The head STarT Child developmenT and early learning Framework Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Families Office of Head Start R This document was prepared under Contract no. HHSP233201000415G of the Office of Head Start, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, by the Head Start Resource Center, 1000 Wilson Blvd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA 22209. December 2010 Dear Head Start Colleague, I am pleased to share this revision of the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework, renamed The Head Start Child Development and Learning Framework: Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old. The changes to the revised Framework are designed to provide more clarity to the domains and domain elements of the original Framework and do not create new requirements for Head Start grantees. The original Framework, published in 2000, was a groundbreaking document reflecting early childhood research at the time, as well as requirements of the 1998 Head Start Act. Its release created a wave of activity that focused Head Start grantees on key elements of school readiness and moved many states to develop early learning standards that mirrored elements of the Framework. The early childhood field has changed dramatically. The population of children served by Head Start and other early childhood programs continues to grow more diverse. New research has improved our understanding of school readiness, and the Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007 has increased the Framework’s role in Head Start programs. In addition, almost every state now has early learning standards. Also, new reporting systems have emerged at the state level and through the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) within the U.S. Department of Education. The Framework is revised in light of these realities. We expect the revised Framework to be used by programs in curriculum and assessment decisions just as the original Framework was intended to be used. It should also continue to be used to connect child assessment data to aspects of Head Start program design, including school readiness goals consistent with state and local expectations, if appropriate. Additionally, we expect it will guide the collection of child assessment data for other early childhood reporting systems, if locally required. When used in these ways, the revised Framework will provide data for program self-assessment and promote continuous quality improvement in programs and child well-being and success. The Office of Head Start is pleased to lead the field with this work. We hope that the revised Framework will continue to guide all programs serving 3 to 5 year old children, including children who are dual language learners and children with disabilities, on the key elements of school readiness. Thank you for the work you do every day for children and families. Sincerely, / Yvette Sanchez Fuentes / Yvette Sanchez Fuentes Director Office of Head Start The head STarT Child developmenT and early learning Framework Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old & Practice �Gross Motor Skills �Fine Motor Skills �Family & & Dance �Art �Drama n Develop al me nt Representation Sk ills ac Lang uag e& Lit �Receptive Language �Expressive Language � �Book Appreciation �Phonological Awareness ng ua ge Problem Solving �Symbolic Attentiveness �Cooperation er Co gn ge � owled Kn cs ati hem Mat & �Number Concepts & Quantities �Number Relationships & Operations �Geometry & Spatial Sense �Patterns �Measurement & Comparison �Reasoning & �Initiative & Curiosity �Persistence & y & on iti Knowledge of the Natural & Physical World o vel De Health & eral Knowledge Gen & Method �Conceptual �Music �Creative Movement � �Scientific Skills Health Socia sical l Phy pment & Emotio Community �History & Events �People & the Environment Cr e �Social Relationships �Self-Concept & Self-Efficacy �Self-Regulation �Emotional & Behavioral De ve lop me nt �Physical Health Status �Health Knowledge Social & Em otion al D eve � lop me nt s to Learning Approache � ills Sk & Health r s to Lea ning che oa pr Ap Knowledge & Skill s Science & ment elop Dev cal i � s y Ph on ssi pre Ex ts Ar ive � at Soc ial S tud ies Kn � owle dg e The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework provides Head Start and other early childhood programs with a description of the developmental building blocks that are most important for a child’s school and long-term success. Head Start children, 3 to 5 years old, are expected to progress in all the areas of child development and early learning outlined by the Framework. Head Start programs also are expected to develop and implement a program that ensures such progress is made. The Framework is not appropriate for programs serving infants and toddlers. (The Framework appears below and full-size on page 6.) �Alphabet Knowledge �Print Concepts & La Conventions �Early Writing � Reas oning � e& ledg Know Literacy Language Devel men gllsisih h Language Develoop pmentt ng EEn � Log ic & lls Ski �Receptive English Language Skills �Expressive English Language Skills �Engagement in English Literacy Activities The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework 1 THE ROLE OF THE HEaD STarT CHiLD DEvELopmEnT anD EarLy LEarning FramEwork IN HEAD START PROgRAmS The Framework outlines the essential areas of development and learning that are to be used by Head Start programs to establish school readiness goals for their children, monitor children’s progress, align curricula, and conduct program planning. It does not provide specific benchmarks or levels of accomplishment for children to achieve during their time in Head Start. The Framework reflects the legislative mandates of the Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007 and current research in child development and learning. The Framework also reflects Head Start’s core value to promote all aspects of child development and learning in early childhood programs. This Framework is a revision of the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework that was issued in 2000. The original Framework was created to guide programs in curriculum implementation and the ongoing assessment of children’s progress. However, the Head Start Act of 2007 makes the Framework significantly more prominent in the operations of programs serving 3 to 5 year olds. The Act requires programs to align program goals and school readiness goals for children to the Framework. Also, their curricula, assessments, and professional development activities are to align with the Framework. In this new context, the elements of the Framework act as beacons that guide all key aspects of Head Start program implementation. 2 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework WHAT IS INCLUDED IN THE HEAD START CHILD DEvELOPmENT AND EARLY LEARNINg FRAmEWORk? The Framework is organized into 11 Domains, 37 Domain Elements, and over 100 Examples. The domains and domain elements are organized in a similar way to the original Framework to facilitate a transition to the revised one. The organization of the Framework into domains and domain elements does not imply that Head Start programs are to compartmentalize learning or learning activities, or organize the daily schedule by the specific domains. Head Start programs are to address the domains in an integrated way, using intentional instruction and scaffolded learning throughout the day. For example, dramatic play can promote language development, literacy, and math skills. And children can learn about science and social studies concepts through literacy activities, as well as through creative arts and outdoor play. The domains The 11 Domains represent the overarching areas of child development and early learning essential for school and long-term success. The eight domains of the original Framework, listed below, are retained and in some cases renamed. The domains in the revised Framework are: r Physical Development & Health r Social & Emotional Development r Approaches to Learning r Language Development r Literacy knowledge & Skills r mathematics knowledge & Skills r Science knowledge & Skills r Creative Arts Expression Three additional domains have been added: r Logic & Reasoning r Social Studies knowledge & Skills r English Language Development While 10 of the 11 domains apply to all children, one domain—English Language Development— applies only to children who speak a language other than English at home, also referred to as children who are dual language learners. In the Framework, each domain begins with a short definition and an explanation of why the domain is important for children’s development and learning. Figure 1 on page 6 represents all the domains, indicating that they are interrelated and represent the “whole child.” The domain elements Each domain includes Domain Elements that more specifically define its components. The domain of Science Knowledge & Skills, for example, is composed of two domain elements: Scientific Skills & Method and Conceptual Knowledge of the Natural & Physical World. The domain elements included in the original Framework have been revised, and domain elements have been created for the new domains. The areas of child development and early learning included in the Framework are developmentally appropriate across the 3 to 5 year old age range. Children’s knowledge and skills within a domain element will vary by age. For example, a 3-year-old’s early writing ability may be demonstrated by scribbles and letter-like forms, whereas a 5-year-old nearing kindergarten may be writing letters, his or her name, and short words. Additionally, within any age group, children will show variation in their abilities and skills. Some 4-year-olds may be making letter-like forms and others writing their names. Head Start programs can expect progress within each domain element, recognizing that the rate of progress and the form it takes will vary depending on factors that affect individual children. Finally, a number of domain elements in the Framework are closely associated with executive function. Although there is not a standard definition, executive function in young children is used to describe cognitive processes that support a child’s ability to regulate attention and behavior and in turn, develop greater social, emotional, and cognitive competence. Executive function is believed to include inhibitor y control (the ability to regulate attention and emotion), working memor y (the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind), and cognitive flexibility (the ability to shift attention and modify responses based on new situations and information). The development of executive function lays the foundation for adaptive, goaldirected thinking and behavior that enables children to override more automatic or impulsive actions and reactions. Research suggests that executive function is strongly correlated with positive developmental and academic outcomes. The Framework does not include a separate executive function domain. However, several domain elements, such as self-regulation and attention, are closely related to executive function. Most domain elements include behaviors or skills that are affected by a child’s executive functioning. The examples Finally, a number of Examples are included under each domain element to provide more information about the key knowledge, behaviors, Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 3 or skills within each element. The examples are not designed to be comprehensive, and there may be other skills and behaviors that also reflect the respective domain element. Equally important, the examples themselves are not to be used to assess the progress of children on the domain elements. The Framework is not a checklist to evaluate a child’s development and learning. Rather, the Framework guides the choice of assessment instruments and serves as a way to organize the data collected from those instruments. THE ROLE OF THE FRAmEWORk IN CURRICULUm DECISIONS A Head Start program needs to make curriculum decisions that take into account a number of factors. A program is required to use a curriculum that is developmentally appropriate, research-based, and aligned to the Framework. Given that the Framework addresses all areas of child development and learning, the requirement to align is meant to ensure that Head Start programming is not narrowly focused on certain domains, or that lesser attention is paid to some domains. In fact, programs may find that curriculum adaptations or additional curricula are necessary to address all the domains or to be culturally and linguistically responsive to children, families, and communities. Teaching needs to be intentional and focus on how preschool children learn. Investigation and exploration; purposeful, engaged play; and intentional, scaffolded instruction based on the developmental level of each child are essential elements of appropriate practice in Head Start programs. Programs conduct ongoing child assessment throughout the year to determine if instructional strategies need to be adapted to meet children’s specific needs. 