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Observational Assessment
4
San Diego County Office of Education
Pretest
1. One becomes a trained observer only after attending a licensed workshop and earning a certificate of training completion. T/F
2. Anecdotal data does not provide meaningful insight for early childhood educators and
professionals. T/F
3. A behavior can have a clear beginning and ending, as well as occur over time. T/F
4. There are many ways to observe young children, and it is important to choose the best approach
for a specific situation. T/F
5. Functional behavioral assessments can be conducted quickly and with minimal support. T/F
Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.
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Section 4.1
Becoming a Trained Observer
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
ሁሁ
Identify the characteristics of and strategies for becoming a trained observer.
ሁሁ
Identify discrete and continuous behaviors and select appropriate assessment strategies
for each.
ሁሁ
ሁሁ
Determine situations in which qualitative observation strategies, like anecdotal records,
are the most appropriate choice.
Explain the purpose and basic strategies for conducting a functional behavioral
assessment.
Four-year-old Claire is sitting at a small table coloring in her classroom. It is November, and
she has been attending preschool since September. Today her teacher, Mr. Johnson, notices that
Claire has started holding her crayon with a pincer grasp between her thumb, index finger, and
middle finger. Mr. Johnson jots this information down on a note card and drops the note into a
basket for anecdotal records. Two weeks ago when Mr. Johnson observed Claire coloring, she
was grasping crayons in a fist with her thumb up, so this new development of the pincer grasp
is exciting. Now Mr. Johnson is looking forward to sharing this information with Claire’s parents
when they pick her up this afternoon.
Introduction
Mr. Johnson’s observation of Claire’s development is an example of an observational
assessment. This type of authentic assessment involves purposefully watching or seeing
children and recording very specific details about their activities and behaviors. The goal is
to gain an understanding of their progress, or lack of progress, and use that knowledge to
inform decision making. Since observation is usually conducted while students are learning,
it is a common type of formative assessment that may be used by itself or embedded in other
forms of assessment. Observation is integral to watchful oversight of children, since it allows
professionals to compare performance to outcomes, make judgments in performance-based
assessment, mark progress on checklists, and so on. Thus, various types of assessment will
also use observational assessment.
This chapter will explore observational assessment from a variety of angles. It will cover
when and why to use this specific form of assessment, as well as with whom, and thoroughly
explain how to perform observational assessments so as to support accurate and useful data
collection.
4.1 Becoming a Trained Observer
Human observation can be unreliable. However, with training and experience, it is possible
for ECE professionals to become keen observers of children and their behaviors. To become
a trained observer, professionals need to have a thorough understanding of child development. They must also be on guard for possible bias in order to minimize inaccuracies. This
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Becoming a Trained Observer
Section 4.1
knowledge will also help a trained observer select the appropriate observation tool for the
job and use it to collect the most accurate data possible.
Knowledge of Child Development
Understanding typical child development is a fundamental requirement of conducting meaningful observation in ECE, particularly knowledge of cognitive, language, and social domains.
Without a strong knowledge of child development, professionals will not know what to look
for. For example, a professional with limited knowledge of child development may have
unreasonable expectations for a child, such as expecting all 12-month-olds to be able to walk.
Inexperienced practitioners will also not recognize deviations in development that warrant
attention, such as a 12-month-old who does not yet crawl or bear weight on his or her legs.
Finally, a trained observer must accurately assess developmental progress as a matter of
teaching and learning analysis. This makes it critical for EC personnel to cultivate and maintain a deep knowledge of child development. An EC professional should notice nuances and
subtle changes in children’s actions and behaviors that even parents may not notice. Furthermore, when parents do notice changes, it is vital that an EC professional be able to place the
parents’ observations in the broader context of child development to understand what they
may indicate. Because children’s actions are fleeting and, unless videotaped, gone as soon
as they occur, this knowledge must be readily available and well known, since there is often
not time to consult a reference book or computer resource before a decision must be made.
For example, if a professional is facilitating play with 2-year-olds and observes that one child
keeps hiding the toys from the other, the professional will want to know (a) if this is typical
behavior for a 2-year-old so he or she can determine if there is a need to be more explicit
in teaching cooperative social skills, and if so (b) what strategies to use to build more age-
appropriate cooperative social skills.
Although a strong understanding of child development is critical to successful observational
assessments, the data would not be accurate if skewed by bias. Consequently, in addition to
understanding child development, a trained professional will also know how to minimize bias.
Challenge
A solid understanding of child development is a prerequisite to becoming a trained
observer in EC environments. Take the quiz accessible from the link below and analyze
your understanding of child development. Do you know enough to accurately observe and
evaluate children’s development? Explain.
http://www.medindia.net/medical-quiz/quiz-on-baby-development-milestones-age-1-to4-years.asp
Minimizing Bias
Observer bias occurs when educators allow their personal experiences, philosophies, misunderstandings, and prejudices to influence their judgments about student performance.
Observers must be vigilant against the likelihood that their own perceptions of specific
children—as well as categories of children (such as disruptive, homeless, nonconforming
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Section 4.1
Becoming a Trained Observer
to gender-specific behaviors)—change the way truth is processed and recorded (Ready &
Wright, 2011).
Observational recording relies on an accurate perception of reality; a bias in perception will
skew a teacher’s assessment and expectation of students. For example, a teacher who has the
perception that children who live in poverty are less capable than children from middle-class
homes will project this perception onto his or her students and expect different things from
children because of it. Expectations in turn influence student performance; lower expectations result in lower achievement because students
tend to react to teachers’ expectations by living up or
down to them, which can generate self-fulfilling prophReflection
ecies (de Boer, Bosker, & Van der Werf, 2010) (see
Consider a time when you thought or behaved
Figure 4.1). Student characteristics—such as gender,
in a biased manner. What made you think or
socioeconomic status (SES), race, culture, and language
behave that way? What can you do in the future
competency—directly influence perceptual expectato reduce your biases?
tions (de Boer et al., 2010).
Figure 4.1: The cyclic relationship between bias, expectations, and
achievement
ሁሁ Bias observations lead to lower expectations, which fuel continued bias.
5
1
Lower and
lower
expectation
Biased
observation
4
2
Strengthened
bias toward
observation
Lowered
expectation
3
Lowered
performance
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Becoming a Trained Observer
Section 4.1
Gender
Gender is often the basis for inaccurate observational judgment. For example, excessive
aggression is more likely to be inaccurately attributed to boys than to girls, even though girls
show equal amounts of aggression. However, aggression is more often associated with boys,
possibly because it is stereotypically related to males (Pellegrini, 2011). Generally speaking, teacher expectation bias has been shown to be more positive for girls (de Boer et al.,
2010). This is not to say that girls always benefit from bias. In fact, bias negatively affects girls,
too, particularly in science, where they are perceived to be less capable, possibly because of
societal stereotypes (Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll, Graham, & Handelsman, 2012). Even
trained observers can exhibit gender bias, making it all the more important that one is overtly
conscious of gender bias and makes every effort possible to avoid it (Pellegrini, 2011).
Socioeconomic Status
In the same way that societal stereotypes influence gender bias, they may also impact teachers’ perceptions of socioeconomic status. Indeed, teachers tend to underestimate the ability
of children from low SES backgrounds, a tendency that is compounded when serving children
in a predominantly low SES school and community (Ready & Wright, 2011). Considering that
many EC personnel work in Head Start or other programs specifically geared toward children
who live in poverty, this bias is particularly relevant. It is vital that bias not cloud the way in
which EC professionals observe and assess children from low SES backgrounds, since biased
observations can lead to misguided decisions, such as inappropriate retention or inaccurate
grades (Ready & Wright, 2011).
Race and Ethnicity
A significant body of research indicates that teachers are biased against minority children
who are not part of the dominant White culture (Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007). Furthermore, it
has been argued that this bias significantly taints observation and leads to overdetermination
of ADHD, lowered perception of academic readiness, and the underestimation of minority
children’s potential for success (Hosterman, DuPaul, & Jitendra, 2008). However, the bias may
also be exhibited in teachers being more lenient toward White children than minority children (Hosterman et al., 2008). This finding is supported by research that suggests that teachers report higher assessment outcomes for children who are the same race as themselves
(Ouazad, 2008; Sideridis, Antoniou, & Padeliadu, 2008). Because nearly 85% of educators are
White, and nearly half of all students are minority children (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2008), this potential bias is a major concern when considering how to accurately
assess all children.
Strategies to Reduce Bias in Observational Assessment
It is possible to reduce or eliminate bias against groups of students with certain characteristics (Devine, Forscher, Austin, & Cox, 2012). To do this, a teacher must become aware of his or
her own biases and want to reduce or eliminate them. The following strategies are effective
in reducing bias:
1. Adopting the minority perspective of children and their families.
2. Thinking purposefully about persons who do not match cultural stereotypes.
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Section 4.1
Becoming a Trained Observer
3. Continually working on recognizing stereotypic responses in oneself, naming them,
reflecting on why they exist, and replacing them with sound teaching strategies.
4. Putting effort into tasks that will help reduce bias, such as reading about antibias
education (see Table 4.1) and spending time getting to know children and their
families.
5. Understanding one’s own prejudices.
6. Understanding connections between prejudice and teaching performance (that is,
assessment, classroom management, expectations, opportunities, language).
7. Being aware of the benefits of antibiased teaching.
8. Focusing on individual children, their families, and their personal characteristics (as
opposed to stereotypes) in an objective manner.
