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Using information from this week's readings and other assigned readings, develop an argument as to whether or not governing bodies of intercollegiate athletics (NCAA, conferences, academic institutions) have their athletes' best-interests at hand. Be sure to discuss both the student AND athlete identities.

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CHAPTER 28 BEST PRACTICES in CAREER TRANSITION PROGRAMMING for COLLEGE ATHLETES Kristina M. Navarro KEY TERMS higher education intercollegiate athletics career development college athlete experience career transitions Today, higher education student affairs professionals are charged to understand the challenges and needs of a diverse student body. These professionals must also prepare a diverse group of students for the inevitable transition to career fields in life after their higher education experience. In turn, college career development programs now exist to assist students not only to develop their academic talents and transferrable skill sets during college, but also to prepare them for life after this transition (National Career Development Association, 2013). Today the National Career Development Association (NCDA) offers specific training to prepare higher education professionals as certified Career Development Facilitators. Current student affairs professionals who possess this certification demonstrate mastery in 12 core competencies to assisting individuals with transition from school to work or between career fields (NCDA, 2013). Higher education professionals must seek to further understand the challenges that certain student populations experience during college to best prepare them for lifelong success as professionals in a volatile economy and competitive job market. Savickas et al. (2009) suggest competition in the contemporary job markets is exacerbated by the globalization of economies and rapid advances in information technology. In turn, it is of enhanced importance to understand how athletes navigate processes of career development throughout their higher education experience and how student affairs professionals can best prepare these individuals for impending challenges as they transition to the work force. CAMPUS ENGAGEMENT AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES Reason, Terenzini, and Domingo (2006) posit the college years are vitally important to processes of career development. The authors suggest students experience significant periods of cognitive and social development as they engage with the college environment. Consistently, research suggests that many students face multidimensional adjustment processes as they cognitively adjust to the rigor of college work, emotionally discover a new sense of identity, and psychosocially establish peer groups (Keup, 2007; Kidwell, 2005; Reason et al., 2006). Furthermore, Gaston-Gayles and Hu (2009) suggest athletes, a population nested within the general higher education student body, face unique challenges that influence their holistic development potential during college. In turn, Gaston-Gayles and Hu (2009) posit the level to which undergraduate students engage in educationally sound activities influences career readiness (i.e., identification with roles outside of sports and ability to transfer skill sets in college to the work force). Regardless of student group affiliation, higher education literature suggests universities need to support students via holistic campus-wide career development programming to lay the groundwork for long-term career success (Baille & Danish, 1992; Keup, 2007; Kidwell, 2005). Considering students face multifaceted challenges during their higher education experience, scholars continue to the note the importance of student engagement to future career preparation. Jordan and Denison (1990) suggest engagement outside of the confines of the classroom can best prepare students for life after college in career fields as they are able to encounter and explore diverse career alternatives via experiential learning. Donahue (2004) and Reason et al. (2006) further support this notion and add that experiential exercises outside the classroom (i.e., practicum and experiential learning assignments) can help students to develop a sense of community and enhance consideration of diverse career alternatives. Such experiential learning activities enable students to develop interpersonal connections and network with potential employers early in their higher education experience. Overall, engagement outside of the classroom is viewed as beneficial to career exploration as students explore viable career alternatives outside of typical environments. CAREER DEVELOPMENT AS AN EVOLUTIONARY PRO-CESS Contemporary college career development practitioners continue to reflect Baldwin and Blackburn’s (1981) foundational position that career development programming must be viewed as a process rather than an isolated program or experience. This framework is acknowledged today as a best practice in the field of higher education and career development (NCDA, 2013). While career development theorists differ in specific approaches to career development, findings generally support the notion that career development is a dynamic, psychosocial process rather than a static phase of life (Baldwin & Black, 1981; Hall & Nougaim, 1968; Osborn, Howard, & Leierer, 2007; Savickas, 2002, 2005). Since career development is a very individualized construct, career development programs and interventions are complex (Baldwin & Blackburn, 1981). Overall career development literature suggests career programming must consider the needs and interests of a diverse student population in order to be effective (Baldwin & Blackburn, 1981; Hall & Nougaim, 1968; Osborn et al., 2007). In turn, the National Career Development Association continues to consider this foundational literature and philosophy of career development being an evolutionary process as it presents guiding competencies and benchmarks for contemporary career programming (NCDA, 2013). Contemporary Literature on Career Development Programs Today scholars continue to grapple with how to best implement career programs across the higher education experience. In turn, best practices in career program delivery continue to be a highly debated issue in the current literature. Reese and Miller (2006) suggest that highly structured career development programs best reach diverse undergraduate populations. To assess the effects of specific programming designed to promote career decisionmaking efficacy, Reese and Miller (2006) studied a group of 30 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory career development course. The results demonstrated that athletes who took the course perceived they had a higher level of career decisiveness, specifically with respect to setting career goals and creating a career trajectory plan. Similarly, Davis and Horne (1986) and Garis and Niles (1990) suggest that career courses enhance the educational experience and the transition from higher education to careers. Garis and Niles (1990) demonstrate students’ desire for career development programming