Running head: VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
1
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Varying Definitions of Online Communication and
Their Effects on Relationship Research
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Elizabeth L. Angeli
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State University
Author Note
Elizabeth L. Angeli, Department of Psychology, State University.
Elizabeth Angeli is now at Department of English, Purdue University.
This research was supported in part by a grant from the Sample Grant
Program.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth
Angeli, Department of English, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 55555.
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
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Abstract
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This paper explores four published articles that report on results from research conducted
on online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships and their relationship to
computer-mediated communication (CMC). The articles, however, vary in their
definitions and uses of CMC. Butler and Kraut (2002) suggest that face-to-face (FtF)
interactions are more effective than CMC, defined and used as “email,” in creating
feelings of closeness or intimacy. Other articles define CMC differently and, therefore,
offer different results. This paper examines Cummings, Butler, and Kraut’s (2002)
research in relation to three other research articles to suggest that all forms of CMC
should be studied in order to fully understand how CMC influences online and offline
relationships.
Keywords: computer-mediated communication, face-to-face communication
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
3
Varying Definitions of Online Communication and
Their Effects on Relationship Research
Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of Internet relationships,
focusing on the levels of intimacy, closeness, different communication modalities, and
the frequency of use of computer-mediated communication (CMC). However,
contradictory results are suggested within this research because only certain aspects of
CMC are investigated, for example, email only. Cummings, Butler, and Kraut (2002)
suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective than CMC (read: email) in
creating feelings of closeness or intimacy, while other studies suggest the opposite. To
understand how both online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships are affected
by CMC, all forms of CMC should be studied. This paper examines Cummings et al.’s
research against other CMC research to propose that additional research be conducted to
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better understand how online communication affects relationships.
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Literature Review
In Cummings et al.’s (2002) summary article reviewing three empirical studies on
online social relationships, it was found that CMC, especially email, was less effective
than FtF contact in creating and maintaining close social relationships. Two of the three
reviewed studies focusing on communication in non-Internet and Internet relationships
mediated by FtF, phone, or email modalities found that the frequency of each modality’s
use was significantly linked to the strength of the particular relationship (Cummings et
al., 2002). The strength of the relationship was predicted best by FtF and phone
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
4
communication, as participants rated email as an inferior means of maintaining personal
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relationships as compared to FtF and phone contacts (Cummings et al., 2002).
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found that participants corresponded less frequently with their Internet partner (5.2 times
Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed an additional study conducted in 1999 by the
HomeNet project (see Appendix A for more information on the HomeNet project). In
this project, Kraut, Mukhopadhyay, Szczypula, Kiesler, and Scherlis (1999) compared
the value of using CMC and non-CMC to maintain relationships with partners. They
per month) than with their non-Internet partner (7.2 times per month) (as cited in
Cummings et al., 2002). This difference does not seem significant, as it is only two times
less per month. However, in additional self-report surveys, participants responded
feeling more distant, or less intimate, towards their Internet partner than their nonInternet partner. This finding may be attributed to participants’ beliefs that email is an
inferior mode of personal relationship communication.
Intimacy is necessary in the creation and maintenance of relationships, as it is
defined as the sharing of a person’s innermost being with another person, i.e., selfdisclosure (Hu, Wood, Smith, & Westbrook, 2004). Relationships are facilitated by the
reciprocal self-disclosing between partners, regardless of non-CMC or CMC. Cummings
et al.’s (2002) reviewed results contradict other studies that research the connection
between intimacy and relationships through CMC.
Hu et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the frequency of Instant
Messenger (IM) use and the degree of perceived intimacy among friends. The use of IM
instead of email as a CMC modality was studied because IM supports a non-professional
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
5
environment favoring intimate exchanges (Hu et al., 2004). Their results suggest that a
positive relationship exists between the frequency of IM use and intimacy, demonstrating
that participants feel closer to their Internet partner as time progresses through this CMC
modality.
Similarly, Underwood and Findlay (2004) studied the effect of Internet
relationships on primary, specifically non-Internet relationships and the perceived
intimacy of both. In this study, self-disclosure, or intimacy, was measured in terms of
shared secrets through the discussion of personal problems. Participants reported a
significantly higher level of self-disclosure in their Internet relationship as compared to
their primary relationship. In contrast, the participants’ primary relationships were
reported as highly self-disclosed in the past, but the current level of disclosure was
perceived to be lower (Underwood & Findlay, 2004). This result suggests participants
turned to the Internet in order to fulfill the need for intimacy in their lives.