9. Comparing children’s behavior objectively to other children. For example, teachers
often think of children from low SES backgrounds as less capable than children from
middle- or upper-class families, but if they conduct objective observations of all children, they will more accurately see where ability is and is not (Devine et al., 2012).
Table 4.1: Antibias literature for EC professionals
Title
Author
Benefits of reading
Anti-bias Education for Young
Children and Ourselves
Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie
Olsen Edwards
Beyond Heroes and Holidays
Enid Lee, Deborah Menkart, and
Margo Okazawa-Rey
Provides practical suggestions
for confronting prejudice in self
and community
The First R: How Children Learn
Race and Racism
Debra Van Ausdale and Joe R.
Feagin
Rethinking Early Childhood
Education
Ann Pelo
The War Play Dilemma: What
Every Parent and Teacher Needs
to Know
Diane E. Levine and Nancy
Carlsson-Paige
One Child, Two Languages
Patton O. Tabors
Celebrate! The Anti-bias Guide to
Enjoying the Holidays
Julie Bisson
Readings and activities for
teachers who work with
children, parents, and staff
Challenges assumptions using
case studies to understand how
children develop prejudices
Inspiring stories teach children
about social justice
Strategies for using creative play
in helping influence the way
children process the violence to
which they are exposed
Daily teaching practices for those
who work with children learning
English as a second language
Strategies of celebrating
holidays in a respectful and
developmentally appropriate
way
(continued)
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Section 4.1
Becoming a Trained Observer
Table 4.1: Antibias literature for EC professionals (continued)
Title
Author
Benefits of reading
Start Seeing Diversity: The Basic
Guide to an Anti-bias Classroom
Ellen Wolpert
Taking Back Childhood
Nancy Carlsson-Paige
Helps teachers recognize and
reduce prejudice
Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting
Together in the Cafeteria?
Beverly Daniel
Getting Ready for Quality
Hedy Chang
Black Ants and Buddhists:
Thinking Critically and Teaching
Differently in the Primary Grades
Mary Cowhey
Anti-bias Curriculum (DVD)
Teaching for Change, Pub.
Roots and Wings: Affirming
Culture in Early Childhood
Programs
Stacy York
The strategies listed here take time and intentional
focus. Overcoming bias is not easy; it requires that
individuals confront their own perceptions from
many angles in order first to recognize their bias and
then to move beyond it. Although this may take effort,
it is worthy work because the data that can be collected through observational assessments—both
qualitative and quantitative—can be invaluable and
are often inaccessible by other means.
Provides ways for parents
and teachers to counter the
many ways that culture and
media threaten healthy child
development
Introduces the stages in which
race affects identity from
childhood through adulthood
Explains the importance of being
able to serve a diverse society as
a critical ability in professional
qualification
Describes a second-grade “Peace
Class” where the framework for
learning is understanding and
respecting differences in race,
beliefs, culture, and opinion
Interviews and classroom scenes
showing antibiased education
Entry-level book for educators
to “open doors” in beginning to
understand issues associated
with cultural diversity and
prejudice
Reflection
Test your implicit biases using the link below:
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit
Did the results align with your perceptions
of your biases? Did you learn anything about
yourself? Did you notice what kinds of responses
are indicators of bias?
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Section 4.2
Using Qualitative Assessment Tools
4.2 Using Qualitative Assessment Tools
Qualitative data are observations that are not recorded numerically. These observations focus
on the quality of a behavior rather than quantity of occurrence or duration (quantitative
data). Anecdotal recording is one of the most common types of qualitative assessment that
early childhood professionals conduct. Many do not even realize they are conducting assessment because anecdotal recording often seems like “note taking” about students. Anecdotal
data, as well as the strategies for watchful and descriptive record keeping, are discussed in
the sections that follow.
Anecdotal Data
In its most informal form, anecdotal assessment is simply writing down notes that describe
the events of the day and children’s behaviors. The purpose of these notes is to record important achievements and document specific concerns. Such narrative notes provide rich information to communicate with parents and help design instruction.
As mentioned earlier, educators with a solid knowledge of developmental growth and a keen
understanding of state and national standards and learning objectives are most likely to write
meaningful anecdotal data (see Table 4.2).
Table 4.2: Examples of anecdotal data
Meaningless anecdotal data
Meaningful anecdotal data
Sam is a good eater.
Sam ate broccoli, pasta, and yogurt at lunch. He fed himself with
his hands.
Rylan was in a bad mood.
Nora seems to have speech delays.
Rylan cried for 10 minutes after mom left. Once calmed down,
Rylan hit other students who approached and wanted to play in the
same space.
Nora points to objects and attempts to name them. It is possible
to decipher approximately 40% of the words that Nora uses. The
benchmark for her age is approximately 75%.
As the table shows, anecdotal records are most meaningful when they stick to the facts and
use specific and descriptive language to communicate what was observed. Consequently, it is
important to consider the following when creating useful anecdotal records:
1. Use anecdotal records purposefully. Although it may be of some use to collect random bits of commentary on children, if anecdotal records are to be helpful, teachers
should have a plan (Boyd-Batstone, 2004). For example, a teacher might want to
describe children’s critical-thinking skills and will plan to write a note for each child
at least once per week.
2. Use anecdotal recording regularly. Like other forms of assessment, anecdotal recordings should be conducted multiple times in order to document progress or challenges (McGee, 2007). Having multiple instances documented will better inform
teaching practices and interventions, if needed.
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Section 4.2
Using Qualitative Assessment Tools
3. Use anecdotal data in tandem with quantitative data. Supplementing descriptive
information with quantitative observational data (discussed later in this chapter),
as well as other forms of assessment (discussed in later chapters), is encouraged
to create a comprehensive profile and basis for decision making (Krugly, Stein, &
Centeno, 2014).
Sources of Anecdotal Data
Purposeful, regularly collected anecdotal records used in conjunction with other forms of
data will be most meaningful and useful in guiding decision making. There are a number of
methods commonly used for collecting informal, anecdotal records, which can be categorized
into three filing types: notebook files, electronic files, and illustrated files.
Notebook Files
In preparing to record anecdotes, professionals may create a notebook file for each child into
which regular comments are entered. These files can take the form of a three-ring binder,
tabbed to keep students’ records separate. Individual booklets designed by and for each student can also be used and may include both child and professional entries (see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Example of anecdotal record format
ሁሁ In this figure, notes for Student A are too cryptic and consistently negative to help guide decisions.
In comparison, the notes for Student B are detailed, provide positive information, and are helpful for
planning further intervention.
Anecdotal Records
Student A
Date
Devan
Comments
Student B
Date
9/5
Messed up her neighbor’s
toys and cried
9/5
9/6
Cried and had to be removed
9/6
9/7
Rude to teacher
9/7
Tyie
Comments
Became agitated when small
group story began, threw
materials and started to cry.
Removed to calm space and
returned to group with
success after 5 min.
Initially reluctant to build
and count blocks, but after
brief short turn-taking with
me, built a multicolored wall
with different size/color
blocks that was more complex
than towers other children
were building.
After listening to and
answering simple vocabulary
related questions about the
‘car wash’ book, began to
wash his toy cars in the soapy
water. After about a minute,
he began to splash water on
peers and threw his toys.
Removed from activity to dry
hands and he quickly calmed.
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Using Qualitative Assessment Tools
Section 4.2
In Figure 4.2 useful anecdotal notes are contrasted with unhelpful anecdotal notes. Notes
for Student A lack detail and context for understanding frequency, intensity, and duration of
behavior. Additionally, the note taker did not explain the situations that preceded or followed
the behaviors, or any attempted interventions and their outcomes. Finally, these notes are
uniformly negative; they do not provide any observed balance in terms of skills and talents,
which does not help teachers design productive interventions.
By contrast, the notes for Student B describe the child’s prosocial and problem behavior, as
well as what happens before and after the behaviors. These contextualized notes make it possible for teachers to plan interventions that can build on skills, prevent disruptive behaviors,
and teach better self-regulation. As an alternative to an anecdotal notebook, a “good news
book” may be kept to record celebrations of special achievements, remarkable acts of kindness, and fun and joyous activities.
Electronic Anecdotal Files
Some professionals may prefer to record anecdotal observations in a more permanent way.
Electronic notes have several advantages in that notes are easier to read, require fewer
resources (storage space and cost), and can be shared
more easily and regularly with parents and other professionals. Finally, electronic files can be archived for
Reflection
program review. Examples of electronic files include
What are the advantages and disadvantages of
audio and video recordings (that can be easily made
electronic and handwritten anecdotal notes? Is
with a variety of devices including smartphones), word
one style more authentic than the other?
processing files, as well as many creative computer
applications.
Illustrated Anecdotal Files
Illustrated anecdotes offer a visual accessory to recorded observations. Examples include a
calendar where certain behaviors are indicated with a color code (for example, a red dot on
December 15 means that the teacher noted a serious safety violation, and a lavender dot
means that children were observed spontaneously helping each other). Other examples of
illustrated anecdotal observations include posting notes, photographs of children working,
and children’s work products with comments on a bulletin board (Traxon, 2013). Many of
these artifacts can be included in a portfolio (discussed in Chapter 6) along with a child’s
work samples to help guide instruction and to share with parents.
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Using Quantitative Assessment Tools
Section 4.3
Challenge
Watch the following video about an infant playing with different toys:
http://www.easternct.edu/cece/supporting_thinking_video.html
While you watch, keep anecdotal records of what you observe. Consider the following
behaviors as you take notes:
• How does the child interact with the toy? What physical movements does the child make
with the toy or when the toy is used in play with a second toy?