4 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework THE ROLE OF THE FRAmEWORk IN ASSESSmENT DECISIONS Programs are required to choose child assessment instruments that are reliable and valid; developmentally, linguistically, and culturally appropriate for the population served; and aligned with the Framework. Programs utilize the Framework in determining which child assessment instruments to use and which types of child data to collect. The Framework serves as a lens for analyzing data in order to understand child progress and to identify areas that need additional resources and attention. Multiple assessment tools or procedures may be needed to fully understand children’s progress across all areas of child development and early learning. USINg THE FRAmEWORk TO SUPPORT THE DEvELOPmENT AND LEARNINg OF CHILDREN WHO ARE DUAL LANgUAgE LEARNERS Children who speak a language other than English at home—recognized as dual language learners (DLLs)—represent a significant proportion of the children served in Head Start. Programs use the Framework to guide curriculum, assessment, and other programming decisions, keeping in mind that they are serving children who need to continue to develop their first language while they acquire English. Programs are to ensure that children who are DLLs progress on each of the domain elements in the Framework. Also, programs are to ensure that children have opportunities to interact and demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. At the same time, Head Start programs need to promote the acquisition of English for children who are DLLs. The domain of English Language Development applies only to these children and contains domain elements that focus on their receptive and expressive language skills and their participation in literacy activities. Children’s progress in learning English will vary depending upon their past and current exposure to English, their temperament, their age, and other factors. Finally, when assessing children who are DLLs, staff needs to understand that the purpose of assessment is to learn what a child knows and is able to do. With the exception of assessing a child’s English language development, assessment does not depend on a child’s understanding or speaking abilities in English, but on the specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that the assessment measures. For example, a child can demonstrate an understanding of book knowledge or science concepts in the home language. Assessing a child who is a DLL only in English will rarely give an accurate or complete picture of what the child knows or can do. Programs need to choose assessment instruments, methods, and procedures that use the language or languages that most accurately reveal each child’s knowledge, skills, and abilities. The assessment data gathered in the home language can be used to inform instructional practices and curriculum decisions to maximize the child’s learning. Programs are to use culturally and linguistically appropriate assessments to capture what children who are DLLs know and can do in all areas of the Framework. USINg THE FRAmEWORk TO SUPPORT CHILD DEvELOPmENT AND EARLY LEARNINg OF CHILDREN WITH DISAbILITIES The Framework is designed to support the development and learning of children with disabilities. Programs are to use the Framework to support the development of a child’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) and to guide the assessment of the child’s progress. Developing the IEP is done in close collaboration with the special educators and related service providers identified on the IEP. Some children may need more individualized or intensive instruction in order to make progress on the domain elements in the Framework. Some may require accommodations in the environment or adaptive or assistive technology in order to participate in learning experiences that promote progress. Staff needs to understand that children with disabilities can demonstrate what they know and can do in various ways. Children can make use of individual modifications or assistive technology while being assessed. In some cases, an assessment instrument may not be sensitive enough to detect small changes in development and learning, and the child may not appear to be making progress on a specific domain element. It is important to document small, incremental progress that may not be reflected on a particular assessment instrument. By monitoring the progress of children with disabilities, programs can decide if different or more intensive learning experiences and adaptations are needed. Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 5 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3-5 Years Old The Framework represents the foundation of the Head Start Approach to School Readiness. It aligns with and builds from the five essential domains of school readiness identified by the National Education Goals Panel (see inner circle) and lays out essential areas of learning and development. The Framework can be used to guide curriculum, implementation, and assessment to plan teaching and learning experiences that align to school readiness goals and track children's progress across developmental domains. The domains  and domain elements  apply to all 3 to 5 year olds in Head Start and other early childhood programs, including dual language learners and children with disabilities. FIGURE 1 Family & ge Representation Sk ills y ac La ng e uag & Lit Receptive Language Expressive Language  Book Appreciation Phonological Awareness Alphabet Knowledge Print Concepts & La Conventions Early Writing Log ic &  Reas oning English Language Development The ten domains above apply to all children. One domain, English Language Development, applies only to children who are dual language learners (DLLs). These children speak a language other than English at home. 6 Attentiveness Cooperation ng ua ge Co gn Kn  owled cs ati hem Mat Problem Solving Symbolic Initiative & Curiosity Persistence & er Number Concepts & Quantities Number Relationships & Operations Geometry & Spatial Sense Patterns Measurement & Comparison Reasoning & & & Dance Art Drama o Develop nal me nt eral Knowledge Gen & on iti o vel De Health &  Knowledge of the Natural & Physical World Music Creative Movement The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework  & dge owle n K y Literac ills Sk Receptive English Language Skills Expressive English Language Skills Engagement in English Literacy Activities st Approache o Learning & Method Conceptual Health Socia sical l Phy pment & Emoti Community History & Events People & the Environment Cr e Social Relationships Self-Concept & Self-Efficacy Self-Regulation Emotional & Behavioral De ve lop me nt & Practice Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills Scientific Skills  Physical Health Status Health Knowledge nguage Dev pme glish LLaanguage Deveelloop men EEn ntt nglsih  ills Sk Social & Em otion al D eve  lop me nt s to Learning che oa pr Ap Knowledge & Skill s Science & & Health ment elop v e D cal  ysi h P on ssi pre Ex ts Ar ive  at Soc ial S tud ies Kn  owle dg e  Domain  Domain Element rPhysical deVeloPMent & health Physical Development & Health refers to physical well-being, use of the body, muscle control, and appropriate nutrition, exercise, hygiene, and safety practices. Early health habits lay the foundation for lifelong healthy living. Equally important, physical well-being, health, and motor development are foundational to young children’s learning. Motor skills permit children to fully explore and function in their environment, and support development in all other domains. Health problems, delays in physical development, and frequent illnesses interfere with children’s ability to learn and are associated with a range of poor developmental and educational outcomes. In the domain of Physical Development & Health, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for physical health & development for 3 to 5 year olds are: u Physical health status The maintenance of healthy and age appropriate physical well-being. • Possesses good overall health, including oral, visual, and auditory health, and is free from communicable or preventable diseases. • Participates in prevention and management of chronic health conditions and avoids toxins, such as lead. • Maintains physical growth within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended ranges for weight by height by age. • Gets sufficient rest and exercise to support healthy development. u health Knowledge & Practice The understanding of healthy and safe habits and practicing healthy habits. • Completes personal care tasks, such as dressing, brushing teeth, toileting, and washing hands independently from adults. • Communicates an understanding of the importance of health and safety routines and rules. • Follows basic health and safety rules and responds appropriately to harmful or unsafe situations. • Distinguishes food on a continuum from most healthy to less healthy. • Eats a variety of nutritious foods. • Participates in structured and unstructured physical activities. • Recognizes the importance of doctor and dentist visits. • Cooperates during doctor and dentist visits and health and developmental screenings. …Continued on next page Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 7 rPhysical deVeloPMent & health …Continued from previous page u gross Motor sKills The control of large muscles for movement, navigation, and balance. • Develops motor control and balance for a range of physical activities, such as walking, propelling a wheelchair or mobility device, skipping, running, climbing, and hopping. • Develops motor coordination and skill in using objects for a range of physical activities, such as pulling, throwing, catching, kicking, bouncing or hitting balls, and riding a tricycle. • Understands movement concepts, such as control of the body, how the body moves (such as an awareness of space and directionality), and that the body can move independently or in coordination with other objects. u Fine Motor sKills The control of small muscles for such purposes as using utensils, self-care, building, and exploring. • Develops hand strength and dexterity. • Develops eye-hand coordination to use everyday tools, such as pitchers for pouring or utensils for eating. • Manipulates a range of objects, such as blocks or books. • Manipulates writing, drawing, and art tools. 