In further support of this finding, Tidwell and Walther (2002) hypothesized CMC
participants employ deeper self-disclosures than FtF participants in order to overcome the
limitations of CMC, e.g., the reliance on nonverbal cues. It was found that CMC partners
engaged in more frequent intimate questions and disclosures than FtF partners in order to
overcome the barriers of CMC. In their 2002 study, Tidwell and Walther measured the
perception of a relationship’s intimacy by the partner of each participant in both the CMC
and FtF conditions. The researchers found that the participants’ partners stated their
CMC partner was more effective in employing more intimate exchanges than their FtF
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
6
partner, and both participants and their partners rated their CMC relationship as more
intimate than their FtF relationship.
Discussion
In 2002, Cummings et al. stated that the evidence from their research conflicted
with other data examining the effectiveness of online social relationships. This statement
is supported by the aforementioned discussion of other research. There may be a few
possible theoretical explanations for these discrepancies.
Limitations of These Studies
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The discrepancies identified may result from a number of limitations found in the
materials reviewed by Cummings et al. These limitations can result from technological
constraints, demographic factors, or issues of modality. Each of these limitations will be
examined in further detail below.
Technological limitations. First, one reviewed study by Cummings et al. (2002)
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examined only email correspondence for their CMC modality. Therefore, the study is
limited to only one mode of communication among other alternatives, e.g., IM as studied
by Hu et al. (2004). Because of its many personalized features, IM provides more
personal CMC. For example, it is in real time without delay, voice-chat and video
features are available for many IM programs, and text boxes can be personalized with the
user’s picture, favorite colors and text, and a wide variety of emoticons, e.g., :). These
options allow for both an increase in self-expression and the ability to overcompensate
for the barriers of CMC through customizable features, as stated in Tidwell and Walther
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
7
(2002). Self-disclosure and intimacy may result from IM’s individualized features,
which are not as personalized in email correspondence.
Demographic limitations. In addition to the limitations of email, Cummings et
al. (2002) reviewed studies that focused on international bank employees and college
students (see Appendix B for demographic information). It is possible the participants’
CMC through email was used primarily for business, professional, and school matters
and not for relationship creation or maintenance. In this case, personal self-disclosure
and intimacy levels are expected to be lower for non-relationship interactions, as this
communication is primarily between boss and employee or student and professor.
Intimacy is not required, or even desired, for these professional relationships.
Modality limitations. Instead of professional correspondence, however,
Cummings et al.’s (2002) review of the HomeNet project focused on already established
relationships and CMC’s effect on relationship maintenance. The HomeNet researchers’
sole dependence on email communication as CMC may have contributed to the lower
levels of intimacy and closeness among Internet relationships as compared to nonInternet relationships (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). The barriers of non-personal
communication in email could be a factor in this project, and this could lead to less
intimacy among these Internet partners. If alternate modalities of CMC were studied in
both already established and professional relationships, perhaps these results would have
resembled those of the previously mentioned research.
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
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Conclusions and Future Study
In order to gain a complete understanding of CMC’s true effect on both online
and offline relationships, it is necessary to conduct a study that examines all aspects of
CMC. This includes, but is not limited to, email, IM, voice-chat, video-chat, online
journals and diaries, online social groups with message boards, and chat rooms. The
effects on relationships of each modality may be different, and this is demonstrated by
the discrepancies in intimacy between email and IM correspondence. As each mode of
communication becomes more prevalent in individuals’ lives, it is important to examine
the impact of all modes of CMC on online and offline relationship formation,
maintenance, and even termination.
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
References
Cummings, J. N., Butler, B., & Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of online social
relationships. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108.
Hu, Y., Wood, J. F., Smith, V., & Westbrook, N. (2004). Friendships through IM:
Examining the relationship between instant messaging and intimacy. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, 38-48.
Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on
disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one
another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28, 317-348.
Underwood, H., & Findlay, B. (2004). Internet relationships and their impact on primary
relationships. Behaviour Change, 21(2), 127-140.
Start the reference list on a new page, center the title “References,” and
alphabetize the entries. Do not underline or italicize the title. Double-space all
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9
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
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Appendix A
The HomeNet Project
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Started at Carnegie Mellon University in 1995, the HomeNet research project has
involved a number of studies intended to look at home Internet usage. Researchers began
this project because the Internet was originally designed as a tool for scientific and
corporate use. Home usage of the Internet was an unexpected phenomenon worthy of
extended study.
Each of HomeNet’s studies has explored a different facet of home Internet usage,
such as chatting, playing games, or reading the news. Within the past few years, the
explosion of social networking has also proven to be an area deserving of additional
research. Refer to Table A1 for a more detailed description of HomeNet studies.
