Please read the power point 4 file and answer this 4 question but please full answer
1. In previous class lectures, we discussed using different types of individual assessment
methods to measure academic performance (i.e. reading, math, writing), to inform
teaching and learning, and to determine eligibility for Specific Learning Disability.
Please describe the differences between Norm Referenced and Criterion Referenced
assessment tests.
a. Define each.
b. What is the primary purpose of each assessment?
c. What are the roles of each assessment in special education?
2. With your knowledge of multitiered support, please define Response to Intervention
(RTI). What are the three processes?
3. If a student was having reading difficulties in the classroom and you were assigned to
assess their patterns of strengthens and weaknesses, what “Big Five” areas of reading
would you assess?What type of assessment would you use to assess the students’
difficulties (e.g. Criterion referenced or Normed referenced) and why?
4. What are the four steps in the Instructional Hierarchy? Please list and describe each of
the four steps and identify an effective strategy that would help a student learn at each
step.
Introduction to Assessment
and Intervention
Psychoeducational Assessment
January 29, 2015
Questions, Comments, Concerns…
In the article about math difficulties it mentions reading and math skills depending highly on
stored knowledge. Is there an assessment that can analyze and measure how much an
individual can remember, and how long it takes for them to remember something? After
assessing those students and getting the results about their capacity, Is there a way to
enhance to a student’s capacity?
The WIAT can be exceedingly lengthy. What are some tips when assessing younger children
who are antsy?
In this week's reading a concern I had was that if the content of these curriculum based
assessments and measurement are based on the idea that "one should test what one
teaches." Curriculum vary across districts and even across schools, so how can it be a direct
measurement and evaluation on what is being taught if schools with limited resources or in
certain areas are not provided with the same resources as their counterparts in "wealthier"
neighborhoods?
How do curriculum based assessments address the discrepancies between school districts when they
have different benchmarks, different courses and their own time frames to cover the material?
Are there alternative solutions for schools who do not have the resources or personnel to deliver
certain interventions? Is their option to use possibly less effective interventions that are more
feasible?
Purpose of Academic Assessment
To measure academic performance, especially on basic academic skills (i.e.,
reading, math, writing)
To inform teaching and learning
To determine eligibility criteria for specific learning disability
Types of Individual Assessment Methods
Norm-Referenced Tests
Items sample specific academic skills within a content area
Scores are derived by comparing the student’s performance to that of a same-age/samegrade norm group
Primary purpose: deciding the relative standing of an individual within a peer group
Have the potential to contribute to decisions regarding special education eligibilty
Criterion-Referenced Test
Examine mastery of specific skills
Comparison of student’s performance against an absolute standard
May be helpful for screening decisions
Can contribute to identification of target areas for educational intervention
Basic Assumptions in Addressing
Academic Problems (Lentz & Shapiro, 1985)
Assessment must reflect an evaluation of the behavior in the natural
environment.
Assessment should be idiographic rather than nomothetic.
What is taught and expected to be learned should be what is tested.
The results of the assessment should be strongly related to planning
interventions.
Assessment methods should be appropriate for continuous monitoring of
student progress, so that intervention strategies can be altered as indicated.
Measures used need to be based upon empirical research and have adequate
validity.
Measures should be useful in making many types of educational decisions.