that is highly structured and intentional. Davis and Horne (1986) similarly demonstrate in a study on undergraduate students at four-year institutions that highly structured programming best prepares students for impending transitions to career fields. Clearly, undergraduate athletes reveal throughout these studies that intentional and structured career development programs are beneficial to their transition to life after college. STAKEHOLDER PERSPECTIVE Best Practices in Career Transitions Kelli Richards is a career development coordinator and academic advisor for Division I athletes at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. A former Division I college volleyball player at Northwestern University, she earned an undergraduate degree in human development and psychological services and a master’s of education degree in counseling psychology from Wisconsin. She currently works with the Peer Mentorship and Freshmen Experience components of a formalized four-year athlete career development curriculum nested within the Badger Life Skills Academy. Reflecting on her experiences with athletes, Kelli discusses the importance of college student affairs professionals taking a holistic approach to the development of athletes as they transition from high school to college and college to career fields. She notes athletes often come to campus unaware of the many career resources available to them. Kelli views her primary role as a career development coordinator in athletics as assisting athletes with processes of career exploration, choice, and preparation for a lifetime of success after sport. She highlights the Badger Life Skills Academy as a crucial program to foster personal development and career decision-making skills over the course of the college experience. As well, she notes that maintaining athletic eligibility is a reality professionals in her field must be cognizant of as they advise athletes, but this approach cannot be the sole focus of decision-making processes. Kelli feels her foundational training as a student affairs and certified Career Development Facilitator enables her to assist students to develop a holistic action plan for success during college as well as in their aspiring career fields. Building on this growing trend to develop intentional career programming, a study conducted by the National Association of College and Employers in 1998 concludes more than half of the four-year institutions surveyed support formal career development courses (Collins, 1998). According to Collin’s research, this number continues to increase as faculty and administrators provide career development program opportunities in the form of courses for credit. As students demonstrate a need and desire for intentional career development programming, higher education student affairs practitioners must continue to develop and sustain such programming. Career Theory When focusing on how to design career development programming, the theoretical contributions of John Holland often guide higher education programmatic decisions. Holland (1997) draws a clear connection between one’s personality and environment. His theoretical framework continues to be regarded as one of the most influential in the field of career counseling. Holland’s theory is manifested in a career assessment tool that enables students to understand individual interests and obtain career clarity through categorization of strengths and weaknesses, as well as likes and dislikes. Gottfredson (1981) notes that while Holland’s assessment tool is commonly used in organizational behavior disciplines, this framework and assessment tool is also beneficial to students during their higher educational experience. He further posits this tool enables students to reflect on strengths and weaknesses and to understand how their skill set fits certain majors and career fields. Many student affairs practitioners draw on this tool as they create and implement career development programming for students. However, this tool is not tailored to specific needs of diverse populations, namely, athletes. In addition, this tool is considered outdated according to Savickas’s (2002) Career Construction Theory, in which students should not be classified into categories; rather, they should be seen as consistently growing and acquiring new tools in response to life experiences. Additional research discussing career development as an evolutionary process notes the importance for students to develop self-efficacy or confidence in career decision making during their college experience. Paulson and Betz (2004) studied 627 undergraduate students measuring six variables of confidence. The findings revealed that low levels of confidence in career decision making among students can be tied to low levels of confidence in academic skills acquired during their educational process (Taylor & Betz, 1983). Paulson and Betz (2004) posit students who develop poor self-esteem in the classroom due to academic defeat can continue to experience difficulty with respect to career confidence in career decision-making processes (i.e., career decision exploration, choice, and preparation). Therefore, it is of heightened importance to engage students in career development skill set acquisition from the foundational first year and throughout their college years. Student engagement is not only related to academic-related endeavors but also career-related activities to enhance self-esteem; confidence is paramount to facilitate the multistage career decision-making process. Overall, college students are placed in an environment that lends itself to development and change. The higher education experience is often referred to as a time of intense adaptation, life change, and a need to overcome challenges (Keup, 2007; Kidwell, 2005; Reason et al., 2006). Moreover, as students navigate this new environment and adapt to life experiences, they garner foundational transferrable skills for success in life after college. However, intentional career programming is also needed to guide students. In turn, it is beneficial for student affairs practitioners who work with diverse student groups to design career development programming while considering the multifaceted development that takes place during the college experience and the evolutionary process of career development (Baldwin & Blackburn, 1981; Hall & Nougaim, 1968; Osborn et al., 2007; Savickas, 2002). CONTEMPORARY COLLEGE ATHLETES AND CAREER TRANSITIONS For certain population subsets, namely, athletes, career transitions take on additional meaning. As athletes approach this transition from higher education to career fields, they also face an inevitable end to the college athletic experience. For many, nearing the end of one’s athletic career further complicates the impending transition to life after sport. According to the NCAA’s most recent study on the estimated probability of athletes pursuing professional sports, on average less than 3% of athletes who participate in college sports will eventually pursue professional careers in their sport (NCAA, 2011). Regardless of participation in intercollegiate athletics, the transition from college to the real