
It is best to win without fighting.
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Sun-Tzu, The Art of War
A blue ocean strategy involves creating a new, untapped market rather than competing with rivals in an
existing market.
[5]
This strategy follows the approach recommended by the ancient master of strategy
Sun-Tzu in the quote above. Instead of trying to outmaneuver its competition, a firm using a blue ocean
strategy tries to make the competition irrelevant. Baseball legend Wee Willie Keeler offered a similar idea
when asked how to become a better hitter: “Hit ’em where they ain’t.” In other words, hit the baseball where
there are no fielders rather than trying to overwhelm the fielders with a ball hit directly at them.
Nintendo openly acknowledges following a blue ocean strategy in its efforts to invent new markets. In
2006, Perrin Kaplan, Nintendo’s vice president of marketing and corporate affairs for Nintendo of
America noted in an interview, “We’re making games that are expanding our base of consumers in Japan
and America. Yes, those who’ve always played games are still playing, but we’ve got people who’ve never
played to start loving it with titles like Nintendogs, Animal Crossing and Brain Games. These games are
blue ocean in action.”
[6]
Other examples of companies creating new markets include FedEx’s invention of
the fast-shipping business and eBay’s invention of online auctions.
Bricolage
Bricolage is a concept that is borrowed from the arts and that, like blue ocean strategy, stresses moves that
create new markets. Bricolage means using whatever materials and resources happen to be available as
the inputs into a creative process. A good example is offered by one of the greatest inventions in the
history of civilization: the printing press. As noted in the Wall Street Journal, “The printing press is a
classic combin...
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