• Does the child imitate movements?
• Is the child making vocalizations while playing? What kind?
• Does the child experiment with toys? Use different toys in different or same way?
• Does the child play more when sitting or while lying on his back or stomach?
As you take notes, what other important developmental observations do you notice?
4.3 Using Quantitative Assessment Tools
Although many teachers rely on informal, undocumented observation to measure children’s
behaviors, a trained observer intentionally keeps anecdotal records of observed behavior,
along with more structured quantitative observation tools. Quantitative assessments include
tools that count, time, and use numbers or quantities to describe behavior. Quantifying behavior improves the precision of data and reduces observer bias. Consider this comparison:
Qualitative data: “Bob jumped further than anyone else in the class during the school
Olympics.”
Quantitative data: “Bob jumped 3 feet 6 inches while then next longest jump was 2 feet 5
inches.”
Both qualitative and quantitative data explain Bob’s superior jumping ability, but the quantitative data is more precise. Furthermore, whereas quantitative data can be influenced by bias,
it is less likely that professionals will misinterpret numbers representing behavior (quantitative) than when behavior is described (qualitative).
Interobserver Agreement
One way to ensure that observational recordings are accurate is to “get a second opinion.” A
term for the second opinion is interobserver agreement, which is the degree to which two
observers agree on a score or similarly describe observed behavior. If an EC professional
wants to ensure accuracy when recording the number of times a child interacts with his peers,
he might have an administrator, paraprofessional, volunteer, or teacher watch and record the
child’s behavior at the same time. If one observer says the child interacted 15 times with three
peers, and the other indicates that the child interacted 10 times with five peers, there is little
interobserver agreement and the results cannot be considered reliable. It should also be
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Section 4.3
Using Quantitative Assessment Tools
Reflection
It is difficult enough to collect data oneself;
in your opinion, how realistic is it to collect
interobserver agreement as well?
noted that there is no “magic number” for agreement. It
is possible that two observers could record slightly different numbers, but still decide the data is accurate. If
data do not match perfectly, it is important for the
observers to have a conversation about what they saw
in order to pinpoint the inaccuracies and minimize
future discrepancies.
Operationalizing Target Behavior
Suppose that Ms. Jackson, a first-grade teacher, has decided to observe and record a student’s
misbehavior. Ms. Jackson believes that she will be able to identify misbehavior based on the
student’s compliance with classroom rules. This vague definition of what Ms. Jackson will
be looking for, however, leaves her vulnerable to bias and unintentionally allows other emotions to filter incoming information, which creates observer error. Additionally, definitions of
misbehavior differ from teacher to teacher and will significantly reduce observer fidelity and
interobserver agreement. Consequently, being very clear about what is being measured is
crucial to accuracy in observational recording.
A clear operational definition renders the behavior observable and measurable. Such a definition can help prevent teacher observations from being influenced by factors other than the
behavior itself. An operational definition is specific enough so that two or more independent
observers can agree on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a behavior. Continuing with the
example of Ms. Jackson, instead of setting “record student misbehavior” as her operational
definition, it would be better to use “record when student shouts out,” as this is a clearly
defined behavior that other observers could also document. The following series of principles
may be applied to create operational definitions of behavior for observation.
Identify the Root of Behavior
The first step in writing an operational definitions is to determine the root cause of a problem. This topic will be developed later in this chapter under functional behavioral assessments, but is also relevant here because it contextualizes the purpose of the observation and
helps to effectively operationalize behaviors. For example, a teacher concerned about Sarah’s
inability to stay focused cannot assume she has an attentional deficit, but can observe that she
has difficulty focusing as long as would be expected for her age.
Observation should therefore focus on when, where, and with whom attention is limited so
that a complete picture can be formed before making decisions. For example, if an EC professional repeatedly observes that Sarah seems to have difficulty focusing when the environment is very loud, he could justifiably determine the root cause of Sarah’s lack of ability to
attend to be strongly influenced by noise. As there is no magic number of times that a behavior should be observed for interobserver agreement, the same can be said for determining a
root cause. In either case multiple occurrences should be documented to avoid basing decisions on limited information.
Describe the Target Behavior
A target behavior is a child’s developmental or academic action that is the subject of observation and subsequent intervention. Target behaviors must be described in a way that a
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Using Quantitative Assessment Tools
Section 4.3
teacher can consistently and reliably see and measure. In the earlier example, Ms. Jackson
wanted to measure “misbehavior.” Because “misbehavior” can be a variety of things (shouting
out, disturbing others, acting unsafe, and so on), different EC professionals could document
different occurrences of “misbehavior.” Consequently, it is too broad to be consistently or reliably observed.
Target behaviors are specific and well defined. They also allow a teacher to observe a behavior that cannot actually be seen—such as anger, kindness, critical thinking, or perseverance.
For example, an individual could be angry without an observer knowing. Consequently, anger
is considered an invisible behavior because it is a feeling with no required criteria for outward expression. However, there are observable characteristics commonly associated with
anger, like pushing, hitting, and spitting. These are visible behaviors. Target behaviors are
based on operationalizing invisible behaviors into visible ones.
Table 4.3: Operationalizing invisible behaviors
Invisible
Visible (operationalized)
Anger
Yells above classroom conversation level; pushes, hits, spits, scratches, or harms others;
throws objects
Kindness
Critical thinking
Perseverance
Offers to share materials or toys with others; invites others to join activity; sees
children who are struggling and offers assistance without taking over
Offers support for ideas verbally and in writing, explains thought processes
(metacognition), examines topics from multiple perspectives, and documents opposing
points using a graphic organizer
Works on tasks for age-appropriate lengths of time, tries again when initially
unsuccessful
Even with the descriptions provided in Table 4.3, there may be a need to further define behaviors so observers can distinguish those behaviors that meet the definition from those that
do not. “Throws objects,” for example, might be difficult to assess on the playground, where
children appropriately throw objects like balls. To clearly explain “throwing objects” when
it is inappropriate, a definition could be written like this: “Throwing of any object toward
another person with enough force to hurt them, and in a manner inconsistent with the rules
or expectations of a game or activity.” The definition should also include throwing objects
forcefully toward nonhuman targets (for example, ground, building, or window) in a manner
that is incompatible with game or activity rules.
Test the Operational Definition
To determine if it is possible to measure the target behavior, you will need to test your operational definition. When testing your definition, ask yourself if you can count, time, recognize
an occurrence or nonoccurrence, or describe the operationalized behavior. Table 4.4 tests the
definitions of several operationalized behaviors.
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Section 4.3
Using Quantitative Assessment Tools
Table 4.4: Testing operational definitions
Are the following brief
definitions of behavior
operational?
Yes/no
Why?
Initiating interactions
Yes
It is possible to observe interactions during which an
individual approaches another individual.
Motivated
No
An individual can accomplish a required task
without motivation, or be motivated but lack
capability.
Off task
Yes
Proficient
No
Smiles
Yes
Disruptive
No
Time not engaged in a determined task can be
measured.
An individual can be proficient but not demonstrate
that proficiency.
Like “misbehavior,” disruptive can mean different
things to different observers.
Physical smiles can be observed and counted.
Test the Operational Definition With Children
Once target behaviors have been operationally defined, the definition should be put to use in
recording behaviors so the EC professional can learn how well the definition works in practice.
Today the easiest way to practice becoming a proficient observer/recorder is to videotape a
child and note the presence or absence of target behaviors using a data collection form. A video
is perfect because it can be stopped, slowed down, backed-up, and replayed again and again,
all of which help ensure that data collected during the observations are accurate. In addition to
perfecting recording accuracy, videotaped practice enables observers to refine their definition
if it does not include all possible examples of a target behavior (and exclude all nonexamples).
Challenge
Watch a clip of the Three Stooges and record how many times you observe the Stooges hit,
kick, pinch, slap, or poke. Before you watch the clip, write an operational definition of each
behavior and ensure that the definitions do not overlap. To do this, explain how a poke is
different from a hit, and so on.
The Three Stooges videos may be found online at several sites, including
https://archive.org (for example, “Brideless Groom, 1947”).
Revisit the Operational Definition
After testing an operationalized definition, an EC professional may find it does not describe
behavior in a helpful or meaningful way. Recording the amount of time a child interacts with
peers might be more effective and meaningful than counting the number of interactions. It
may be necessary to revisit and redefine the operational definition and test it until the results
more accurately describe the target behavior.
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
4.4 Observational Assessment Strategies
One of the most difficult things about collecting data via observational assessment is determining which tool is most effective or appropriate for revealing the truth about behavior. It
is often the case that more than one strategy could be used, but there is still likely to be one
best strategy for each situation. To choose the best tool, teachers should ask themselves the
following questions about the target behavior and the circumstances within which data are
to be collected:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Is the behavior discrete?
Is the behavior continuous?
Is there a need for fluency?
How much help is available?
When does the behavior occur?
How accurate do the data need to be?
By taking the time to examine each of these questions thoroughly, an EC professional will be
able to narrow the field of possible assessment options and select the best tool for the job.
The answer(s) to each of the following questions inform the selection of different means by
which to collect data.
Question #1: Is the Behavior Discrete?
The first question in determining which tool to use is, “Can I count the behavior?” A discrete
behavior can be easily counted because it is a behavior with a clear beginning and end, like
rolling over, jumping, or writing the answer to a math problem (see Table 4.5). A teacher who
wants to document a discrete behavior needs to identify its onset or point of appearance. If
the behavior is brief, then a teacher will also recognize the disappearance of the behav-
ior. The teacher can also document each individual occurrence of the behavior during
a determined time frame.