8 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework rsocial & eMotional deVeloPMent Social & Emotional Development refers to the skills necessary to foster secure attachment with adults, maintain healthy relationships, regulate one’s behavior and emotions, and develop a healthy concept of personal identity. Positive social and emotional development provides a critical foundation for lifelong development and learning. In early childhood, social and emotional well-being predicts favorable social, behavioral, and academic adjustment into middle childhood and adolescence. It helps children navigate new environments, facilitates the development of supportive relationships with peers and adults, and supports their ability to participate in learning activities. Children with emotional or behavioral challenges are likely to receive less adult support for development and learning and to be more isolated from peers. In the domain of Social & Emotional Development, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for Social & emotional development for 3 to 5 year olds are: u social relationshiPs The healthy relationships and interactions with adults and peers. • Communicates with familiar adults and accepts or requests guidance. • Cooperates with others. • Develops friendships with peers. • Establishes secure relationships with adults. • Uses socially appropriate behavior with peers and adults, such as helping, sharing, and taking turns. • Resolves conflict with peers alone and/or with adult intervention as appropriate. • Recognizes and labels others’ emotions. • Expresses empathy and sympathy to peers. • Recognizes how actions affect others and accepts consequences of one’s actions. u selF-concePt & selF-eFFicacy The perception that one is capable of successfully making decisions, accomplishing tasks, and meeting goals. • Identifies personal characteristics, preferences, thoughts, and feelings. • Demonstrates age-appropriate independence in a range of activities, routines, and tasks. …Continued on next page Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 9 rsocial & eMotional deVeloPMent …Continued from previous page • Shows confidence in a range of abilities and in the capacity to accomplish tasks and take on new tasks. • Demonstrates age-appropriate independence in decision making regarding activities and materials. u selF-regulation The ability to recognize and regulate emotions, attention, impulses, and behavior. • Recognizes and labels emotions. • Handles impulses and behavior with minimal direction from adults. • Follows simple rules, routines, and directions. • Shifts attention between tasks and moves through transitions with minimal direction from adults. u eMotional & BehaVioral health A healthy range of emotional expression and learning positive alternatives to aggressive or isolating behaviors. • Expresses a range of emotions appropriately, such as excitement, happiness, sadness, and fear. • Refrains from disruptive, aggressive, angry, or defiant behaviors. • Adapts to new environments with appropriate emotions and behaviors. 10 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework raPProaches to learning Approaches to Learning refers to observable behaviors that indicate ways children become engaged in social interactions and learning experiences. Children’s approaches to learning contribute to their success in school and influence their development and learning in all other domains. Children’s ability to stay focused, interested, and engaged in activities supports a range of positive outcomes, including cognitive, language, and social and emotional development. It allows children to acquire new knowledge, learn new skills, and set and achieve goals for themselves. Many early learning experts view approaches to learning as one of the most important domains of early childhood development. In the domain of Approaches to Learning, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for approaches to learning for 3 to 5 year olds are: u initiatiVe & curiosity An interest in varied topics and activities, desire to learn, creativeness, and independence in learning. • Demonstrates flexibility, imagination, and inventiveness in approaching tasks and activities. • Demonstrates eagerness to learn about and discuss a range of topics, ideas, and tasks. • Asks questions and seeks new information. u Persistence & attentiVeness The ability to begin and finish activities with persistence and attention. • Maintains interest in a project or activity until completed. • Sets goals and develops and follows through on plans. • Resists distractions, maintains attention, and continues the task at hand through frustration or challenges. u cooPeration An interest and engagement in group experiences. • Plans, initiates, and completes learning activities with peers. • Joins in cooperative play with others and invites others to play. • Models or teaches peers. • Helps, shares, and cooperates in a group. Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 11 rlogic & reasoning Logic & Reasoning refers to the ability to think through problems and apply strategies for solving them. Logic and reasoning skills are an essential part of child development and early learning and a foundation for competence and success in school and other environments. Children’s ability to think, reason, and use information allows them to acquire knowledge, understand the world around them, and make appropriate decisions. In the domain of Logic & Reasoning, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for logic & reasoning for 3 to 5 year olds are: u reasoning & ProBleM solVing The ability to recognize, understand, and analyze a problem and draw on knowledge or experience to seek solutions to a problem. • Seeks multiple solutions to a question, task, or problem. • Recognizes cause and effect relationships. • Classifies, compares, and contrasts objects, events, and experiences. • Uses past knowledge to build new knowledge. u syMBolic rePresentation The use of symbols or objects to represent something else. • Represents people, places, or things through drawings, movement, and three-dimensional objects. • Engages in pretend play and acts out roles. • Recognizes the difference between pretend or fantasy situations and reality. 12 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework rlanguage deVeloPMent Language Development refers to emerging abilities in receptive and expressive language. This domain includes understanding and using one or more languages. Language development is among the most important tasks of the first five years of a child’s life. Language is the key to learning across all domains. Specific language skills in early childhood are predictive of later success in learning to read and write. Also, children who are skilled communicators are more likely to demonstrate social competence. In the domain of Language Development, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for language development for 3 to 5 year olds are: u recePtiVe language The ability to comprehend or understand language. • Attends to language during conversations, songs, stories, or other learning experiences. • Comprehends increasingly complex and varied vocabulary. • Comprehends different forms of language, such as questions or exclamations. • Comprehends different grammatical structures or rules for using language. u exPressiVe language The ability to use language. • Engages in communication and conversation with others. • Uses language to express ideas and needs. • Uses increasingly complex and varied vocabulary. • Uses different forms of language. • Uses different grammatical structures for a variety of purposes. • Engages in storytelling. • Engages in conversations with peers and adults. Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 13 rliteracy Knowledge & sKills Literacy Knowledge & Skills refers to the knowledge and skills that lay the foundation for reading and writing, such as understanding basic concepts about books or other printed materials, the alphabet, and letter-sound relationships. Early literacy is the foundation for reading and writing in all academic endeavors in school. It is considered one of the most important areas for young children’s development and learning. Early literacy learning provides children with an opportunity to explore the world through books, storytelling, and other reading and writing activities. It is a mechanism for learning about topics they enjoy and acquiring content knowledge and concepts that support progress in other domains. It is critical for supporting a range of positive outcomes, including success in school and other environments. In the domain of Literacy Knowledge & Skills, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for literacy knowledge & Skills for 3 to 5 year olds are: u BooK aPPreciation and Knowledge The interest in books and their characteristics, and the ability to understand and get meaning from stories and information from books and other texts. • Shows interest in shared reading experiences and looking at books independently. • Recognizes how books are read, such as front-to-back and one page at a time, and recognizes basic characteristics, such as title, author, and illustrator. • Asks and answers questions and makes comments about print materials. • Demonstrates interest in different kinds of literature, such as fiction and non-fiction books and poetry, on a range of topics. • Retells stories or information from books through conversation, artistic works, creative movement, or drama. u Phonological awareness An awareness that language can be broken into words, syllables, and smaller pieces of sound. • Identifies and discriminates between words in language. • Identifies and discriminates between separate syllables in words. • Identifies and discriminates between sounds and phonemes in language, such as attention to beginning and ending sounds of words and recognition that different words begin or end with the same sound. Continued on next page… 14 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework rliteracy Knowledge & sKills …Continued from previous page u alPhaBet Knowledge The names and sounds associated with letters. • Recognizes that the letters of the alphabet are a special category of visual graphics that can be individually named. • Recognizes that letters of the alphabet have distinct sound(s) associated with them. • Attends to the beginning letters and sounds in familiar words. • Identifies letters and associates correct sounds with letters. u Print concePts & conVentions The concepts about print and early decoding (identifying letter-sound relationships). • Recognizes print in everyday life, such as numbers, letters, one’s name, words, and familiar logos and signs. • Understands that print conveys meaning. • Understands conventions, such as print moves from left to right and top to bottom of a page. • Recognizes words as a unit of print and understands that letters are grouped to form words. • Recognizes the association between spoken or signed and written words. u early writing The familiarity with writing implements, conventions, and emerging skills to communicate through written representations, symbols, and letters. • Experiments with writing tools and materials. • Recognizes that writing is a way of communicating for a variety of purposes, such as giving information, sharing stories, or giving an opinion. • Uses scribbles, shapes, pictures, and letters to represent objects, stories, experiences, or ideas. • Copies, traces, or independently writes letters or words. Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 15 rMatheMatics Knowledge & sKills Mathematics Knowledge & Skills refers to the conceptual understanding of numbers, their relationships, combinations, and operations. Mathematics also includes shapes and their structure; reasoning; measurement; classification; and patterns. Because math is also about generalizations and abstractions, math skills during the early years help children to connect ideas, develop logical and abstract thinking, and to question, analyze, and understand the world around them. Math knowledge, interest, and skills are basic to children’s success in school and later life. Early math skills are highly predictive of later academic achievement in multiple subject areas. In the domain of Mathematics Knowledge & Skills, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for mathematics knowledge & Skills for 3 to 5 year-olds are: u nuMBer concePts & Quantities The understanding that numbers represent quantities and have ordinal properties (number words represent a rank order, particular size, or position in a list). • Recognizes numbers and quantities in the everyday environment. • Recites numbers in the correct order and understands that numbers come “before” or “after” one another. • Associates quantities and the names of numbers with written numerals. • Uses one-to-one counting and subitizing (identifying the number of objects without counting) to determine quantity. • Uses the number name of the last object counted to represent the number of objects in the set. u nuMBer relationshiPs & oPerations The use of numbers to describe relationships and solve problems. • Uses a range of strategies, such as counting, subitizing, or matching, to compare quantity in two sets of objects and describes the comparison with terms, such as more, less, greater than, fewer, or equal to. • Recognizes that numbers (or sets of objects) can be combined or separated to make another number through the grouping of objects. • Identifies the new number created when numbers are combined or separated. Continued on next page… 16 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework rMatheMatics Knowledge & sKills …Continued from previous page u geoMetry & sPatial sense The understanding of shapes, their properties, and how objects are related to one another. • Recognizes and names common shapes, their parts, and attributes. • Combines and separates shapes to make other shapes. • Compares objects in size and shape. • Understands directionality, order, and position of objects, such as up, down, in front, behind. u Patterns The recognition of patterns, sequencing, and critical thinking skills necessary to predict and classify objects in a pattern. • Sorts, classifies, and serializes (puts in a pattern) objects using attributes, such as color, shape, or size. • Recognizes, duplicates, and extends simple patterns. • Creates patterns through the repetition of a unit. u MeasureMent & coMParison The understanding of attributes and relative properties of objects as related to size, capacity, and area. • Compares objects using attributes of length, weight and size (bigger, longer, taller, heavier). • Orders objects by size or length. • Uses nonstandard and standard techniques and tools to measure and compare. Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 17 rscience Knowledge & sKills Science Knowledge & Skills refers to the emerging ability to gather information about the natural and physical world and organize that information into knowledge and theories. Young children are often called natural scientists. Their inclination to be curious, explore, ask questions, and develop their own theories about how the world works makes science an important domain for enhancing learning and school readiness. Science learning during the early childhood years encourages children to discover the world around them and refine their understanding of it. It provides opportunities for rich vocabulary learning and collaboration with peers. It fosters a sense of curiosity and motivation to learn. In the domain of Science Knowledge & Skills, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for Science knowledge & Skills for 3 to 5 year olds are: u scientiFic sKills & Method The skills to observe and collect information and use it to ask questions, predict, explain, and draw conclusions. • Uses senses and tools, including technology, to gather information, investigate materials, and observe processes and relationships. • Observes and discusses common properties, differences, and comparisons among objects. • Participates in simple investigations to form hypotheses, gather observations, draw conclusions, and form generalizations. • Collects, describes, and records information through discussions, drawings, maps, and charts. • Describes and discusses predictions, explanations, and generalizations based on past experience. u concePtual Knowledge oF the natural & Physical world The acquisition of concepts and facts related to the natural and physical world and the understanding of naturally-occurring relationships. • Observes, describes, and discusses living things and natural processes. • Observes, describes, and discusses properties of materials and transformation of substances. 18 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework rcreatiVe arts exPression Creative Arts Expression refers to participation in a range of activities that allow for creative and imaginative expression, such as music, art, creative movement, and drama. The creative arts engage children’s minds, bodies, and senses. The arts invite children to listen, observe, discuss, move, solve problems, and imagine using multiple modes of thought and self-expression. The creative arts provide ways for young children to learn and use skills in other domains. In the domain of Creative Arts Expression, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements of Creative arts expression for 3 to 5 year olds are: u Music The use of voice and instruments to create sounds. • Participates in music activities, such as listening, singing, or performing. • Experiments with musical instruments. u creatiVe MoVeMent & dance The use of the body to move to music and express oneself. • Expresses what is felt and heard in various musical tempos and styles. • Moves to different patterns of beat and rhythm in music. • Uses creative movement to express concepts, ideas, or feelings. u art The use of a range of media and materials to create drawings, pictures, or other objects. • Uses different materials and techniques to make art creations. • Creates artistic works that reflect thoughts, feelings, experiences, or knowledge. • Discusses one’s own artistic creations and those of others. u draMa The portrayal of events, characters, or stories through acting and using props and language. • Uses dialogue, actions, and objects to tell a story or express thoughts and feelings about one’s self or a character. • Uses creativity and imagination to manipulate materials and assume roles in dramatic play situations. Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 19 rsocial studies Knowledge & sKills Social Studies Knowledge & Skills refers to understanding people and how they relate to others and the world around them. Social studies helps children to understand themselves, their families, and communities. Through learning experiences related to history, culture, and the environment, children enhance their self-identity and expand their experiences beyond the walls of their home and early childhood setting. In the domain of Social Studies Knowledge & Skills, programs need to ensure that children who are dual language learners can demonstrate their abilities, skills, and knowledge in any language, including their home language. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for Social Studies knowledge & Skills for 3 to 5 year olds are: u selF, FaMily & coMMunity The understanding of one’s relationship to the family and community, roles in the family and community, and respect for diversity. • Identifies personal and family structure. • Understands similarities and respects differences among people. • Recognizes a variety of jobs and the work associated with them. • Understands the reasons for rules in the home and classroom and for laws in the community. • Describes or draws aspects of the geography of the classroom, home, and community. u PeoPle & the enVironMent The understanding of the relationship between people and the environment in which they live. • Recognizes aspects of the environment, such as roads, buildings, trees, gardens, bodies of water, or land formations. • Recognizes that people share the environment with other people, animals, and plants. • Understands that people can take care of the environment through activities, such as recycling. u history & eVents The understanding that events happened in the past and how these events relate to one’s self, family, and community. • Differentiates between past, present, and future. • Recognizes events that happened in the past, such as family or personal history. • Understands how people live and what they do changes over time. 20 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework renglish language deVeloPMent English Language Development is the development of receptive and expressive English language skills for children who speak a home language other than English. This domain only applies to these children, often referred to as dual language learners (DLLs). Learning English lays the foundation for a successful start as children transition to public school. When children are able to understand and speak some English, they are better prepared to learn from teachers and engage with peers in Englishspeaking environments. Because the home language serves as a foundation for learning English, ongoing development of the home language also is essential. Children who are DLLs typically go through several stages of English language development prior to becoming proficient. The receptive skills usually emerge before the expressive skills. There may be an extended period of time when the child understands some English but relies on the home language as well as gestures and nonverbal means to communicate. During this time, the child is attending to and listening to the English language used in the learning environment and beginning to grasp the fundamentals of the language. Gradually, the child begins to use more English words and phrases, often interspersed with the home language. Over time, the child develops more complex vocabulary and grammar, moving toward English language proficiency. How much time this process takes will vary. It may take several months or several years, depending on the individual child, the home and school language environments, motivation, and other factors. Children will be at different stages in the process when they enter a program, and therefore, the developing path of their receptive and expressive abilities will not be the same. The examples represent behaviors individual children may demonstrate in the process of learning English. KEY r = Domain u = Domain Element • = Example The domain elements for english language development for 3 to 5 year olds are: u recePtiVe english language sKills The ability to comprehend or understand the English language. • Participates with movement and gestures while other children and the teachers dance and sing in English. • Acknowledges or responds nonverbally to common words or phrases, such as “hello” “good bye” “snack time” “bathroom“, when accompanied by adult gestures. • Points to body parts when asked, “Where is your nose, hand, leg…?” Continued on next page… Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old 21 renglish language deVeloPMent …Continued from previous page • Comprehends and responds to increasingly complex and varied English vocabulary, such as “Which stick is the longest?” “Why do you think the caterpillar is hungry?” • Follows multi-step directions in English with minimal cues or assistance. u exPressiVe english language sKills The ability to speak or use English. • Repeats word or phrase to self, such as “bus” while group sings the “Wheels on the Bus” or “brush teeth” after lunch. • Requests items in English, such as “car,” “milk,” “book,” “ball.” • Uses one or two English words, sometimes joined to represent a bigger idea, such as “throwball.” • Uses increasingly complex and varied English vocabulary. • Constructs sentences, such as “The apple is round.” or “I see a fire truck with lights on.” u engageMent in english literacy actiVities Understanding and responding to books, storytelling, and songs presented in English. • Demonstrates eagerness to participate in songs, rhymes and stories in English. • Points to pictures and says the word in English, such as “frog,” “baby,” “run.” • Learns part of a song or poem in English and repeats it. • Talks with peers or adults about a story read in English. • Tells a story in English with a beginning, middle, and end from a book or about a personal experience. 