Table A1
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Description of HomeNet Studies by Year
Year of Study
1995-‐1996
1997-‐1999
1998-‐1999
2000-‐2002
Contents of Study
93 families in Pittsburgh involved in school
or community organizations
25 families with home businesses
151 Pittsburgh households
National survey
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VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
Appendix B
Demographic Information for Cummings et al. (2002)’s Review
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11
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
How does the internet influence on society nowadays
JUNHAO WANG
State University
1
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
2
Abstract
This article explores three published articles that report on the results of the Internet
for human beings to provide free forums and the development of the Internet to provide a
huge business opportunity for mankind. This article also provides a different study of the
results of the Internet on the human body and other aspects of the harm. Through these
descriptions to show the importance of the Internet in today's times.
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
3
How does the internet influence on society nowadays
The process of Internet development is the process of global networks
and information, the impact of the future society is difficult to describe accurately,
but experts believe that although some things still feel the novel, perhaps ten
years later, it will become indispensable to our lives a part of. Some of the
changes in the Internet today provide people with a lot of reflections on social life,
economics, science and technology, and politics. That is why I think the internet is
so important in today's society.
Why is the impact of the Internet today on society so important, because
of the Internet for human society to provide the first global library, is also the first
global forum? Anyone, no matter anywhere in the world, at any time, no one can
access the internet, the internet will never shut down. And, no matter who you are,
will be welcome. You will not be different from the color, wearing different,
various religious beliefs are excluded. In today's world, the only no border, no
discrimination, no political life circle belongs to the Internet. Through the
dissemination of network information, any one person in the world, regardless of
nationality, race, gender, age, the gap between wealthy and poor, to teach each
other's experience and knowledge, expression of ideas and views.
Social Networking Life certainly has changed and evolved with social networking
being in the epicenter of everything. People are far better connected than ever.
Gone are those days
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
4
when you can only be connected to a selected few. The youth believes in social
networking and is very well connected. Websites like facebook, twitter etc have
had a major impact. Reaching anyone has become so easy.( Sarkar,,2016)
The second reason why the impact of the Internet on society is so important
because the Internet offers a lot of business opportunities. Because one of the
important signs of human social progress is the innovation and invention of tools.
The Internet has a great
tool with the advantages and characteristics, it can
determine the traditional enterprises to bring "income, savings, efficiency, hedge"
role, so that enterprises in creating network brand, expand sales channels,
promotion and Promote enterprises and products, to strengthen communication
with consumers, to collect all kinds of business information, accurate market
research, improve after-sales service, reduce costs, integration of resources and so
play a critical role. The following are the same as the "Times in development, the
business can be traditionally, but tools must be updated. This is the traditional
enterprises must be in line with the urgency of
the Internet. From which also contains a lot of business opportunities! For
example, e-commerce is one of the opportunities. E-commerce has changed the
way we have done shopping and I believe the youth today is using it the most.
Shopping has become a matter of clicks and it is the internet that has helped us to
do, Exists today only because of such a model. ( Dentzel,2014) Therefore,The
Internet is one of the key factors driving today’s
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
5
economy. No one can afford to be left behind. Even in a tough macroeconomic
framework, the Internet can foster growth, coupled with enhanced productivity
and competitiveness.
The third reason why the impact of the Internet on society is so important
because Youth relies on internet to gather information. Learning and sharing of
knowledge has become so easy only because of internet. There are thousands of
website working towards the same mission and I do not want to start noting them
down. One need not wait to purchase a book to start absorbing knowledge,
material is now openly available and also, there is no shortage of assistance and
mentorship through various means. The Internet has clearly impacted all levels of
education by providing unbounded possibilities for learning. Dentzel (2014)
believe the future of education is a networked future. People can use the Internet
to create and share knowledge and develop new ways of teaching and learning
that captivate and stimulate students’ imagination at any time, anywhere, using
any device. By connecting and empowering students and educators, we can speed
up economic growth and enhance the well-being of society
throughout the world. We should work together, over a network, to build the
global learning society.
However, there are still some unfortunate phenomena in the network.