Table 4.5: Examples of discrete behaviors
Physical behaviors
Academic behaviors
Hitting
Solving math problems
Saying “please”
Recalling facts about a topic
Jumping
Washing hands
Shouting out comments
Writing spelling words
If a teacher notices, for example, that a child frequently asks to use the restroom, the teacher
may choose to record this discrete behavior because its beginning (when the request is verbalized) and ending (when verbalization ends) are obvious and the behavior lasts for a very
short time. The teacher can record every time the student asks to use the restroom each day,
and at what time, for several days. Reviewing the data may help determine if the child is asking to use the restroom as a work-avoidance strategy.
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
There are three common data collection types for discrete behaviors: event, frequency, and
rate data (see Figure 4.3). These three types of data collection are all observational assessment strategies that rely on counting to represent behavior.
Figure 4.3: Methods for measuring discrete behaviors
ሁሁ When behaviors are discrete and have a definite beginning and ending, they can be measured
using one of three types of observational data: event, frequency, and rate data.
Event data
Discrete behaviors
Frequency data
Rate data
Event Data
Event data (also called event recording or event sampling) is the simplest form of data collection. An educator simply counts or tallies every instance of a target behavior that is observed.
Usually an observer will designate part of the day to observe or record the behaviors of a
child, rather than attempting to record throughout the day. It is important to observe during
the same part of each day to ensure the data are comparable from one observation to the next.
When behavior is observed at varying times, results can be inconclusive due to changes in
circumstances that influence how often or how well a child performs the targeted behavior.
When an observation period has been completed—usually once per day for several days—
the total events observed are added up and reported. The data may simply be entered in a log
or plotted on a graph. This recorded information can then be used to look for trends, a pattern of data involving three or more points that illustrate how a behavior changes over time.
Consider the following log of event data recorded for a student named Isaac:
12/7/13 Isaac shouted out a comment 5 times in art.
12/9/13 Isaac shouted out a comment 4 times in reading.
12/14/13 Isaac shouted out a comment 6 times in math.
There are two factors that may compromise the validity of the recorded data. First, the data
points were collected in three different contexts (art, reading, and math), which offer varying
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
conditions that might cause Isaac to shout out a comment. Second, the data were collected on
nonconsecutive days over a week. Since the first and last data collections were a week apart,
it is possible that something happens on that particular day of the week that causes a change
in Isaac’s behavior. Because the data were not recorded at the same time each day and over
consecutive days, it will not reveal any reliable patterns or conclusions about Isaac’s behavior.
To avoid this problem, measurements should be completed in the same context, at approximately the same time of day, over several consecutive days.
Frequency Data
Before beginning data collection, it is important to determine a representative length of time
during which to look for target behaviors. When time is mentioned along with the event, it
becomes frequency data, or the number of behaviors seen over a certain length of time (see
Figure 4.4). For more accurate comparisons, the amount of time spent observing should be
the same each day.
Figure 4.4: Example of a data collection chart
ሁሁ This chart is used to determine the rate of shout outs per day. An observer circles numbers in
succession each time Isaac shouts in a way that conforms to the definition at the bottom of the
chart. At the end of the day, the total number of shouts is divided by the length of time (in minutes),
resulting in rate. In this way data for different days and lengths of time can be compared.
Shout Outs
Child:
Date
Activity
Beginning/
End Time
Frequency
Rate
frequency/
Min
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Instructions:
1) Before starting data collection, enter date, type of activity child was engaged in during
observation, and the beginning time.
2) Circle a number in order each time the child “shouts out.”
3) At the end of the activity, enter the end time or end of observation.
4) Calculate rate by dividing the number of shout outs circled by the number of minutes the child
was observed (end time – beginning time = min).
Shout outs: Child raises voice above classroom-level conversation in an attempt to get attention
or to express displeasure. Shout outs interrupt others who are talking and are not in the normal
flow of conversation.
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Observational Assessment Strategies
Section 4.4
The event data recorded for Isaac does not indicate whether he was observed for the same
length of time each day. If Isaac shouted out five times over 30 minutes in art and only four
times during 15 minutes in reading, Isaac actually shouted out more in reading than in art. In
Isaac’s case a teacher should record and report the number of times Isaac shouted out comments for a 20-minute time period, as reflected in this log:
12/7/13 Isaac shouted out 5 comments per 20 min during art.
12/9/13 Isaac shouted out 4 comments per 20 min during reading.
12/11/13 Isaac shouted out 6 comments per 20 min during math.
Rate Data
A teacher may not always be able to record data for the same length of time each day. Maybe
the art activity only takes 18 minutes to complete instead of 20. Or, perhaps the teacher is
pulled away before the activity is completed, or misses the end signal from the timer and
keeps recording longer than 20 minutes. If the teacher were to report the data as usual (that
is, as a 20-minute observation) in any of these situations, the teacher would be misrepresenting the child’s abilities. A teacher must record the frequency and indicate the actual observation lengths. For example:
12/7/13 Isaac shouted out 5 times per 18 min during art.
12/9/13 Isaac shouted out 4 times per 25 min during reading.
The above data are reported accurately, but it is difficult to compare how often Isaac shouted
out because the time frame for each observation varies. The solution is to convert frequency
data (5 times in 18 minutes) to rate data, where the length of time becomes mathematically
standardized. Rate data is defined as the number of behaviors divided by the length of observation time, which reveals the number of responses per minute. This allows for easy comparison
across observation periods of unequal length. First, the number of behaviors must be divided by
the length of observation time. Use the following formula to calculate rate data for Isaac:
Number of Behaviors ÷ Observation Length = Rata Data
12/7/13 Isaac shouted out 5 times per 18 min during art.
5 ÷ 18 = 0.28 per min
12/9/13 Isaac shouted out 4 times per 25 min during reading.
4 ÷ 25 = 0.16 per min
It is now possible to compare Isaac’s shouting out across the two days. A rate of 0.28 per minute
is significantly higher than a rate of 0.16. To convert these data into whole numbers and determine what the rate would be over a 20-minute time interval, the rate data are multiplied by 20:
.28 × 20 = 5.6
.16 × 20 = 3.2
Once the data have been multiplied, it is easier to see the numbers as comparative happenings. For example, Isaac shouted out more than five times per 20 minutes in art as compared
to about three times per 20 minutes in reading.
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Observational Assessment Strategies
Section 4.4
Challenge
Esara, a first grader, has been struggling to complete her 10 basic math facts during math
time each day. Her teacher, Mr. Richards, would like to find out how many problems it is
reasonable to expect Esara to do, and then slowly build up to more problems. He collects
data over a 3-day period beginning at 1:30, when independent work is assigned. On Monday
Esara completes four problems by 1:37. Tuesday she solves six problems in 10 minutes.
On Wednesday, her work time is cut short by a fire alarm, so she only has 5 minutes and
completes two problems.
Complete the analysis shown in Figure 4.5 for Esara:
Figure 4.5: Event recording worksheet
ሁሁ The chart below is used to summarize the number of math problems (events) Esara
completes per minute. The total number of problems is divided by the length of time to
completion (end time minus beginning time) to calculate rates.
a. Event recording #1: ____________ (date) Esara _________________________________ (behavior)
________ (times) during _____________________________
b. Event recording #2:____________ (date) Esara _________________________________ (behavior)
________ (times) during _____________________________
c. Event recording #3: ____________ (date) Esara _________________________________ (behavior)
________(times) during _____________________________
d. Frequency data for Esara:
e. Rate data for Esara per 10 minutes:
f. What conclusion might Mr. Richards draw from the data collected?
Teacher Strategies for Collecting Counting Data
In today’s busy classrooms most teachers have little time to singularly focus on watching and
recording data about children. Therefore, it is best to devise and implement simple yet reliable strategies, such as the following:
1. If there is a large wall clock, begin and end recording at major time increments (that
is, 5, 10, 15, and so on). A teacher may also commit to recording between 10:15 and
10:30 each day, to ensure that the length of observation is always 15 minutes.
2. In some instances, a teacher might not predetermine the amount of observation
time. A timing mechanism such as a stopwatch, a smartphone, or a wall clock with a
second hand must be used if the time interval is not predetermined. Set the timer for
the amount of time the observation will take place and engage the timer when ready
to begin. Ensure that the stopwatch or timer’s notification will not disrupt the class,
but will be noticeable to the observer (for example, by setting it to vibrate). At the
end of an observation, check the stopwatch to determine how long the observation
lasted. If necessary, convert the frequency data to rate data.
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
3. There are several accurate and nonintrusive tactics for counting the number of target behavior occurrences. Once a teacher begins to use these strategies, they will no
doubt begin to think of many other ways record event/frequency data.
a. Place several rubber bands on one wrist and when the target behavior is
observed, move a rubber band to the opposite wrist. At the end of the session,
count the number of moved rubber bands for a total count of targeted behavior.
b. Use two cups or containers; one should have several marbles in it. Every time a
child is observed engaging in the target behavior, move one marble to the empty
cup. At the end of the session, count the number of moved marbles for a total
count of targeted behavior. This strategy has the added advantage that it can also
be used to encourage a replacement behavior if children can see the marbles
accumulating in the “occurrence” cup.
c. Use a golf counter or other similar device to record observations. Click the counter every time a child under observation is viewed emitting the target behavior. At the end of the session, an observer will look at the counter and record
the total.
d. Teachers can always just tally occurrences on an adhesive note or in a notebook.