Curriculum-Based Assessment
Direct assessment of academic skills
Underlying assumption: One should test what one teaches
General Outcome Measurement
Use standardized measures with acceptable levels of reliability and validity
Typically presented as brief, timed samples of performance
Primary objective: to index long-term growth in the curriculum and across a wide range
of skills
Specific Subskill-Mastery Models
Criterion-referenced and usually based on the development of a skills hierarchy
Not standardized because a shift in measurement is required with the teaching of each
new objective
Primary objective: to determine whether students are meeting short-term instructional
objectives of the curriculum
Curriculum Based Assessment vs. NormReferenced Tests
Direct Interventions for Academic
Problems
Interventions are considered direct if the responses targeted for change are
identical to those observed in the natural environment
Derived from three types of empirical research
Relationship of time variables to academic performance
Increased active engaged time (e.g., opportunities to respond) related to increased
academic performance
Performance models of instruction
Academic enablers – motivation, academic engagement, study skills
Instructional environment – teacher instruction, feedback, reinforcement
Effective instructional design
Direct instruction approach
Research Supported Characteristics of
Effective, Intensive Academic Interventions
Explicit Instruction
Instructional Level or Appropriate Level of Challenge
Characterized by systematic scaffolds including high levels of modeling, guided and
independent practice, and structured feedback
Match between the required task’s difficulty and the student’s performance
Frequent Opportunities to Respond
Practice helps students retain newly learned information
Targeted Based on Student Skill
Feedback
Instructional Hierarchy
Acquisition
Student has begun how to complete the target skill correctly, but is not yet accurate or fluent
Intervention goal: improving accuracy
Fluency
Student is able to complete the target skill accurately, but works slowly
Intervention goal: increasing speed of responding (fluency)
Generalization
Student is accurate and fluent in using the target skill, but does not typically use it in different
situations or settings
Intervention goal: using the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations or
accurately discriminating between the target skill and similar skills
Adaptation
Student is accurate and fluent in the target skill and uses it in different settings, but cannot
adapt the skill to fit novel task demands or situations
Intervention goal: identify elements of previously learned skills that can be adapted to new
demands or situations
Matching Intervention to Student
Learning Stage
Learning Stage
Acquisition
Exit goal: The student can
perform the skill accurately
with little adult support.
Student “Look fors”
• Is just beginning to
learn skill
• Not yet able to
perform learning task
reliably or with a high
level of accuracy
Effective Strategies
• Active demonstration
of target skill
• “Think-aloud”
strategies
• Models of correct
performance to consult
as needed
• Feedback about
correct performance
• Praise and
encouragement for
effort
Matching Intervention to Student
Learning Stage
Learning Stage
Student “Look Fors”
Fluency
• Gives accurate
Exit goal: The student (a)
responses to learning
has learned skill well
task
enough to retain, (b) had • Performs learning task
learned skill well enough
slowly and haltingly
to combine with other
skills, and (c) is as fluent
as peers.
Effective Strategies
• Structured learning
activities to give
opportunity for active
responding
• Frequent opportunities
to drill and practice
• Feedback on fluency
and accuracy of
performance
• Praise and
encouragement for
increased fluency
Matching Intervention to Student
Learning
Learning Stage
Student “Look Fors”
Generalization
• Is accurate and fluent
Exit goal: The student (a)
in responding
uses the skill across
• May fail to apply new
settings and situations
skill to new situations
and (b) does not confuse
and setting
target skill with similar
• May confuse target
skills.
skill with similar skills
Effective Strategies
• Structured academic
tasks to use the
academic skill
regularly in
assignments
• Encouragement,
praise, and reinforcers
for using skill in new
settings
• Identify tasks to do
outside of school to
practice target skill
Matching Intervention to Student
Learning
Learning Stage
Adaptation
Exit goal: The adaptation
phase is continuous and
has no exit criteria.
Student “Look Fors”
• Is fluent and accurate
in skill
• Applies skill in novel
situations/settings
without prompting
• Does not yet modify
the skill as needed to
fit new situations
Effective Strategies
• Identifying core
element(s) of target
skill to modify to face
novel tasks/situations
• Opportunities to
practice target skill
with modest
accommodations in
new settings with
encouragement,
corrective feedback,
and praise
Introduction to Curriculum
Based Measurement
Psychoeducational Assessment
April 2, 2015
Activity – KWL Chart
What do you…
Know about curriculum based assessment/measurement?
Want to know about curriculum based assessment/measurement?
What is Curriculum Based Assessment
(CBA)?
Procedure for determining the instructional needs of students based on the
student’s ongoing performance in existing course content
CBA is…
Repeated frequently throughout the year
Used as the basis for educational decision making and student planning
CBA is not designed to…
Replace norm-referenced achievement test batteries
Supplant current service delivery models for eligibility
Be the primary means of assessment in the content areas
What Can CBA Do?