22 The Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework Curriculum-Linked Assessment 7 Adam Hester/Stockbyte/Getty Images Pretest 1. Curriculum-linked assessments are also known as standardized tests. T/F 2. Teachers should receive training to implement commercial curriculum assessments. T/F 3. Teachers should not write their own curriculum-linked assessments. T/F 4. Probes are guiding questions used to assess at the end of instruction. T/F 5. It is not necessary to provide assessment feedback to young children. T/F Answers can be found at the end of the chapter. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1 Curriculum-Linked Assessment Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: ሁሁ ሁሁ ሁሁ ሁሁ ሁሁ Define and explain the purpose of curriculum-linked assessment. Understand and use commercial curriculum and linked assessments. Design, use, and score curriculum-linked assessments according to best practices. Understand progress monitoring and its role in decision making. Explain how to provide assessment feedback to children and parents. Kathy’s classroom of busy 3- and 4-year-olds buzzes with activity. Two children are working at the water table. The manipulatives area has five children engaged with clay. Four children are clustered around the assistant teacher listening to a read-aloud, and the dramatic play area is active with four children who are pretending to be members of a family. Kathy is pleased to see all the students so engaged and clearly enjoying what they are doing. Now that the children have been in school for 3 months, Kathy is really noticing their growth. Sasha is listening intently to the read-aloud (at the beginning of school, he could not sit still for more than a few minutes). Regan and Yasmin are pretending to be moms and caring for their babies in dramatic play (for the first month of school, Regan did not engage with other children at all). At the same time, Kathy notices that Emile is having difficulty squeezing the clay, and Beatriz is getting frustrated that the clay is not forming the exact shapes she wants it to. The children are all demonstrating what they know and what they need to work on in their own unique ways. Kathy wishes that the director of the preschool and the parents could see what she is seeing. She makes mental notes of what she is observing and plans to address students’ strengths and weaknesses in the weeks to come. Introduction Because Kathy does not have a purposeful assessment system in place to document children’s progress within the curriculum, she is unable to effectively communicate the impact of her teaching to important stakeholders. Indeed, Kathy herself may be missing important progress indicators by solely relying on incidental observation to inform her teaching. If Kathy were to use assessments that linked learning (such as Regan’s social skill growth) to her curriculum (such as facilitated dramatic play centers), she would have evidence to accurately and effectively share with her children’s parents and her program administrators. 7.1 Curriculum-Linked Assessment To understand curriculum-linked assessment, it is necessary to define and explain curriculum. Curriculum is every purposeful activity and experience arranged for children to learn developmental or academic knowledge and skills (Gordon & Browne, 2013). It is the substance of teaching and learning. A curriculum may be highly structured and standardized, as in a commercially produced early mathematics program. Or it may be informal and incidental, © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 as in routines-based activities for very young children or when teaching conflict resolution strategies in the heat of the moment on the playground. For example, in the opening vignette, Kathy had created a variety of intentional centers (water table, manipulatives area, read-aloud, dramatic play) in order to support a curriculum focused on play and discovery. Because curricula (plural) can vary so widely, there are numerous ways to assess children’s learning. Certainly, assessments can stand independently of curricula. However, much more authentic information can be gathered if assessments are directly tied to the curriculum itself. This sort of assessment can be referred to as curriculum-linked assessment (CLA), a broad term that involves measuring if students learned what the curriculum aimed to teach, and in doing so, more effectively guiding future instruction. It allows teachers like Kathy to embed assessment within the curriculum’s daily framework and use natural opportunities to document students’ learning or struggles. CLA is exactly what Kathy was missing, a way in which to assess children during the course of a typical day in order to gather data to guide instruction and to share with administrators and parents. This chapter discusses several ways to directly link what is assessed to what is being taught. These will be discussed in the broadest possible terms to account for the unique and sweeping nature of early childhood curriculum. Several terms—such as the widely used curriculumbased assessment (Parker, Burns, McMaster, & Shapiro, 2012), curriculum-based measurement (Hosp, Hosp, & Howell, 2012), and curriculum-based evaluation (Hosp, Hosp, Howell, & Allison, 2014)—refer to matching curricula with assessment of performance related to those curricula. However, these approaches are narrowly linked to specific applications. Therefore, this chapter will use the term curriculum-linked assessment to describe student progress along learning objectives and curriculum activities. Although curriculum-linked assessment is a broad enough term to encompass multiple approaches, it does have clear parameters. In order to examine those specifics, let us look more closely at exactly what CLA is. What Is Curriculum-Linked Assessment? If every intentional activity that takes place in education is part of the curriculum, then these activities should be assessed to determine whether children are making progress in the curriculum. This is done through curriculum-linked assessment. There are two primary types of CLA. One is published and distributed as packaged curriculum, and the other is teacher created. Both types of CLA are useful, complement each other, and will be covered in more detail in Sections 7.2 and 7.3, respectively. It is best to think of CLA as a formative approach that allows EC professionals to make ongoing decisions based on answers to the following questions: • • • • • • • • Are the learning experiences developmentally appropriate? Are children making progress at an acceptable rate? Am I teaching in a way that reaches children? Do some children seem to be struggling? Are the activities I have implemented effective in facilitating learning? Am I spending too little or too much time on a particular learning objective? Do I need to do more to scaffold instruction? Have I provided sufficient review for previously covered curricular topics? The data collected from CLA will help EC teachers answer these questions and make necessary adjustments to instruction. For example, if a teacher wanted to know if children were © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 progressing at an acceptable rate, he or she could look at the data from numerous CLAs over time to judge whether growth was adequate. There are multiple forms of CLA. Some of the most common are performance tasks, written tests, graphic organizers, and behavior checklists, all of which are explained in detail later in this chapter. These forms can be used formally, for scoring purposes, or informally, as formative assessments to guide instruction but not to be formally scored. Purposefully selecting and implementing CLA adds to the overall benefits of CLA. Benefits of Curriculum-Linked Assessment There are many benefits to directly assessing learning as an outcome of children’s exposure to the curriculum. The outcomes of CLA have the ability to guide instruction and inform teaching effectiveness. The more purposefully and frequently teachers use CLA, the more capable they are of fine-tuning instruction to meet students’ learning objectives, which will directly enhance learning outcomes. Think back to the vignette about Kathy’s classroom. Imagine what Kathy could do to guide instruction for her students if she had a feasible way to measure their learning based on the curriculum she was already instructing. For example, Kathy would like her children’s parents and her administrators to “see” what she is seeing, but she has no evidence of growth. If one of her curricular objectives for children is to interact meaningfully with each other, she could design a rating scale that she fills out once a week while observing children at play. In the case of Regan, an early rating of 1 would indicate that she is not interacting with children at all. Three months later, because Regan is pretend playing with one other child, her rating improves to a 5 on a 10-point scale. Sharing this CLA with others would reveal immediately that Regan has made a lot of growth, and it also tells everyone (including Kathy) what is left to learn. Making this link between assessment outcomes and instructional planning is the greatest benefit of CLA; it allows EC professionals to work within their curricula not only to teach their students, but to assess them, too. This ongoing, embedded assessment helps tailor the curriculum, and the curriculum shapes future assessment. Curriculum and assessment work together to create seamless instruction for students. With appropriate background understandings and clear purpose in mind, EC professionals can successfully use CLA in conjunction with any curricula. In one sense it may be said that all instructionally relevant assessment is CLA. The only assessments that may not be considered CLA (which is a criticism of them) are standardized screening, diagnostic, achievement, and ability tests that are not paired with local curricula. Principles to Effectively Use Curriculum-Linked Assessment Like any other assessment, a CLA aims to determine the actual level of achievement or development of a child. The quality of information gleaned from CLAs is affected by an assessor’s skills. There are several best practices principles that can guide educators as they engage in CLA. Training When a program adopts new curricula, or when educators are new to a program, it is necessary to train professionals to implement both the new curricula and linked assessments. This © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 helps ensure validity and reliability (Riley-Ayers, 2014). Too often, schools adopt curricula without fully preparing educators to implement the materials and administer the assessments. For example: Suppose a recently graduated educator was just hired to teach kindergarten