Question #2: Is the Behavior Continuous?
What should be done if a behavior is not discrete, or if counting the behavior cannot fairly
represent it? Ongoing behavior or a behavior without a clear onset and/or conclusion is considered continuous behavior, and requires a measurement other than event, frequency, or
rate (see Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: Observation of continuous behavior
ሁሁ There are a number of ways to document observations of continuous behavior.
Duration
Behavior that
is continuous
Latency
Interval/
time sampling
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Observational Assessment Strategies
Section 4.4
Continuous behaviors for which event recording would not be best include:
• Behaviors that usually last longer than 1 minute. For example, a child’s sustained
engagement with a book usually lasts longer than one minute and is not best represented by counting the number of book engagements.
• Behaviors for which the length of time is highly variable. For example, a child may
actively participate with peers in problem-based activity for 1 minute one day and
15 minutes another day. It would be imprudent to count both examples of active
participation with the same designation as one event.
• Behaviors that occur very infrequently but are important targets of assessment and
intervention and cannot be fully appreciated by simply counting. An example of this
kind of behavior would be a child who is physically self-destructive who may only
try to injure herself periodically, with weeks between occurrences.
The commonality in all of these situations is time. Continual behaviors happen over sustained
and/or variable windows of time and require distinct and specific tools to document.
Duration Data
Once it has been determined that the behavior is continuous, an alternative observation
method should be used, specifically one that accounts for time. Generally, when documenting a continuous behavior, a teacher would ask, “How much time does the child spend
engaged in the target activity?” The simplest way to answer this question is through a duration recording.
A duration recording is a way to time the total engagement in an activity or the amount of
time it takes a child to complete a task, such as an assignment. Thus, duration is a record of
the amount of time passed. To conduct a duration recording, simply engage a stopwatch when
the child begins the activity, pause it when the child stops, and resume it when the child reengages. Continue this process for the entire observation period.
An example can help illustrate. Suppose Angelo seems particularly withdrawn lately. His
teacher notices that he spends most of his free time by himself. When placed into group activities for team problem solving, Angelo participates only when directly addressed by his teammates. Before making any decisions, his teacher wants to find out exactly how much time or
the duration of time he spends engaged with others during his morning free period. Using
the following assessment format (see Figure 4.7) created just for this observation, she uses a
timer and records Angelo’s interactions.
Angelo’s teacher finds that Angelo was engaged 7 out of 30 minutes. To determine if this
amount of engagement is unusual, the teacher also observes three other children selected at
random. She finds that the other children spend on average 15 minutes interacting with peers
during their free period. Consequently, concern for Angelo seems to be justified. After an intervention plan is developed to help Angelo become more social during free period, his teacher
uses the same duration observation form to monitor whether he is becoming less isolated.
In the case of Angelo, it would not have been useful to record how many times Angelo interacted with peers, as this may have been the same each day or the same as other children.
What is useful is knowing how long those interactions ultimately were. It is the duration of
the behavior that results in helpful data.
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
Figure 4.7: Sample duration recording
ሁሁ The duration of Angelo’s engaged time is determined by starting the stopwatch when he enters
an interaction and stopping it when he disengages. Subtract the beginning time from the end time to
calculate minutes of engagement. Repeat the process each time Angelo engages during the 30-minute
observation period. A total of all the minutes of interaction yield duration.
Angelo: Time spent engaged with peers during free time
Date
11/4/14
Observation beginning time
10:00
Observation ending time
10:30
Beginning of interaction
End of Interaction
Time
10:03
10:05
2 min
10:17
10:18
1 min
10:22
10:26
4 min
Total time engaged
7 min
Total observation time
30 min
Latency Data
Some children are simply slow to start an assignment, and some are so slow to start that their
procrastination becomes a problem. These children waste valuable learning opportunities
and are at a much higher risk of engaging in behaviors that are a distraction to themselves
and others. Therefore, a teacher may want to help a child reduce the latency of task initiation.
In early childhood education, latency may be defined as the time that passes from the point at
which a child is given a prompt to begin an activity and when the child actually begins it. The
longer a child waits to start the activity, the longer the latency.
The following example illustrates when latency is the best observational method of choice.
Suppose that Sophia is very popular with her peers—so much so that when it comes time to
begin a project, it is very difficult to direct her to get started and stop visiting with her friends.
Exasperated by the frequent need to remind Sophia to begin her assigned activity, her teacher
decides she needs a more formal assessment and possible intervention. The purpose is to
reduce the latency, or length of time it takes Sophia to begin an activity, once instruction is
given to do so.
First, Sophia’s teacher must collect baseline data for comparative purposes. A baseline is how
the child behaves under typical conditions without intervention or changes being used. To
collect baseline data, Sophia’s teacher starts a stopwatch immediately after the instruction to
begin has been given, and then stops the watch when Sophia begins the activity. Using a data
collection form devised for the task, the teacher takes this measurement across three days to
ensure the data are representative (see Figure 4.8). Also, data are collected across three different kinds of activities to determine if Sophia might be avoiding particular activities.
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
Figure 4.8: Sample latency data collection
ሁሁ Sophia’s latency is determined by starting a stopwatch immediately after the instruction to begin
has been given, then stopping it when Sophia actually begins the activity. Subtracting the beginning
time (e.g., 10:15) from the end time (e.g., 10:22) will yield the latency time (7 minutes). Repeat the
process each time Sophia is instructed to begin activities. In this example, latency is calculated across
three different activities for 3 days. The results show that Sophia tends to begin dramatic play with a
shorter delay than for literacy, science, or number activities.
Sophia: Time it takes to begin an activity after instructions
Date
Activity A:
Literacy
Activity B:
Dramatic Play
Activity C:
Science and Numbers
Stopwatch
Start
Stop
Latency
Start
Stop
Latency
Start
Stop
Latency
10/1/14
10:15
10:22
7 min
1:15
1:16
1 min
12:30
12:45
15 min
10/3/14
10:13
10:22
9 min
1:20
1:22
2 min
12:28
12:35
7 min
10/4/14
10:00
10:14
14 min
1:15
1:15
0
12:31
12:39
8 min
Average
Latency
30 total minutes/3 days =
10 min
3 total minutes/3 days =
1 min
30 total minutes/3 days =
10 min
Sophia’s baseline data suggest that she is much more likely to delay beginning an activity
when it is associated with more structure and academic content. Many reasons may account
for this avoidance, but the point Sophia’s teacher takes away is that an intervention should
focus on motivating Sophia to become excited about learning across the curriculum. This pattern of avoidance for certain activities could have gone unnoticed without data collection, and
intervention would have been misguided. Once an intervention has been selected, her teacher
should monitor Sophia’s progress by continuing to collect data using the same form.
Interval Recording and Time Sampling
Thus far, duration and latency recording have been explained—duration to measure the total
amount of time during which a child engages in a targeted behavior; and latency to determine
how long it takes a child to begin an activity once instruction is given. Another procedure is
used to determine the percentage of time a child engages in a targeted behavior (see Figure
4.9). This procedure is called interval recording and refers to the division of an observation period into a set of smaller time frames called intervals. While interval recording is the
most accurate way to document continuous behavior data, it is also the most complex and
often requires multiple professionals in the same room in order to manage the data collection
and regular instruction practices. Consequently, interval recording is not the most practical
approach for most classroom teachers.
There are two solutions to this dilemma: time sampling and self-recording.
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Section 4.4
Observational Assessment Strategies
Figure 4.9: Sample interval recording
ሁሁ In this example, “x” is an interval of 5 minutes during which the child is engaged and “0” is a
5-minute period during which a child was distracted from the activity at hand.
Date
5'
10'
15'
20'
25'
30'
% Time Engaged
2/15
x
x
0
x
0
0
50%
2/16
x
0
0
x
0
0
33%
Time sampling is a form of interval recording during which an observer sets a timer to mark
the end of predetermined interval. The length of time can vary based on the behavior being
observed. If a behavior is very serious (physically putting the child or other children at risk)
and occurs very frequently, a teacher may wish to set the timer for 1 to 2 minutes. If the behavior is less serious (chewing on inappropriate items) intervals may be longer (3 to 5 minutes).
Intervals can be increased as a child becomes more proficient with regard to a behavior. For
example, if a child initially hits other children every few minutes, intervals may need to be 2 to
3 minutes long. As the teacher works with the child and her behavior is modified, the intervals
for observation can be increased until, over time, the behavior is infrequently observable or
eliminated completely. If a behavior occurs very rarely (for example, once or twice an hour),
this method of observation is not recommended, as the behavior would not be observed during many of the designated intervals.
Once the timer is engaged, the observer does not have to focus only on the child being monitored. When the timer goes off at the end of a 1- to 5-minute interval, the observer checks
to see whether the child being observed is engaged in the target behavior at that moment.
The occurrence or nonoccurrence is recorded, the timer reset, and the process begins again
until the observation period is complete. Any of the nonintrusive data collection procedures
described above (such as rubber bands on wrists) could be used to minimize time spent
recording while teaching.
Self-Recording
Self-recording is when educators teach children to monitor and record their own behavior.
This method can be used in a variety of simplified formats with children as young as five and
has several advantages over recording done by the teacher. First, children learn to be more
self-aware. In doing so they develop greater self-efficacy, which facilitates the development of executive
Reflection
functioning (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012; Warash,
Smith, & Root, 2011). Additionally, when children moniHave you ever collected data on your behavior?
tor their own behavior, educators are, at least partially,
What was the impact on your behavior, if so? If
you have not, what impact might self-recording
able to focus on other responsibilities. This is a win–win
have on behaviors such as time spent on yourself
combination: children’s development is enhanced more
or your eating habits?
than it would be by teacher intervention alone, and at
less human cost to educators.