Serve as effective means for providing evaluation prior to placement in
special education programs
Determine whether a student is accurately placed in curriculum materials
Assist in developing strategies for remediation of academic problems
Suggest changes in the instructional environment that may improve the
student’s performance
Provide a means for setting IEP short and long term goals for students in
special education programs
Provide a method for monitoring progress and performance of students across
time
What Can CBA Do?
Provide an empirical method for determining when an intervention is
effective or not
Make the assessment relevant to what the child has been expected to learn in
the curriculum
Provide a potential strategy for screening students
Offer an empirical method for deciding whether a student needs to move to a
more restrictive setting
Provide accountability for teachers and psychologists when making eligibility
decisions
Attributes of CBA/M
Alignment
Technical adequacy
Criterion-referenced measures
Standard procedures
Performance sampling
Decision rules
Repeated measurement
Efficiency
Types of Curriculum Based Assessment
General Outcome Measures/CBM
Specific Subskills Mastery
Two Models of CBA – General Outcome
Measurement
Standardized measures that have acceptable levels of reliability and validity
Standardized administration procedures
Emphasis on basic skill performance highly correlated to comprehension
and higher level skills
Primary objective – progress monitoring
Sample Progress Monitoring Data
Areas Typically Assessed Using CBA/M
Reading
Spelling
Number of words spelled correctly
Number of correct letter sequences
Writing
Oral reading fluency (words read/minute)
Maze passage fluency (3 minutes; number of maze words correct/minute)
Number of words written
Correct word sequences
Math
Computation fluency (digits correct/minute)
Concepts and applications
Two Models of CBA – Specific Sub-skills
Mastery
Criterion-referenced
Based on the development of a skills hierarchy
Primary objective – suggestions for instructional modification
Blankenship’s (1985) Model of CBA
Student performance evaluated on individual instructional objectives
Testing on similar objectives repeated over several days
Done to provide stable indications of student performance
Used to derive instructional objectives
Periodic assessment used to determine whether the student has mastered the
content
Developing a CBA Probe
List the skills presented in the material selected
Examine the list to see if all important skills are presented
Write an objective for each skill on the list
Prepare items to test each listed objective
Prepare testing materials for student use
Plan how the CBA will be given
Administering a CBA Probe
Give the CBA immediately prior to beginning instruction on a topic
Study the results to determine….
◦
◦
◦
Re-administer the CBA after instruction and study the results to determine….
◦
◦
◦
Which students have already mastered the skills
Which students have the prerequisite skills
Which students lack mastery of the prerequisite skills
Which students have mastered the skills
Which students are making sufficient progress
Which students are making insufficient progress
Periodically re-administer the CBA throughout the year to assess for long term
retention
Activity – KWL Chart (revisited)
What did you Learn about curriculum based assessment/measurement?
Reading CBM
Administration and Scoring
Fluency = Automaticity with the Code
What is it?
The
ability to quickly and accurately apply letter-sound
correspondence to reading connected text.
Automaticity provides an overall indicator of student
growth and development in reading skills.
What is it not?
Oral
reading fluency will not tell you everything you
need to know about student reading performance.
However, there is a strong relationship between oral
reading fluency and comprehension.
Automaticity with the Code
When should Automaticity with the Code be assessed?
Oral reading fluency in connected text can begin for all students in Winter of first
grade.
All students should be assessed a minimum three times per year to ensure
adequate progress toward end of year reading goals.
Students who are identified as at risk of reading difficulty should be
monitored at least 1x/month to ensure effectiveness of intervention and to
allow for timely instructional changes
Qualitative Features of Good Reading
Is highly fluent (speed and accuracy)?
Uses effective strategies to decode words?
Adjust pacing (i.e., slows down and speeds up according to level of text
difficulty)?
Attends to prosodic features?
Inflection (pause, voice goes up and down)
Punctuation (commas, exclamation points, etc.)
Predicts level of expression according to syntax
Possesses prediction-orientation?
Seems to look ahead when reading
Reads at a sentence or paragraph level
Qualitative Features of Good Reading
Self-monitors what she/he is reading?