at a local school. The school was in its second year working with a new reading program that purported to align with the Common Core. It was the sixth week of school, and the teacher had three vocabulary words on her word wall— the, and, it—the first sight words the children had learned. While learning these words, the children were also working on early letter sounds. Supplementing this early literacy were reading books that contained sentences such as, “I ate a sandwich at lunch,” and “The bus stopped to get the kids.” The teacher had read all the curriculum materials provided and could not figure out how it made sense for her children to “read” this book. Most of the words were unknown to the children, and they had not yet learned the skills necessary to decode unknown words. “Well,” the frustrated teacher said, “I guess I can ask in November when the reading curriculum representative will be here leading a workshop.” Not only did this reading curriculum not make sense to the teacher’s understanding of early literacy instruction, but the school expected teachers to “figure it out for themselves” until a representative was available to provide a workshop on the curriculum, student learning objectives, and related assessment of progress toward those objectives. The gap between implementation (September) and training (November) left teachers frustrated and unprepared to best support their students’ learning. Many commercially developed curricula, such as the one used in the example above, have carefully designed packages for teachers that include instructions, materials, a standardized schedule for conducting assessments, and scoring procedures. This information is field tested by developers to ensure that, by following the procedures outlined in the materials, EC personnel will achieve the highest level of success (Burke, Oats, Ringle, Fichtner, & DelGaudio, 2011; Hamre et al., 2010). This being said, it is critical that teachers receive appropriate training in order to effectively implement the curriculum. This was the problem in the example above. Although the curriculum was field tested and provided clear details for use, the teacher had not been trained in a way in which she could actually use the curriculum to the fullest. The curriculum publisher or in-house specialists (usually other teachers) can provide training and support. Teacher-created CLA also requires training and experience. Because there are a variety of formal and informal CLA formats, it is not only important for EC professionals to be trained in how to use each format most effectively; they should also be trained in how to select the format which is best for individual situations. This training may occur via classes, workshops, mentoring, or self-guided study. Although both commercial and teacher-created CLA require training, the trainings are quite different. Teacher-created CLA formats are generally more obvious and forgiving than standardized CLA because the teacher had a hand in their creation and has a better sense of how they are tied to the curriculum. Both commercially developed and teacher-created CLA formats their own strengths and weaknesses. Different programs, schools, or individuals will have specific reasons for using one approach over the other, or may even use both approaches together. It is important to understand the similarities and differences between these approaches if EC professionals are to make informed choices and fully use CLA in a variety of contexts. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 Continuous Revision CLA is a formative process in which it is expected that assessment outcomes will lead to changes in instruction. This is true for both commercial and teacher-created CLA. However, teacher-created CLA is formative in another way, in that assessment outcomes will lead to changes in the assessment itself (Evans, Zeun, & Stanier, 2014). Educators will find it necessary to revise assessment tools based on each tools’ effectiveness in measuring student outcomes. That is, once a tool is devised, educators may find that the items do not sufficiently or accurately appraise students’ progress. For example, a teacher may design a behavior checklist for gross motor skill development to use when observing her class of toddlers. After attempting to use the checklist with her students, she may notice that the indicators she selected were too vague (for example, walks, grasps objects) and need to be more specific and focused (for example, takes more than 10 steps without assistance; can vary speed—walk and run) in order to collect more accurate and informative data. Worksheets, quizzes, checklists, reading passages, and other means of determining learner outcomes should undergo continuous revision to provide information that will most fully illuminate learning. This process of continual review and revision is only true of teacher-created CLA. Commercial curricula are designed to be implemented in the specific ways in which they are written to ensure the outcomes the programs were designed to produce (validity and reliability). Although EC professionals may find that adaptation is desirable and even necessary at times, it is generally best to faithfully follow standard procedures. Deviating from a prescribed method of assessment could lead to unanticipated outcomes that do not align with the curriculum and may hinder comparisons of progress. Difficulty of Assessment When comparing progress within and across children, educators should consider whether actual or relative progress has been made. Actual progress is measured by giving the same or very similar CLA repeatedly over time to see if a student is growing within a particular skill area. In this case it is important to choose or design assessments that are the same difficulty each time a child is assessed. If a teacher wants to know if a child has mastered single-digit addition of 1s, 2s, and 3s, each CLA for progress should include only items with combinations of these three numerals and approximately the same ratio of each problem (for example, use 1 + 1 , 2 + 3, 3 + 1, and so on, but not 3 + 4 or 5 + 2). On the other hand, if a teacher simply wants to know if a child is making progress relative to a curricular scope and sequence, assessments may progressively become more challenging as children are expected to progressively become more capable. Building on the last example of single-digit addition, in the case of relative progress monitoring, a teacher might assess a student’s mastery of adding 1s, 2s, and 3s one week and 4s, 5s, and 6s the next week, to follow the instruction that was provided over the week. Consequently, the teacher will not know the child’s actual progress from week 1 to week 2 with regard to adding 1s, 2s, and 3s but will be able to see the child’s relative progress in single-digit addition. As always, teachers will want to know what information an assessment is intended to reveal, and to use the right tool for that job. Curriculum Linked to Individual Learning Finding the optimum point within a curriculum for a learner to progress most efficiently assumes that children come to their learning experiences with different levels of preparation © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 and abilities (Darling-Hammond, 2012). Therefore, no curriculum should be viewed as a onesize-fits-all; rather, individual children should access the curriculum at the point at which their knowledge and the curriculum match. Though most children learn in much the same way (if not at the same pace), children often fall at different places within the curriculum. Despite the widely held belief that different children have different learning requirements, the fact is that in most classrooms, most or all of the children are placed in exactly the same lesson within a curriculum at any given point in time. Those children whose knowledge and skills vary substantially from the curriculum are either left to struggle to make sense of the material, are removed from the curriculum completely (that is, put in special education), or go through the motions of completing activities even though they have already mastered the content. If educators had the time and the skills, they would use CLA to pinpoint instruction for all children based on their present progress. CLA can determine if children are in one of three stages of learning—awareness, instructional, or proficiency—and instructional decisions can be made in response to the indicated stage (Merrill, 2002). Children in the awareness stage are still acquiring prerequisite foundational skills. Consequently, they are not yet ready to learn the skill being assessed by the CLA. Consider an observational assessment of letter formation. A child in the awareness stage might still be developing the skills necessary to hold a writing implement or be at the scribble stage of writing, so he or she would not be ready to be taught letter formation. If a child has little possibility of a high level of success due to lack of foundational skills, he or she is not ready for instruction. In the letter-writing example, a teacher would work with this child to build basic writing skills before moving to letter writing. Once a child has the foundational skills necessary for a desired task, a CLA will indicate that the child is at the instructional stage. This means that the child is not yet proficient in the skill but is capable of receiving and responding successfully to instruction in the skill. Building on the previous example, the child is capable of holding a pencil and creating letter-like shapes, possibly even accurately representing some letters. The teacher could provide guidance so the child expands on the letters he or she already knows. Finally, a child who has mastered a skill will demonstrate the proficiency stage when given a CLA. A child at this stage will have fully achieved the skill, such as forming all letters. At this point, the teacher will move on to the next developmentally appropriate skill, possibly putting letters together to form simple words or the child’s name. Using CLA to determine each child’s stage of learning can be very helpful when working to tailor instruction to each student. Using CLA outcomes to plan intervention is at the heart of formative assessment, where children are moved along the curriculum at a pace that matches their learning. CLA data provide the basis for planning intervention in a way that uniquely meets children’s learning needs— that is, planning differentiated instruction (Tomlinson, 2014). Some children may need to have information presented and to practice new skills in a variety of ways before they achieve mastery. Other children need to be given more background knowledge, such as learning vocabulary, before new learning opportunities can make sense. Whenever a teacher changes or adapts instruction based on children’s learning needs, this is called differentiated instruction. In order to learn how best to differentiate for groups or individual children, professionals must rely on the information gleaned from CLA outcomes. Many educators make the mistake of moving on to new learning objectives while children are still in the awareness/instructional stage, where success ranges from 70% to 90%. Although © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 this level of success seems sufficient, and it may be for a short time, the problem is retention. It is not until a child has achieved a very high level of success (95% to 100%) that learning is considered proficient, and there is a high likelihood that the knowledge and skills gained will be retained in both the short and long term. Considerable evidence also suggests that accuracy alone is an insufficient predictor of long-term memory conversion. In addition, children must be able