Children are more honest when self-reporting than you might think, but educators still need to
be cautious when interpreting self-reported records. Children—particularly young children
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Observational Assessment Strategies
Section 4.4
in preschool and early elementary school who are cognitively and linguistically capable of
understanding, recalling, and expressing self-appraisal—tend to be highly reliable in reporting their own behavior, especially when they are asked to record only positive behavior (Nilson, 2013). Still, children must be trained to self-record and given opportunities for practice
and feedback.
Just as adults tend to sometimes collect flawed data, so do children. Therefore, it is advisable
to conduct occasional reliability checks in which an observer records at the same time as a
child, and provides feedback to the child to promote accuracy. This could be in the form of
positive reinforcement (“Look, you and I noted the same number of times that you got up to
get a drink!”) or guidance for future self-recording (“It looks like the times we recorded were
really different. You wrote down that you started working at 10:19, but I observed that you
started working at 10:27. Just make sure to check the clock as you start to work so that we get
the best information we can.”). Another strategy to help children more accurately self-record
is to give them a graphic organizer to color in at periodic points. For example, the teacher
could create a caterpillar with hollow body segments to be colored in by the student each
time she performs the target behavior, like staying in her seat (see Figure 4.10).
Figure 4.10: Caterpillar self-reporting tool
ሁሁ EC professionals can provide graphic ways for young children to self-report behavior, such as
coloring in a segment of a caterpillar after performing the target behavior.
Question #3: Is There a Need for Fluency?
Sometimes EC professionals will work with a child to increase her speed when performing a
target behavior. To determine baseline data and the impact of intervention, they will need an
observation mechanism that is able to accommodate timing. If an EC professional wants to
know how many times a child can complete x number of a target behavior, rate data can be
collected in the way described earlier.
Many teachers record early literacy skills, such as naming letters or making letter-sound
associations. Fluency, or the rate at which a child performs tasks, is an essential aspect of
proficiency, for several reasons. First, consider a child learning to play the piano. The child
may be able to read and play notes with 100% accuracy; but what if it takes the child three
seconds to process and play each note? The same is true for most knowledge and skills. To be
really useful, knowledge and skills must be at the ready and quickly accessible by the child.
The second reason fluency is important to learning is its resistance to degradation. Knowing
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Observational Assessment Strategies
Section 4.4
something and knowing how to access and use the information quickly ensures it will have
staying power.
Measuring children’s fluency should be a part of observational assessment because of its
relevance to easy access and long-term retention of information. In the same way rate data
was calculated above, we can calculate the speed of performance. For example, suppose children who are learning shapes are shown pictures and must name the shape. At first, the pictures are shown slowly to build accuracy of identification. Once pictures are recognized with
high or perfect accuracy, the pictures may be shuffled and shown as quickly as children can
name the shapes. If a child names 10 shapes in 1.5 minutes, the rate per minute is calculated
as follows:
10 ÷ 1.5 (minutes) = 6.7 vocabulary words per minute
In addition to the number of correct responses, error rates should also be measured and
calculated using the formula just presented to give educators a full picture of a child’s performance. By calculating both accuracy and error rates a teacher will see when speed should be
dialed back until accuracy is regained.
Question #4: How Much Help Is Available?
It should be noted that some observational recording methods (such as interval recording)
are more time consuming than others (such as self-reporting), and therefore require more of
an educator’s time. Many teachers avoid collecting observational data because it is simply too
much work and they think it distracts from teaching. Once it is made clear that assessment is
integral to teaching, the next step is to choose a tool that best measures the target behavior
and is the least intrusive for both the child and observer. For those with few resources, good
assessment tools include frequency data (for counting short duration behaviors) and time
sampling (to assess continuous behaviors).
Question #5: When Does the Behavior Occur?
Most behaviors that are of concern to early childhood educators appear many times a day.
However, some important behaviors—such as using the toilet or brushing teeth—occur infrequently. Other behaviors that have low frequency but are important to record include violent
behaviors or toileting incidents (such as wetting pants). Even though a teacher may only see
that behavior once a week (or less), a teacher will still want to know if a treatment strategy is
improving performance.
However, if a teacher can only collect data during a one hour period each day, not only is it
unlikely that the infrequent behavior will occur, but any changes in behavior will be hard to
detect. For example, if a child goes from engaging in extreme violence three times one week
to twice the next week, it is hard to tell if the behavior has actually improved due to an intervention or if the behavior just was not observed because of the limited observation window
each day.
Question #6: How Important Is Accurate Data?
As mentioned earlier, some data collection procedures (such as event data) are more precise than others (such as time sampling). A teacher may need to find a balance between
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Section 4.5
Functional Behavioral Assessments
time-consuming, highly accurate data collection methods and less time-consuming but moderately accurate data collection methods, depending on the resources available. In most cases
data will be used to inform decision making and may not need to be extremely precise. On the
other hand, data that are very inaccurate can be more harmful than no data at all, especially if
they lead instruction in the wrong direction.
How much data are needed? In general, there is no such thing as too much data, unless data
are collected but not used to help plan instruction. Observation data should be collected as
often as possible to provide the most complete picture. In an ideal world, data would be collected every time a child has an opportunity to engage in the targeted behavior. In reality,
though, data collection on key behaviors should happen two to three times a week.
By answering each of the previous six questions, EC professionals can select the best observational tool(s) available to collect meaningful and useful data. Remember, it will often be most
helpful to use a combination of measurement methods together.
Challenge
Complete the following chart to review the types of observational assessment.
Type of recording
How are data
collected?
When should
procedure be used?
Three examples of
behaviors
Event
Frequency
Rate
Duration
Latency
Interval
Refer to the Appendix for the answers.
4.5 Functional Behavioral Assessments
One important use of observation by EC professionals that has not been thoroughly explored
yet is functional behavioral assessment. The purpose of a functional behavioral assessment is
to determine why a behavior is occurring, and to use this information to plan an intervention
that can help change it. Without the information from an FBA, EC professionals may explain
challenging behaviors in ways that are not helpful, such as, “He is a bad child,” or “She learned
this behavior at home, where there is no discipline.” These excuses are of no help in planning
interventions to teach children alternative productive behaviors with greater self-efficacy.
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Section 4.5
Functional Behavioral Assessments
Although it is not within the scope of this chapter to comprehensively cover functional behavior assessment, it is important to have a working knowledge of FBA in order to understand
serious challenging behaviors and determine why a child behaves the way he or she does.
Once a professional understands why a child displays a behavior, appropriate, specific interventions can be used to correct it. In order to conduct a functional behavioral assessment that
will be most useful, it is important to understand the assumptions that underlie an FBA.
Assumptions Related to Functional Behavioral Assessments
Functional behavioral assessments are based on principles of behavior that are derived from
decades of research conducted with children and adults whose social–behavioral problems
ranged from mild to extreme. These behavioral principles provide a foundation for conducting and interpreting FBAs and are described in the following sections.
All Behavior Is Communication
Reflection
Can you think of a behavior (or behaviors) that is
not a communication?
Whether or not children verbalize their needs or wants,
their actions communicate for them. Every action communicates something, and children who act out are
communicating a need or want for which they do not
have the ability to verbalize. Conducting an FBA can
help an EC professional discover what need or want is
being communicated.
The Current Environment Sustains Behavior
Some behaviors have their origins in past events, but something in a child’s current environment is sustaining their behavior; otherwise, it would go away. A common example is
a tantrum. When children are very young, caregivers typically respond to infants’ distress
by comforting and cuddling. This parental responsiveness is important to healthy social and
emotional development, where babies learn that they are loved and safe. Over time though,
infants may, intentionally or not, begin to test the boundaries of this responsiveness by crying to have their needs and wants met. The extent to which caregivers provide children with
whatever they demand through such outbursts can lead to ever more dramatic displays.
Every child has tantrums; it is the extent to which these tantrums achieve the desired end
that tantrums are maintained. Parents who set reasonable limits, who outlast children’s tantrums, and who wait for more conventional communication about needs are likely to see the
frequency and duration of outbursts diminish.
Positive Change Strategies Are Most Effective
Historically, educators relied heavily on punishment, such as spanking and deprivation, to
suppress undesirable behaviors. Educators continue to use techniques to suppress behaviors, though they tend to be more subtle and less physical than those used in the past. Nevertheless, it is now clear that even the most severe and chronic behaviors respond better to
approaches that are positive over approaches that are aversive (Sonuga-Barke, 2011).
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Functional Behavioral Assessments
Section 4.5
Team Approaches Are Most Effective
When a child repeatedly engages in very challenging behavior, educators are best advised to
enlist the intellectual and emotional support of all stakeholders. Parents are the first level of
support and often have the most to gain from a resolution. In addition, colleagues, supervisors, and experts in the field should be involved in the assessment, planning, and intervention.
Behavior Serves a Function
Behaviors do not just communicate something; they communicate something specific. There
are three basic functions served by verbal and nonverbal behaviors: positive reinforcement,
escape or avoidance, and sensory. It is the satisfaction of these three functions that maintain
behaviors.
Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a specific behavior reoccurring. If a behavior is being maintained by positive reinforcement, then the child acts precisely to get that consequence. Children typically seek two
types of positive reinforcers:
• Attention. Many children behave in ways to get the attention of adults or peers. If
their behavior attracts attention (positive or negative), the function has been served
and children are more likely to act in the same way to get this attention again.
• Tangible. Children who have poor verbal communication and impulse control will
act out to get a toy, candy, and so on. A child who tantrums until his mother buys him
a toy is very likely to have another tantrum, because the behavior fulfilled its function to get a tangible.
Escape or Avoidance It is common for children to act out to escape or avoid doing something they find unpleasant or a circumstance that is not rewarding. For example, a child may
find that if he acts out he will be removed from challenging assignments. Removal fulfills the
need to escape. Escape and avoidance behaviors are more likely to occur when children lack
the background knowledge or prerequisite skills to succeed at the assignment or situation.
Sensory Children sometimes misbehave to communicate an unsatisfied biological need. For
some children, excessive noise or movement causes sensory discomfort. Not understanding why or not having the words to communicate this discomfort can lead to behaviors that
are disruptive and even harmful. Acting out may be an attempt to block out or escape from
unpleasant sensations. Other children have biological rhythms that cannot easily be quelled,
like the periodic desire to move. The need for movement is frequently misunderstood in
humans; it leads many children to act in ways that serve this function but are incompatible
with the structure of school settings, like rocking in a chair or running in halls.
Functional behavioral assessments are conducted to ascertain which of the functions
described above motivate children to engage in challenging behaviors. However, behavior
will not always fall neatly into one of these categories. Some children’s behavior is motivated
by multiple functions, in which case intervention may need to be more complex. Once an FBA
pinpoints the function(s), the goal is to teach replacement skills or behaviors that serve the
same function. For example, if a child is pulling other children’s hair to get attention, a teacher
should teach this child more acceptable ways to get a peer’s attention, such as using simple
phrases to enter play (“Can I play, too?”), and otherwise create opportunities for sustained
positive interactions.
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Functional Behavioral Assessments
Section 4.5
Observing Challenging Behaviors
An FBA is helpful for observing all challenging behaviors, but particularly for children whose
behavior is particularly out of the ordinary with respect to frequency or severity. Ideally, a
teacher would consider conducting an FBA shortly after the onset of ongoing, severe behavioral issues, but an FBA is usually conducted only after several other strategies and interventions have met with little success. This is because typical behavioral issues can be resolved
with teaching strategies and common interventions. It is only the most challenging behaviors
that are not resolved by standard practices and consequently require an FBA to target underlying causes and possible alternate interventions. FBAs are also time intensive, so EC professionals generally try less demanding forms of observation and intervention before attempting one.
The following behaviors warrant the effort needed to complete an FBA:
•
•
•
•
Behavior that is harmful or potentially harmful to a child or others
Behavior that seriously interferes with a child’s ability to learn
Behavior that results in property damage
Behavior that requires extraordinary human resources, like carrying a large child
who refuses to move or cleaning up after a toilet-trained child who chooses to urinate on the floor
• Behavior that results in humiliation, bullying, or undue negative attention by peers
or others (such as staring or laughing)
• Behavior that limits access to regular daily activities, like a child who runs away
from the group, requiring a teacher to hold his hand when leaving the classroom, or
not allowing the child to leave the classroom
There is no age restriction for conducting FBAs. Once an educator has determined that an FBA
will provide insight into a child, they will look at three different factors that typically maintain
problem behaviors: antecedents, setting events, and consequences. Educators can manipulate these factors to help children gain greater control of their world.
Antecedents
Events that happen immediately before a child engages in a targeted behavior are called antecedents, or triggers. For example, the alarm that goes off in the morning is a trigger to get up.
Antecedents can vary from environmental factors, like a bothersome noise, to interactions
with others, like being bullied.
Setting Events
Setting events are conditions that increase or decrease the likelihood that a child will engage
in the target behavior. Though the behavior might otherwise occur, under the circumstances,
triggering events in the environment are intensified. To build on the example of the alarm
clock, if we were up late last night working, or playing a computer game (setting events), that
trigger is less intense because we are more tired and will possibly react less to the alarm.
However, if there is an important or exciting event that day, this setting event also increases
the power of the alarm. As an example in ECE, suppose a teacher notices that Jill sometimes
starts crying uncontrollably when she is redirected (the antecedent). What the teacher has
yet to discover is that when Jill’s mother and father fight at home, which they often do, Jill is
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Functional Behavioral Assessments
Section 4.5
much more likely to cry when redirected. The setting event in this case is Jill’s parents fighting. Emotional, social, and biological setting events enhance or decrease the power of antecedents. In order to understand when and why behavior occurs, teachers must develop an
understanding of both setting events and antecedents.
Focusing on the Replacement
Observational data collection often focuses on challenging social behaviors such as
inattentiveness, destruction of property, violence toward other children, and inappropriate
verbalizations, since these are outward behaviors that professionals would often like to
change. It is for the same reason that spontaneous interventions also tend to focus on
these inappropriate behaviors. Spontaneous interventions arise in the moment, as teachers
try to react to the situation at hand. Teachers may react by reprimanding a child, removing
her from an activity, restricting access to enjoyable activities, or sending him home or
to the office. A problem with this approach is that the methods usually do not work for
children whose behavior is persistent and/or severe. For these children, strategies that
are meant to remind, isolate, or humiliate tend to have little effect because they actually
reinforce the problematic behavior rather than offering options for more positive
alternatives.
On the other hand, teachers may focus on teaching replacement behaviors—that is, those
that offer alternatives to problem behaviors. There are many direct and indirect benefits
to doing so. First, teaching replacement behaviors gives children the skills they are missing
that lead to inappropriate behaviors in the first place. When a teacher works on elimination
alone, a child who is misbehaving cannot change, because they have not been provided the
skills to change. For example, a child who hits other children whenever she is frustrated
could be sent to “time out” each time she hits. However, hitting will probably persist
because no alternative to hitting has been offered.
Second, when a teacher attempts to eliminate a behavior using aversive techniques, the
classroom, the activities, and even the teacher become associated with unpleasantness.
Consequently, children may want to avoid school. When these children get into trouble
again, as they invariably do, isolation and removal may actually reward behaviors that
remove them from activities that were not appealing in the first place. For example, a child
who does not like circle time may kick a classmate as soon as he gets to the circle each
day just because he knows that he will be removed from the circle and allowed to sit with
another teacher away from the group. By kicking other children, the child is “rewarded”
with one-on-one time with a teacher.
On the other hand, replacement behaviors offer positive alternatives to negative behavior.
In the case of the child who hits and is sent to time out, a teacher could teach strategies to
support the child’s language that help her “use her words” to handle frustration. Likewise,
the student who kicks during circle time could be given a special carpet square on which
to sit to clearly delineate personal space, or could be allowed to sit on a teacher’s lap
in the circle to offer a safe space where he receives the teacher’s attention, but also is
required to participate in the circle. By focusing on positive behaviors, teachers build on
a positive climate and create a classroom environment that sustains new replacement
behaviors. Thus, focusing on replacement behaviors, both in terms of intervention goals
and observational recording, channels teachers and students in a direction that supports a
healthy environment for all.
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Functional Behavioral Assessments
Section 4.5
Consequences
Consequences are typically used to describe punishment, as in, “There must be consequences
for children who break the rules.” However, consequences are actually neutral until an impact
on the behavior is observed. For example, teachers will often give stickers to children as a
reward. If a child sees no value in the sticker, then it cannot reinforce a particular behavior. A
successful consequence is one in which the student finds value. For instance, the consequence
of throwing sand might be that a child cannot continue to play in the sand. Because a child
throwing sand is most likely engaged with the sand, albeit inappropriately, the child will be
disappointed when removed from the sand, thereby establishing the value of the consequence.
All events that follow behavior have the potential to change it, either by increasing or decreasing the behavior’s frequency. Many intrusive behaviors are actually maintained by teachers,
who repeatedly reprimand children rather than redirecting or ignoring. Some children engage
in behavior to get attention and do not discriminate between attention that is detrimental
and attention that is affirming. Therefore, an analysis of consequences is an important part
of an FBA. Understanding antecedents, setting events, and consequences makes it possible to
examine the actual procedure of FBA.
Functional Behavioral Assessment Model
There are several FBA models, but the basic steps described here will help an EC professional
begin the process and provide good hypotheses on which intervention may be attempted.
Step 1: Interview
To identify important antecedents, setting events, and consequences that might be maintaining the target behavior, educators should interview several sources with whom the child has
direct contact. These include:
•
•
•
•
parents,
paraprofessionals,
other educators who work with the child, and
other family members or caregivers.
Example interview questions are provided at various websites, but a teacher should only use
these as a starting point and modify them as needed for each situation. Sample interviews are
found in Figures 4.11 and 4.12.
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Section 4.5
Functional Behavioral Assessments
Figure 4.11: Sample FBA interview
ሁሁ It is essential that interviewees feel that they are helping provide a solution and are as
forthcoming with observations as possible. The highlighted phrases are clues to the function of
Charlie’s behaviors. For example, the observation that Charlie does not like to be alone may indicate
that his behaviors are communicating a desire for attention.
Parent Interview
Date
November 12, 2013
Student
Charlie
Interviewer
Ms. Cooper
Teacher
Ms. Cooper
Location
School
Time
8:30 am
Age
3 years old
1. Do you have areas of concern in his behavior? If yes, what are they? Yes, he has become
very defiant, very “Charlie” like. He doesn’t listen to me. I can’t discipline him because he
thinks it’s funny. He doesn’t like being in his room alone with the door shut.