Self-corrects if makes meaning distortion errors
Makes only meaning preservation errors?
More errors that preserve meaning (e.g., “house” for “home”)
Fewer meaning distortion errors (e.g., “mouse” for “house.”)
Automaticity on reread words.
Words that appear throughout text are read automatically (e.g., become “sight
words”)
CBM Administration & Scoring
Procedures
Materials
Unnumbered copy of passage (student copy)
Numbered copy of passage (examiner copy)
Stopwatch
Tape recorder (optional)
Directions
1.
Place the unnumbered copy in front of the student.
2.
Place the numbered copy in front of you but shielded so the student cannot
see what you record.
3.
Say these specific directions to the student for the first passage:
When I say “begin,” start reading aloud at the top of the page. Read
across the page (DEMOSTRATE). Try to read each word. If you come to a
word you don’t know, I’ll tell it to you. Be sure to do your best reading.
Directions
(continued)
4.
Say “Begin” and start your stopwatch when the student says the first word. If
the student fails to say the first word of the passage after 3 seconds, tell
them the word and mark it as incorrect, then start your stopwatch.
5.
Follow along on your copy. Put a slash (/) through words read incorrectly.
6.
If a student stops or struggles with a word for 3 seconds, tell the student the
word and mark it as incorrect.
7.
After 1-minute, place a bracket ( ] ) after the last word and say, “Stop.”
Helpful Scoring Hints
If students appear to understand the instructions following the administration
of the first passage, the examiner need only point to the first word at the top
of the subsequent passage saying “Begin.”
If you completely lose track of where the student is reading, discontinue the
reading and begin another passage.
Score reading passages immediately after administration.
Sample Passage - Examiner Copy
Sample Passage - Student Copy
Scoring Reading Passages
What is a “word.”
example
cat
TW = 1
read as:
“cat”
WRC = 1
example
I sat
TW = 2
read as:
“I sat.”
WRC = 2
What is a “correctly read word?”
Rule 1. Correctly Read Words are pronounced correctly. A word must be
pronounced correctly given the context of the sentence.
Example: The word “r-e-a-d” must be pronounced “reed” when presented in
the context of:
He will read the book
WRC = 5
not as:
“He will red the book.”
WRC = 4
Rule 2. Self corrected words are counted as correct. Words misread initially
but corrected within 3 seconds are counted as read correctly.
What is a “correctly read word?”
Rule 3. Repeated Words are Counted as Correct. Words said over again
correctly are ignored.
Example:
Ted ran swiftly.
WRC = 3
read as:
“Ted ran...Ted ran swiftly.”
WRC = 3
What is a “correctly read word?”
Rule 4. Dialect. Variations in pronunciation that are explainable by local
language norms are not errors.
Example:
They washed the car.
WRC = 4
read as:
“They warshed the car.”
WRC = 4
What is a “correctly read word?”
Rule 5. Inserted words are ignored. When a student adds extra words, they
are not counted as correct words nor as reading errors.
Example:
Sue was happy.
WRC = 3
read as:
“Sue was very happy.”
WRC = 3
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 6. Mispronounced or substituted words are counted as incorrect.
Example:
The dog ate the bone.
WRC = 5
read as:
“The dig ate the bone.”
WRC = 4
What is an “incorrectly read word?
Rule 7. Omitted words are counted as errors.
Example:
Mario climbed the oak tree.
WRC = 5
read as:
“Mario climbed the tree.”
WRC = 4
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 8. Hesitations. When a student hesitates or fails to correctly
pronounce a word within 3 seconds, the student is told the word and an
error is scored.
Example:
Mark saw an elephant.
WRC = 4
read as:
“Mark saw an...(sec 3).”
WRC = 3
or read as:
Mark saw an ell-ee...(3 sec)”
WRC = 3
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 9. Reversals. When a student transposes two or more words, those
words not read in the correct order are errors.
Example:
Charlie ran quickly.
WRC = 3
read as:
“Charlie quickly ran.”
WRC = 1
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 10. Numbers. Written as Numerals are counted as words and must be
read correctly within the context of the passage.
Example:
May 5, 1989.