to access and use their knowledge and skills fluently (Burns, Codding, Boice, & Lukito, 2010). In order to avoid this pitfall, EC professionals need to make sure that students achieve proficiency on at least one CLA per skill before moving on to the next skill. Although this is sometimes difficult when using commercial materials, well-developed curricula will include opportunities for re-teaching and/or revisiting skills that are at the awareness or instruction stage until students reach the proficiency stage. The Mythology of Errors It is a commonly held belief that children (and adults) learn from their mistakes. Some even posit that humans learn more from errors than they do from completing a new task correctly the first time. Although it may be that there is value in making occasional errors and that persistence or pushing through a difficult learning curve has value in building character, there is no evidence to suggest that making many errors over long periods of time adds value to learning (Hattie, 2013). By contrast, there is evidence to suggest that children who experience limited success in learning begin to avoid learning opportunities (Orkin, 2013). When students disengage from learning, they perpetuate their struggles. A student’s struggles impact not only the student, but the teacher, too. Research indicates that teachers tend to respond to the errors of struggling students differently than the errors of proficient learners (McIntyre, 2010). Inadvertently, teachers begin to employ harmful practices, such as interrupting students and giving students the answers, rather than scaffolding their learning. Consequently, a student who achieves limited success may experience a cycle of failure that is actually perpetuated by the teacher’s negative responses. CLA is valuable for the way it can disrupt this cycle of failure. When teachers use CLA outcomes to revise instruction, students are given the opportunity to revisit areas in which they struggle. This allows students to feel competent, keeping them engaged in learning and minimizing unnecessary struggle. Furthermore, as previously mentioned, students who reach proficiency are more likely to demonstrate short- and long-term retention, so success leads to future success and deeper learning. Curriculum-Linked Assessment and Review CLA can also be used in another way to support long-term retention. Because human memories tend to degrade over time, regular review of previously learned knowledge refreshes and increases the longevity of memories (Lindsey, Shroyer, Pashler, & Mozer, 2014). In educational settings this review comes in the form of periodic assessments, both formal and informal, that should begin as soon as instruction does. Such reviews of curriculum-specific learning can and should come in multiple forms, such as written, verbal, kinesthetic, group, and so on, to ensure a variety of learning experiences through which students can make connections to material. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 Curriculum-Linked Assessment and Learning Objectives All relevant CLAs are based on well-defined learning objectives or learning outcomes. Commercially designed programs usually include predetermined learning objectives, which may or may not be sufficient for teaching. For example, an objective may be too broad, encompassing many months of learning, or may not include all the subskills that are of importance to an educator. If learning objectives are insufficient, educators may make the objectives more relevant by modifying them or adding new ones. Whether commercially developed or teacher developed, all learning objectives should align with developmental and/or state standards (Hosp et al., 2014). Learner objectives are most helpful when they are explicit. Suppose a traveler wanted to make a trip but did not establish a destination prior to embarking. The traveler would not know where he or she was going, whether he or she had reached the destination, or the most efficient route to take. It is the same with teaching. First, we must know precisely what knowledge or skills children should learn (behavior). We must also know if children have actually learned the knowledge or skills (criterion), and we must plan to provide children with the most efficient means of learning through effective teaching methods (condition). Defining the Condition Using the terms behavior, criterion, and condition, it is possible to define the critical attributes of a clear learning objective. Although there are different ways of writing objectives, the framework described here is the most explicit. Objectives include the conditions under which behaviors are expected to occur. A condition occurs prior to a behavior and provides the context within which a behavior can be expected to take place. These contextual conditions may include verbal or written instructions, learning materials, and setting (such as a water table). These conditions may also include the curriculum and instruction methods or a cue given prior to a behavior that prompts a child. The condition may be identified as a “given.” Examples of conditions include: Given role-playing instruction; Given a 3-week unit on counting to 5; Given pictures of basic shapes. The condition contextualizes the behavior being assessed. It is important to write clear, specific conditions to accurately frame objectives. For instance, stating, “Given 2 weeks of wholegroup instruction during circle time,” is far more precise than simply saying, “Given instruction.” A clear condition will flow smoothly into a description of the behavior. Describing the Behavior The second part of an objective is a description of the behavior itself. In order to assess progress toward mastery of an objective, the behaviors must be described in a way that will allow EC personnel to measure or quantify them (count, rank, time, and so on). Sometimes educators use terms like learn, know, or understand in writing learning objectives. Although we do want children to learn, know, and understand, these terms are not quantifiable, and educators cannot use them to directly measure progress. To make behaviors quantifiable, educators should describe target behaviors using verbs. For example, to measure a child’s understanding of prepositions (over, under, in, and out), an educator would describe the behaviors as follows: © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Curriculum-Linked Assessment Section 7.1 • Child can verbally label objects in relation to other objects. • Child can move objects over, under, in, and out as instructed. • Child can draw circles over, under, in, and out of each other as instructed. A teacher can hear or see the child verbally labeling, moving, and drawing objects. A second consideration when writing about behavior is to precisely describe the behavior. If too vague, there will be no way of knowing if mastery has been achieved. For example, the objective “Ed will count,” is little better than having no objective at all. But does the educator want Ed to count Reflection to 1, 2, or 50? Will Ed count by rote, or will Ed count objects? Will Ed count by 2s, 5s, or 10s? A better, more Evaluate the following behavioral description: explicit description of counting might be written as, “Ed “Understands social conventions during play.” Is will count aloud by rote from 1 to 20.” Precise descripthis an effective description? Why or why not? tions allow educators to easily measure a child’s behavior. Determining the Criterion The final element of a learning objective is the criterion for success. A criterion is a threshold that indicates when a child has met the learning objective or achieved mastery. This part of the objective is usually expressed as a number and should be written in a way that aligns with the best method of assessing progress for this particular objective. For example, if a behavior is best assessed by counting the number of times a child is successful out of a number of opportunities, the criterion would be stated as a percentage or ratio. If a teacher wants to know if a child has learned to spell his or her name correctly out loud (behavior), the criterion should be more challenging than one correct spelling by the child. A more rigorous criterion would be, “Child spells name correctly out loud 90% of the time” (italics indicate criterion). While this is a strong criterion, it does not specify over what period of time the child achieves 90%. Just because a child spells his or her name correctly 90% of the time on Tuesday does not mean he or she will be as successful the following Tuesday. To ensure that behavior does not have to be retaught, a teacher should provide opportunities to reinforce learning over several weeks. A criterion that includes time for reinforcement would be written, “Child spells name correctly out loud with 90% accuracy as measured weekly for 4 consecutive weeks.” In general, the more rigorous the criterion, the more confident a professional may be that, once reached, the knowledge or skills targeted will not have to be retaught at some later point. Much of the reason that children require remedial instruction is that they fail to achieve an appropriately challenging criterion the first time skills or behaviors are taught. It is helpful to have a framework for putting the learning objective elements into a single statement. Table 7.1 provides the framework and examples. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1 Curriculum-Linked Assessment Table 7.1: Framework for building learning objectives Objective Condition Student Behavior Criterion Objective 1 Given circle time 3 days a week preschool children will Objective 2 Given daily roll call kindergarten child will sustain attention when adults are the focus of the activity for 70% of the time for a 15 minute activity on 3 out of 4 consecutive days count by rote from 1 to 20 with 100% accuracy as measured weekly on 3 consecutive weekly measurements Objective 3 Given a 3-week unit on counting to 20 student will spell name out loud correctly with 90% accuracy as measured weekly for 4 consecutive weeks Challenge Write two different learning objectives (one social and one academic or developmental) using the framework below: Given , . will with Scoring Curriculum-Linked Assessment There are generally two ways to interpret CLA outcomes—qualitatively and quantitatively. A qualitative assessment is used when an educator wants to analyze the quality of a child’s work compared to previous work, against benchmarks, or against the work of other children. For example, handwriting must be evaluated qualitatively, since a teacher will want to know, among other things, if a child has made progress forming letters compared with previous handwriting samples, how the sample compares to the form of the actual letter, and how the sample compares to peers’ samples. Each of these evaluations offers opportunities for the teacher to adjust instruction to help the student progress toward handwriting proficiency. CLA may also be collected as or converted to quantitative scores. The simplest way to score is to count student behaviors. Examples of behaviors to count might include the number of blocks stacked, number of letters named, number of ideas a child can retell from a story, and number of details in a painting. The technical term for this type of scoring is event sampling or event recording, whereby an observer counts or tallies the number of instances in which a behavior occurs (see Chapter 4). Thus, an educator counting the number of correct addition problems completed on a worksheet would record the number of events. This score is often reported simply as a ratio of the number of correct math problems to the total number of math problems (for example, 8 correct out of 10 total, or 8/10). If a teacher