2. Do you observe these behaviors at home? If so, when do they tend to occur? He is like
this all day, but mainly when he wakes up in the morning or when he is tired in the afternoon.
3. What do you typically do when these behaviors occur? I try to ignore it, or set him on his
bed with no toys and shut the door.
4. Why do you think they occur? Because of his lack of ability to communicate.
Once an interview is completed, educators analyze the input and look for patterns that
help them generate a hypothesis about the targeted behaviors’ function(s). In the examples
provided, interviewees pointed to Charlie’s need for interaction with others, the attention
he desires, and his inability to garner attention through conventional communication and
social skills.
The paraprofessional also hinted that the one strategy that seemed to help Charlie was to leave
him alone, and Charlie’s mom also said she tried to ignore him when he acted out. Finally, the
paraprofessional made an astute observation that Charlie’s behavior tends to appear after he
has been sitting for a short time (and that his ability to sustain attention on a task is getting
shorter). Analyzing these results, Charlie’s teacher can form hypotheses regarding the function of his target behaviors. The hypotheses might look something like this:
Strong main hypothesis: Attention
Weak secondary hypotheses: Escape, Sensory need
Now that hypotheses have been formed, it is time to observe the child.
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Section 4.5
Functional Behavioral Assessments
Figure 4.12: Sample FBA interview
ሁሁ This interview follows up on the parent interview in Figure 4.11. The preschool paraprofessional
provides Ms. Cooper with more information about why Charlie may be acting out. The highlighted
phrases provide clues about the function served by his behaviors. For example, “can’t be understood
when he talks” may be an indicator that Charlie’s behaviors signal a need to get something (i.e.,
tangible, activity, food, or attention). Because he is misunderstood when he talks, he may be acting
out as a way to get what he needs or wants.
Paraprofessional Interview
Date
Nov. 12, 2013
Student
“Charlie”
Interviewer
Ms. Cooper
Teacher
Ms. Cooper
Location
In office
Time
6:40 pm
Age
3 years old
1. Do you have areas of concern in his behavior? If yes, what are they? Yes, his behaviors
have become more troublesome, more defiant, and less cooperative. He seems angrier and
sadder. His behaviors are getting in the way of his education
2. When do they tend to occur most frequently? When we ask him to sit for longer than he is
capable, which is very different and much shorter than last year. He tries to communicate,
but can’t be understood when he talks.
3. What do you typically do when these behaviors occur? Try to give him some space and
then reel him in when the time is right, giving him a chance to come back gracefully. I know I
can’t win the battle against his will, so I try to give him time.
4. Why do you think they occur? Because he is getting something out of it, he is craving
attention, he wants his presence to be known. He is getting attention out of it. He doesn’t
know how to get it in a positive way, so he gets it with the negative behavior. He has low
self-esteem, he doesn’t know how to socialize with the other students, they shun him and he
can’t communicate his thoughts to anyone.
5. Do the behaviors occur in the presence of certain people more than others? I don’t think
so, he behaves this way with adults and peers, at school and at home.
6. What do you think are some possible reinforcers of the behavior? Attention
Step 2: ABC Observation
Following the formulation of a hypothesis, a direct structured observation of the child should
occur. This observation should take place in the setting where the child is having problems,
since that is the most natural environment to observe possible contributing factors. The structured observation is called an ABC observation. It is conducted to find patterns that may exist
in antecedents and consequences, and to determine what may be triggering and maintaining
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Functional Behavioral Assessments
Section 4.5
the target behavior. ABC is a quick and easy way to remember the three components of this
type of observation:
A—Antecedent: Describing events that immediately precede behavior
B—Behavior: Describes what the child is doing
C—Consequence: Describes what happens immediately after the behavior
Some rules for ABC observation that EC professionals should keep in mind include the
following:
• A teacher may find that their own behavior—that is, the ways in which the teacher
interacts with the child—is contributing to the maintenance of a target behavior.
In this case it is best if someone else, possibly another teacher, a center director, or
principal conducts the observation.
• While it is tempting only to look at what happens before and after disruptive behavior, it can be equally instructive to find out what happens when a child is engaging
in alternative appropriate behaviors. To do this, a teacher should collect continuous
recordings that reflect both disruptive and appropriate behaviors.
• It is most useful to collect data using short intervals of equal length. If a behavior
occurs very frequently, 10 to15 second intervals are recommended. If a behavior
is less frequent, 1 to 2 minute intervals may be short enough to capture all that is
happening.
• Often, consequences delivered for one behavior become the antecedent for the next
behavior. For instance, if the consequence for throwing blocks is removal from the
block area, a child who throws a block and has to leave may get upset and have a tantrum. Leaving the block area is then both a consequence and an antecedent.
Figure 4.13 presents a sample ABC observation. You will notice that the log sheet provides a
place to record the time and each of the ABC components. This clear format provides an easy
mechanism for documentation and interpretation.
This ABC observation reveals a great deal of information about Anna. First, it appears that
she listens well and is excited about mathematics. However, when it comes to reading, she
often needs to be corrected and is also frequently disengaged and impolite to her mother. She
may be trying to get out of reading (which she eventually does) to avoid her mother’s yelling. The observation also reveals that when Anna is engaged and successful, her mother is
much more positive and encouraging. Anna does not receive much positive feedback during
reading, and the activity appears to be aversive for both Anna and her mother. It is possible
to form a strong hypothesis for Anna’s behavioral function: escape. Since she is encouraged
and engaged during math, it appears that Anna is also seeking positive reinforcement when
reading, which is a secondary hypothesis. With these broad hypotheses, it is possible to move
to the next step, in which rich information is collected that will guide the most appropriate
interventions.
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Section 4.5
Functional Behavioral Assessments
Figure 4.13: Sample ABC observation
ሁሁ In this example, the observer records Anna’s behavior in 2-minute intervals by describing the
conditions that happen before Anna acts (antecedents), the observed behavior, and what happens
after Anna’s behavior (including no consequences). This observation shows patterns that may
indicate events that trigger behavior and consequences that maintain behavior. Hypotheses about the
function can be derived from the ABC observation. For example, Anna clearly struggles with reading
and frequently attempts to avoid reading. Mom consistently reprimands Anna for digressions. These
reprimands appear to escalate off task, resulting in more reprimands. Mom does not provide any
positive consequences.
The student : Anna
Age: 7
Date: March 9, 2015 (Saturday)
Location: Home
Observer: Ms. Green
Activity: Reading
Teacher: Mom
Time
Antecedent
Behavior
Consequence
1. 3:15 PM
Mom prompts: “Begin
reading here” (points to
page).
Anna: “Then I
climbed to my bed.”
Mom: “Climbed onto
my bed.”
Mom: “Climbed onto
my bed.”
Anna looks at the
parent and continues
to read.
Mom smiles and
nods.
Anna: “I dig a bid
breath at her.”
Mom: “I did a big
breath at her.”
Anna looks down at
the floor and says, “I’ve
never done a big breath
at my teacher! I think
that makes me a good
student!”
Mom tells the
student to continue to
read.
Anna: “That day
Ms. Green told us to
draw about the farm trip.”
Mom: “Anna,
continue to read.”
Anna puts the book
down and looks at Ms.
Green. “Remember when
I went to Head Start to
look at the ducks!”
Mom: “You are not
funny, now read.”
2. 3:17 PM
Mom: “I did a big
breath at her.”
3. 3:19 PM
4. 3:21 PM
Mom: “Read it again.”
Mom: “You are not funny,
now read.”
Anna continues to
look at Ms. Green.
Mom: “Read that again
so I can understand
you. You aren’t making
sense.”
Anna is reading but it is
hard to understand
what she is saying.
Time
A
7. 3:27 PM
M
he
M
w
M
N
8. 3:29 PM
A
te
M
“I
te
9. 3:31 PM
M
D
M
G
ch
Mom: “ANNA!” Mom
is giving the child an
angry look.
10. 3:33 PM
11. 3:35 PM
12. 3:37 PM
A
in
13. 3:39 PM
A
m
14. 3:41 PM
A
d
15. 3:43 PM
A
m
16. 3:45 PM
A
m
Anna says: “NOOO!
I will only read it once!
Anna begins to read
again.
5. 3:23 PM
6. 3:25 PM
Anna continues reading.
Anna: “And we
showed no more farm
pictures.”
Anna stands up
and begins to walk
around the room.
Mom: ANNA, SIT
DOWN!
Mom prompts: “And
we did not show any
more farm pictures.”
Anna starts swinging
her arms. “I’m going
to draw a picture of
a farm at school, I think.”
Mom: “ANNA, SIT
DOWN RIGHT NOW!”
Mom: “ANNA, SIT DOWN
RIGHT NOW!”
Anna sits down.
(continued)
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015 (Saturday)
Figure 4.13: Sample ABC observation (continued)
Time
Antecedent
Behavior
Consequence
7. 3:27 PM
Mom: “Anna let’s start
here” (points to word).
Mom prompts: “Shopping
wasn’t fun at all.”
Anna sits back in
the chair and looks
around the room.
Mom: “Anna, please
continue to read.”
Mom: “ANNA, Read.
NOW!”
Anna stares at Ms.
Green.
Mom rubs temples:
“ANNA, Read. NOW!”
equence
“Climbed onto
d.”
smiles and
Anna takes a huge
breath and reads.
8. 3:29 PM
“I did a big
at her.”
Anna: “Instead,...