WRC = 3
read as:
“May five, one nine eight nine.”
WRC = 1
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 11a. Hyphenated Words. Each morpheme separated by a hyphen(s) is
counted as an individual word if it can stand alone.
Example:
Fifty-seven.
WRC = 2
or:
“Daughter-in-law.”
WRC = 3
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 11b. Hyphenated Words. If one or more of the morphemes separated by
a hyphen(s) cannot stand alone, the entire sequence is counted as one word.
Example:
co-opt
WRC = 1
or:
“re-evaluate.”
WRC = 1
What is an “incorrectly read word?”
Rule 12. Abbreviations are counted as words, and must be read correctly
within the context of the sentence.
Example:
Dr. Adams received a promotion.
WRC = 5
should be read as:
“Doctor Adams received a promotion.”
WRC = 5
not as:
“D-R Adams received a promotion.”
WRC = 4
Creating a Reading Fluency Probe
Online Resources
Special Connections
www.specialconnections.ku.edu
Intervention Central
www.interventioncentral.org
National Center on RTI
www.rti4success.org
Center on Student Progress Monitoring
www.studentprogress.org
Introduction to Response
to Intervention
RtI and Prevention of Academic Problems
January 20, 2015
What is RtI?
Response to Intervention Process
•
Tier 1
•
Tier 2
•
Tier 3
Core Principles of RtI
•
Teach all children
•
Intervene early
Legal Foundations Underlying RtI
Key Features of RtI
“Big Ideas” about RtI Methods
RtI Component
“Big Idea”
High-quality instruction
All children deserve effective instruction that leads
to the development of functional skills.
Frequent assessment
Continuous assessment leads to skill improvement.
Data-based decision making
Adjustments to instruction must be based on data.
Approaches to RtI
Problem-Solving Model
•
Emphasis on individualized interventions
derived from analysis of
instructional/environmental conditions and
skill deficits
Standard Treatment Protocol
•
Same intervention for a fixed period of
time
RtI Process
•
Tier 1
Comprehensive and universal
About 80% of students respond to Tier I intervention/instruction
•
Tier 2
•
Tier 3
An Overview of Academic
Achievement
Psychoeducational Assessment
January 22, 2015
Test Review Group Project
Presentation of an academic achievement test battery and written review of
the test
Demonstration of how to administer portions of the test
Completed test administration protocol
Groups
Oral Language – Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-4) and Expressive
Vocabulary Test (EVT-3)
Phonological Processing – Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP2)
Written Language – Test of Written Language (TOWL4)
Reading – Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORT5)
Mathematics – Key Math Diagnostic Assessment (KeyMath3-DA)
Test Name
Author
Year Published
Publisher
Purpose
Scores
Age/Grade Group
User Qualifications
Norms
Reliability
Validity
Practical Aspects
Summary
To include, but not limited to: Administration time, Price, Usability
Academic Achievement Areas
Reading
Mathematics
Basic Reading Skills
Math Calculation
Reading Fluency Skills
Math Problem Solving
Reading Comprehension
Oral Language
Oral Expression
Listening Comprehension
Written Language
Written Expression
Cognitive Abilities and Academic
Achievement
Reading Achievement
Math Achievement
Crystallized Knowledge, Short-Term Memory, Auditory Processing, Long-Term
Storage and Retrieval, Processing Speed
Crystallized Knowledge, Short-Term Memory, Processing Speed, Fluid Reasoning,
Visual Processing
Writing Achievement
Auditory Processing, Short-Term Memory, Processing Speed
Other Abilities Related to Academic
Achievement
Orthographic Processing
Orthography – the system of marks that make up a printed language
Orthographic knowledge - information that is stored in memory that tells us how to
represent spoken language in written form
Morphological Awareness
Morphology – the structure of words in terms of morphemes or minimal meaningful
elements
Morphological awareness - recognition, understanding, and use of word parts that
carry significance
Reading
Reading
Basic reading skills
Sight-word recognition – ability to recognize and name letters of the alphabet and
name commonly used words
Word analysis skills – ability to apply structural and phonetic analysis to unfamiliar
words
Reading comprehension
Involves understanding individual word meanings and using semantic and syntactic
clues to obtain meaning
Reading fluency
Ability to read text passages with efficiency and comprehension
Five Big Ideas in Beginning Reading
Phonemic Awareness
Alphabetic Principle
The effortless, automatic ability to read words in connected text
Vocabulary
The ability to associate sounds with letters and use these sounds to form words
Fluency with Text
The ability to hear and manipulate sounds in spoken words
The ability to understand and use words to acquire and convey meaning