wanted to compare progress on event samplings across time, it would be important that the number of opportunities or total number of problems (as well as the type of © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.1 Curriculum-Linked Assessment problems) remained the same from assessment to assessment. In other words, if a teacher recorded two spelling work samples as 8 correct, when the first represented 8 of 10 words and the second represented 8 of 15 words, using only the number 8 to represent both performances would be misleading. Reporting 8 correct in both cases would suggest that the two scores indicated consistent spelling performance. To directly compare the two scores, each can be converted to percentage scores. In our example 8/10 would be converted to 80% and 8/15 to 53%. Now it is clear that the first spelling score was significantly better (80%) than the second (53%). Case Study A preschool teacher wants to determine the percentage of understandable words Setsuko, a 4-year-old English language learner, uses during mealtime. For 3 days the teacher takes dictation of Setsuko’s mealtime conversation and counts the total number of words Setsuko said during the 20-minute meal each day. Day 1: 27 total words Day 2: 28 total words Day 3: 29 total words In a fraction, the largest number is the denominator, so for our fractions the total number of words for each day becomes the denominator. /27 /28 /29 Next, the teacher counts the words Setsuko uses that are understandable. Setsuko produced 26, 27, and 27 words that the teacher understood. To complete the ratio, these smaller numbers, which represent a subset of the total number of words, become the numerators. Day 1: 26/27 = Day 2: 27/28 = Day 3: 27/29 = Next, divide the numerator by the denominator. Day 1: 26/27 = .96 Day 2: 27/28 = .96 Day 3: 27/29 = .93 Finally, multiply the decimals by 100 to get the percentages. Day 1: .96 x 100 = 96% Day 2: .96 x 100 = 96% Day 3: .93 x 100 = 93% An analysis of the three successive days suggests that Setsuko is nearing a consistent level of proficiency (95% to 98%). © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Commercially Designed Curricula and Linked Assessment Section 7.2 7.2 Commercially Designed Curricula and Linked Assessment There is a vast array of commercially available curriculum programs. Some of the most common are HighScope, Creative Curriculum, and Direct Instruction. These programs were each designed by curriculum developers and field tested in actual EC settings. They are marketed and sold as programs that include teacher’s manuals, instructional materials, and embedded assessments. Consequently, it is possible for teachers with varying levels of experience and in many different settings to implement the curriculum with fidelity, which makes it manageable to compare data produced by these programs across children and schools. It is also easy to examine an individual child’s progress over time. Advantages to Using Commercially Designed Curricula The features just described are among the most obvious of using a commercially designed curriculum. Much of the “legwork” of curriculum and assessment design has been done for teachers, so they can put their efforts toward effective implementation. The ability to readily use comparison data is also regarded as an advantage. Because EC teachers do not have to be licensed educators in all states, and because EC professional preparation programs vary from state to state, using a commercial curriculum can provide a clear instructional plan for teachers, which can minimize or eliminate variables such as teacher preparation. Additionally, well-designed commercial curricula will be thoroughly aligned with early learning standards and have objectives geared toward meeting these standards. Individual EC professionals do not usually select and adopt a commercial curriculum. Rather, schools, programs, or districts choose a commercial curriculum for all of their teachers to use. The advantage of using a commercial curriculum in this way is the alignment within and across instructional settings. For instance, a program could be adopted for 18-month-old to 4-year-old learners in order to create a seamless progression of skills over many years. Or an entire program throughout a large urban area could decide to use the same pre-K program to support transient students who may move frequently and on short notice. Doing so would allow them to experience a consistent curriculum, regardless of which program they were in from day to day. Limitations of Commercially Designed Curricula It is worth mentioning that little research has been conducted to evaluate the actual effectiveness of most commercial EC curricula (Lonigan, Farver, Phillips, & Clancy-Menchetti, 2011). Consequently, it cannot be assumed that commercial curricula are any more (or less) effective than teacher-created curricula. Although curriculum selection is not within the scope of this text, it is relevant to note that the quality of a preschool curriculum can either benefit child development or, if weak, have lasting negative effects on children (Barnett, 2011). It is for this reason that EC professionals need to look closely at data produced by curricula that they are asked to use to make sure it yields desired results. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Teacher-Designed Assessment Linked to Curriculum Section 7.3 Challenge Imagine that you are a preschool teacher and a parent comes to you with questions about the curriculum you have been given to teach. The parent is concerned that the curriculum is inappropriate for young children and does not offer you enough freedom to do what you think is best for your students. How might you respond to this parent? 7.3 Teacher-Designed Assessment Linked to Curriculum A great deal of formative assessment conducted by teachers comes from their own design. Sometimes these teacher-designed assessments are in the form of worksheets, timelines, writing activities, mind maps, and graphic organizers. Other assessments—such as checklists, quizzes, and tests—are specifically used to monitor progress. Teacher-Developed Assessments Many early elementary educators regularly use forms of assessment such as worksheets and teacher-made tests. In order for these paper-mediated forms of assessment to be most developmentally appropriate and effective, EC professionals can keep the following list of guidelines in mind when designing them: 1. Assessments should be purposeful and have a constant focus on meaningful learner outcomes. 2. Assessments should match children’s development, language, and modality. If necessary, an assessment should be modified or administered differently for children who are not native English speakers and for children with cognitive and physical disabilities. 3. Items included on the assessment should be similar to the skills taught. Often teachers model one type of skill, and then have students practice on problems that do not resemble the examples given (see Figure 7.1). Although the skill the teacher asks students to practice might be important, if it is much more complicated than the example modeled, some children will struggle to generalize the rule to the more complex example. Therefore, the assessment must align with the skill being taught. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Teacher-Designed Assessment Linked to Curriculum Section 7.3 Figure 7.1: Assessment of sorting ሁሁ A teacher models sorting objects by color and shape (A). Students are then assessed by being asked to sort by function (B). Although this skill is important and an extension of sorting by color, it is much more complicated, and many children will not make this generalization of the rule. A. B. 55 50 25 20 5 15 5 10 10 15 45 20 40 35 30 25 4. Each assessment should include a range of problems that include both easy (previously learned content) and more challenging items (new content). A phenomenon known as behavioral momentum occurs when children who succeed at easy problems are presented with more challenging ones. That is, their success builds confidence, which enables them to tackle tougher problems. For children who need additional challenges, problems should ask children to put skills and knowledge to use in ways they have not been specifically taught. For example, if children are learning addition facts for 3s, an assessment might look like Figure 7.2. © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Section 7.3 Teacher-Designed Assessment Linked to Curriculum Figure 7.2: Assessment combining easy and challenging problems ሁሁ In this example, more difficult problems (those whose answers exceed 9) have been noted in red. This is just for instructional purposes and would not be done on students’ assessments. Find the answer to the following problems 1+2= 1+1= 3+8= 2+9= 2+7= 3+2= 2+3= 3+9= 3+3= 2+4= 3+7= 3+6= 2+2= 5+3= 3+4= 1+8= 5. Different depths of children’s understandings should be assessed. Just as teachers want to provide experiences for learning that will cross many levels of cognitive understanding, they should also strive to assess children’s acquisition of knowledge at these different levels. Bloom’s revised taxonomy (see Figure 7.3) provides a framework for assessment at these different levels. Although the taxonomy is often described as moving from lower level understanding (the bottom of the pyramid) to higher level understanding (the top of the pyramid), teachers should not assume that one is more necessary than another. In fact, understanding builds from simple to complex, so assessment should assess both foundational knowledge as well as more complex uses of knowledge. For example, after exploring pets, preschoolers could be asked to name five pets they learned about (remembering) and then explain which pet they like the best and why (evaluating). Figure 7.3: Bloom’s revised taxonomy ሁሁ Bloom’s revised taxonomy illustrates six levels of thinking that range from basic (remembering, understanding, applying) to higher order (analyzing, evaluating, creating). Creating Evaluating Analyzing Applying Understanding Remembering © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. Teacher-Designed Assessment Linked to Curriculum Section 7.3 6. Assessments can come from a variety of sources. Colleagues may have assessments that they have used successfully. There are also many teacher websites that provide ideas for creating assessments or offer free assessment tools that will directly or closely align with instructional objectives at every level. As teachers are already very busy, it makes sense to borrow great ideas whenever these are offered for free. Sixteen of the most useful websites that provide teachers with resources for linking curricula and assessment can be found at: http://www.educatorstechnology. com/2012/08/great-teacher-websites.html. It is important to evaluate the free assessments for copyright status as well as to ensure that the tools meet the criteria for effective assessment described in this section. 7. Assessments can be used in portfolios. Whenever assessment can serve both a formative and a summative purpose and give immediate and incremental information, educators save time and effort without sacrificing assessment quality. Figure 7.4 illustrates the relationship between characteristics of performance assessment and traditional summative assessments, and the overlapping characteristics of assessments that are both formative and summative. Figure 7.4: Portfolio assessment of name writing probed across the academic year ሁሁ This assessment of name writing from across the year can also be used as a portfolio artifact. Date My name is: Faith 9/5 11/4 1/15 3/24 EC professionals who can be conscientious of the criteria on this list will be better able to construct paper-mediated ...