If we keep personal privacy on the computer, and perhaps some people will be
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
6
illegal means to steal our personal privacy and some valuable information. News
that feature almost on a daily basis around money laundering and looting,
exposing someone’s private life through various means, stealing sensitive
government information are disturbing for everyone of us and is the negative side
of the internet. The Internet is open, and there is no shortage of people who
access the internet only with malicious intent. Such is the magnitude of this
problem that Cyber Security now is a full-fledged career option. ( Dentzel,2014)
Since the Internet is a free forum, so we will see a variety of information on the
Internet, and some wrong information is needed for us to resist. Such as violence
and pornography. Some students are addicted to games and online dating
because of their lack of awareness of society and self-protection awareness. On
the Internet at the same time, we need to pay attention to the Internet time can
not be too long, if the long time to keep watching the computer, computer
radiation will endanger people's health. Internet Addiction Disorder - The biggest
negative impact has to be that it makes one addictive. It is hard to be a frequent n
regular use without falling into its addiction. There is a disease too that the
scientists believe it can give rise to and is termed as “Internet Addiction
Disorder” and it can have its adverse effects. Sedentary Lifestyle - It has also
largely contributed to the sedentary lifestyle.( Eqo,2016) Who would want to do
physical movement when almost everything is possible through a couple of clicks.
Be it banking, shopping, booking hospital, paying bills or even searching your
dream home, it's all so simple and fluidic on Internet. But this has made the youth
disease prone. We are prone to Obesity, Heart Ailments, and
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
7
even depression. Compare the youth with the previous generation, and we all
know for a fact that they are far more happier and healthier than we are.
In conclusion. The Internet has become an indispensable part of the
world today; it makes the earth into the information network village. It can not
only allow you to interact with friends at any time but also can achieve the sharing
of resources, so that we save the cost also improve the efficiency of the Internet or
a transcendental shuttle, it is not time and space constraints, you can achieve chat,
Watching movies, watching news and other activities. The Internet or a
personalized platform, any strange ideas can be on the Internet to get a proper
development and survival. At the same time the Internet industry is an open
platform, that is, we publish and accept information on the Internet is equal, not
subject to various restrictions. Such as status, identity and so on. Thus enabling us
to obtain a fair treatment.
Running head: How does the internet influence on society nowadays
8
References
Dentzel, Zaryn. "How the Internet Has Changed Everyday
Life." OpenMind. N.p., n.d. Web. May 10 2014
Sarkar, Soham Soumya. "What Is the Influence of Internet on
Society?"Https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-influence-of-internet-on-society.
N.p., n.d. Web. Sept 12 2016.
Eqo. "Essay on Negative Impact of Internet on Society." Short Essays on
Famous Quotes. Short Essays on Famous Quotes, Nov 26. 2016. Web.
Rubric (Junhao wang)
Final research paper 20% of your course grade
Similar to essay #2, but it's longer, has more research sources, APA instead of MLA
ORGANIZATION
Clear thesis:
Topic (what you will talk about)
Focus (is this causes? effects? comparison?)
Gives the main points that you are going to cover in the thesis
For every point in your thesis, you need a topic sentence in the body of the paper that's
connected to that point, with evidence to support the point.
Put your topics in the same order as the thesis statement.
Don't repeat exact same words = that's "redundant." You have to paraphrase yourself.
Good introduction and a good conclusion.
Skilled and appropriate transitions--when you move from one topic to another or start a new
paragraph, you usually need a transition of some kind. Look at Grammar Handout 04.
CONTENT
You really understood the subject. You did independent thinking about the subject. We can
see what your ideas are, in addition to what you got from research. You have to support your
own ideas with research.
RESEARCH
Look at the research paper assignment for the directions.
They have to be good, reliable sources.
In-text citations where you need them.
Your sources have to be appropriate for your topic
GRAMMAR
20 points--I can understand just fine. The mistakes are little mistakes that most non-native
writers make.
APA
20--points = no more than a few little mistakes
What is the most important thing about MLA or APA?
1) When I see facts in the paper, there is an in-text citation that tells me where to look on
your reference page. The first word in your reference must match the beginning of the entry
on the Reference/Works Cited page.
If are using a source with no author, you begin the Reference listing and the in-text citation
with the title instead of the author.
The important thing about the reference page is that your reader needs to be able to find the
source easily wherever you found it.
It's a big problem if you have facts in your paper if you have facts in your paper that need a
citation and there is no citation.
APA requirements.
Cover sheet with title, student name, Laney College, running head, page number
Your second page is an abstract = a one-paragraph summary of your paper
You can use subtitles for different sections of your paper, but they are not required. They will
help you to organize your own thinking and help your reader to follow your organization.
"References" at the end are the same thing as "Works Cited" in MLA. The information and
the order of the information is just a little bit different.
Appendix = something added to the end for more information. You are not required to have
these.
POINTS OFF FOR PLAGIARISM!
Rule -- do not quote more than four words in a row without quotation marks and a citation.
A really good research paper does more paraphrasing than quotation, but you still need to
cite the sources.
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