Comprehension
The complex cognitive process involving the intentional interaction between
reader and text to convey meaning
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Reading Achievement
An individual with low basic reading skills
Has poor phonological awareness
Has trouble learning sight words
Has difficulty sounding out words
Has trouble sounding out words
Has trouble applying strategies for word analysis
Overrelies on content clues
Reads slowly
Avoids reading loses place when asked to read aloud
Misreads words
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Reading Achievement
An individual with low reading comprehension skills
Has difficulty recalling what is read
Has trouble using syntactic and semantic clues
Has trouble understanding what is read
Becomes easily frustrated with tasks requiring reading
May read well orally but does not comprehend
Has difficulty with all academic tasks involving reading
Factors That Can Affect Reading
Performance
Possible reasons for low performance in basic reading skills
Poor phonological awareness
Poor orthographic awareness
Slow processing speed
Limited alphabetic knowledge
Trouble pronouncing multisyllabic words
Limited instruction
Factors That Can Affect Reading
Performance
Possible reasons for low performance in reading comprehension
Poor basic reading skills
Lack of experiences and exposure
Low motivation and interest
Limited oral language
Low vocabulary
Low reasoning ability
Limited self-monitoring
Limited use of strategies
Limited instruction
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Low Reading Achievement
Match materials to individual’s reading level
Provide support so individual can succeed while skills are being developed
Match instruction to specific needs of the individual
Provide instruction in phonological awareness and phoneme/grapheme
relationships
Provide direct instruction to develop basic reading skills (both sight words and
phonic skills)
Develop oral language abilities
Teach comprehension strategies
Teach appropriate strategies and self-monitoring techniques
Oral Language
Oral Language
Receptive Language
The ability to understand or comprehend language heard or read
Expressive Language
The ability to put thoughts into words and sentences, in a way that makes sense
and is grammatically accurate
Oral Language
Phonology
Semantics
Understanding word order and grammar rules
Morphology
The way language conveys meaning
Syntax
The basic sound units of language (phonemes)
Units of meaning within words; the way words are formed (morphemes)
Pragmatics
Appropriate word choice and use in context to communicate effectively
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Oral Language Ability
An individual with low receptive language
Asks to have oral information repeated
Has limited experience, simulation, and exposure
Has difficulty understanding what is heard (e.g., lectures, directions, and
conversations)
Has poor reasoning, especially with conceptual information
Has difficulty with social interactions
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Oral Language Ability
An individual with low expressive language
Has trouble thinking of specific words
Uses simple or immature sentences, vague pronoun referents, and immature
vocabulary
Has difficulty formulating sentences
Seems disorganized when speaking (e.g., events out of sequence)
Has trouble expressing him- or herself verbally or participating in discussions
Factors That Can Affect Oral Language
Performance
Possible reasons for low performance in receptive language
Auditory processing deficits
Attention problems
Lack of experience and opportunity
Limited listening skills
Difficulty with auditory comprehension
Possible reasons for low performance in expressive language
Poor receptive language
Difficulty with articulation
Cultural differences
Poor word retrieval (inability to recall words that are known)
Difficulty with formulation of ideas or organization of thoughts
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Limited Oral Language
Consider impact on reading, math, and written language performance
Refer the individual to the speech/language pathologist for a comprehensive
language evaluation
Develop oral vocabulary and oral language skills prior to or simultaneously
with instruction or other academic areas
Use concrete examples
Demonstrate or model what is expected of the individual
Encourage use of gestures
Limit length of instructions
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Limited Oral Language
Provide visual, graphic reminders (e.g., outlines, pictures, graphs, story
frames)
Provide exposure to language (e.g., read aloud or converse with the
individual)
Provide additional time for the individual to respond or speak
Pre-teach important vocabulary words related to assignment
Pair the individual with a peer who will encourage and facilitate verbal
communication
Build on individual’s interests and strengths
Exempt him/her from foreign language requirements
Mathematics
Mathematics
Calculation
Application of math operations and basic axioms to solve math problems
Problem Solving
Comprehending the nature of math problems, recognizing relevant information,
and identifying and applying appropriate calculations
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Math Achievement
An individual with low basic math skills
Appears anxious or resistant to solving math problems
Lacks confidence when presented with math problems
Uses finger counting long after it is developmentally appropriate
Reverses and transposes numbers (e.g., 12 for 21)
Does not attend to signs
Has difficulty aligning numbers when performing calculations
Has difficulty remembering steps in computing or solving problems
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Math Achievement
An individual with low math reasoning skills
Has limited math vocabulary
Lacks age-appropriate quantitative concepts
Has trouble with estimation
Has limited strategies for solving math problems
Does not recognize or self-correct errors
Has difficulty recognizing relevant information in word problems
Has difficulty eliminating extraneous information from word problems
Factors That Can Affect Math
Performance
Possible reasons for low basic math skills
Poor memory
Limited attention
Weak fine-motor skills
Poor visual-spatial abilities
Limited language skills
Limited knowledge of procedures
Limited instruction
Factors That Can Affect Math
Performance
Possible reasons for low math reasoning
Low basic skills
Low oral language
Limited background knowledge
Poor visual-spatial thinking
Poor reasoning abilities
Limited instruction
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Low Math Achievement
Match materials to individual’s instructional level
Provide a high-interest, success-oriented environment
Use manipulatives to help teach concepts
Reduce the number of problems
Provide additional time for completion of assignments
Teach the use of a calculator
Use graph paper to teach alignment and organization of calculation problems
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Low Math Achievement
Provide systematic and extended practice to reinforce learning
Be sure the individual understands the task by monitoring performance closely
Use fact charts
Teach meaningful applications of mathematics
Develop math vocabulary
Teach functional mathematics
Written Language
Written Language
Basic Writing Skills
Fundamental skills required to generate written text
Written Expression
Expression of thought through the use of characters, letters, or words
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Written Language Achievement
An individual with low basic writing skills
Has poor basic reading skills
Has poor handwriting
Reverses or transposes letters
Has poor spelling
Fails to self-monitor errors
Uses simple vocabulary to avoid misspellings
Does poorly under time constraints
Has limited proofreading skills
Characteristics of Individuals with Low
Written Language Achievement
An individual with low written expression
Appears to resist writing tasks
Has a poor attitude towards writing tasks
Has limited background knowledge, limited experiences, and low vocabulary
Has low oral language abilities
Has poor organizational skills
Has low reasoning abilities
Factors That Can Affect Written
Language Performance
Possible reasons for low performance in basic writing skills
Poor phonological awareness
Poor orthographic awareness
Weak fine-motor skills
Weak visual-spatial skills
Limited alphabetic knowledge
Limited instruction
Factors That Can Affect Written
Language Performance
Possible reasons for low performance in written expression
Weak fine-motor skills
Limited basic writing skills
Limited oral language
Limited reading skills
Lack of experiences and exposure
Low motivation and interest
Low reasoning ability
Limited instruction
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Low Written Language Achievement
Match instructions to developmental level
Provide alternatives to writing (e.g., oral responses)
Provide preferential seating for copying tasks, or limit or omit copying tasks
Simplify or shorten spelling lists or other written assignments
Teach high-frequency words
Teach word-study strategies
Teach proofreading skills
Provide extended time for completing written tasks
Instructional Implications for Individuals
with Low Written Language Achievement
Provide practice activities
Teach sentence structure
Use sentence-combining exercises
Help the individual develop vocabulary and other oral language abilities
Help the individual develop reading skills (vocabulary, comprehension, and
strategies)
Use story frames or other graphic organizers
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