world is viewed as both difficult and transformational for young adults (Harrison & Lawrence, 2004). THE COLLEGE ATHLETE EXPERIENCE For many students, college is a frightening and overwhelming experience, full of challenges and change. Kidwell (2005) notes that all college students must study for college-level exams, live away from home, and create new social networks. However, researchers who focus on the athlete population argue athletes’ experiences in college are different from the experiences of nonathletes (Howard-Hamilton & Watt, 2001). Such challenges are posited to separate athletes from general population students. These include: the internal need to balance roles as student and athlete (Adler & Adler, 1987); a psychosocial affinity to identify with athletic roles (Adler & Adler, 1987); external feelings of isolation from the student body and faculty (Broughton & Neyer, 2001); and external pressure to maintain athletic eligibility in the big-business college sports environment at the expense of academic goals (Lapchick, 2006). CASE STUDY Toward an Understanding of College Athlete Career Construction Processes Researchers highlight college athletes, a specific subset of individuals nested within the general student body, who face additional challenges with respect to constructing meaningful career plans. As such, this qualitative case study employed a multiple semistructure interview method to explore the life experiences of 29 senior athletes at a large midwestern university. Framed from a constructivist epistemology, findings of this phenomenological study were guided by Savickas’s (2005) Career Construction Theory. Personal narratives were collected via 29 semistructured individual interviews and analyzed by employing pattern and process coding techniques to develop cognitive mind maps for each participant. Collectively these cognitive mind maps illustrated how athletes construct individual career paths and engage in career decision-making processes during their higher education experience. The findings demonstrated that all of the participants in this case study viewed undergraduate academic major choice as a fundamental component of career choice and preparation. For example, participants discussed the importance of an academic major to provide transferrable skill sets to career fields in life after sport. In addition, this case study confirmed previous findings in athlete development literature centering on themes of role conflict (Adler & Adler, 1987) and athletic eligibility concerns (Case, Greer, & Brown, 1987; Fountain & Finley, 2009, 2011). First, participants stated they faced an internal psychosocial struggle to balance the dual roles of student and athlete during their higher education experience. This role conflict was most prevalent with individuals who participated in the revenue-generating sports of football, as well as men’s hockey and basketball. Second, 59% of athlete participants discussed eligibility and time constraints during college limited their ability to fully engage in career construction process. Participants also discussed their difficulty in choosing academic majors that not only assisted with eligibility but also directly related to future career aspirations, and engaging in campus-wide career preparation programs. Likewise, participants noted the time commitment of Division I athletics was a primary reason to pursue less labor-and time-intensive majors and thus rely solely on athletic department career support. Findings from this case study also confirm previous studies that suggest the time commitment of Division I athletics influences athletes’ drive to pursue degree paths that often fail to align with future career aspirations (e.g., Case, Greer, & Brown, 1987; Fountain & Finley, 2009, 2011; Renick, 1974). Subsequently, these internal and external struggles athletes’ face during college implicate how they construct career identities and prepare for life after sport. Continued analyses of athlete career construction processes can guide contemporary student affairs practitioners as they advise this special population of students. Blann (1985), Kennedy, and Dimmick (1987), Murphy, Petitpas, and Brewer (1996), and Sowa and Gressard (1983) argue athletes struggle to dedicate sufficient time and resources to further career and postgraduate plans throughout their higher education experience. They posit the lack of time dedicated to career exploration can result in a lower perceived level of career maturity upon graduation. This failure to explore opportunities outside of comfortable skill sets can limit the career construction process with respect to potential career choices. Overall, literature on the college athlete experience suggests additional support is necessary for athletes to prepare for this life transition. Since athletes may rely to a greater extent on support services internal to athletic departments, it is imperative for higher education professionals to understand the complexities of this special population and develop intentional programs that best assist with this impending transition. CONCLUSION This chapter considers Division I athletes’ preparation for life after their undergraduate programs of study. Discussion of the higher education literature presents clear themes and recommendations for practitioners. In this section, I highlight specific recommendations for higher education practitioners who work closely with athletes. Astin (1999), Gaston-Gayles and Hu (2009), and Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) suggest that one of the most influential factors to the personal development of students during college is engaging in purposeful activities to facilitate a holistic student experience. In this sense, intentionally engaging with career preparation activities during the undergraduate experience is critically important. However, researchers must continue to probe just how athletes, who face these additional internal and external challenges during college, engage purposefully with campus career development resources to prepare for their respective career fields (Miller & Kerr, 2003). Scholars and practitioners alike continue to suggest intentional programming during college is necessary to prepare students for life after college in career fields. Three recommendations are presented for contemporary practitioners who work with athlete populations. First, given the importance of intentional focus on career preparation for this population, practitioners who work with athlete populations must work to achieve a stronger balance between athletic-specific and campus-wide career development initiatives. As intercollegiate athletic practitioners seek to best incorporate evidence-based seminars, courses, and workshops into athletes’ weekly routines, they should consider the athlete voice to determine how time can be best spent. Moreover, findings from Baille and Danish (1992), Gaston-Gayles and Hu (2009), Lally and Kerr (2005), Kennedy and Dimmick (1987), and Navarro (2012) illustrate that confining athletes solely to athleticspecific programming may inhibit networking opportunities and long-term career preparation. Moving forward, athletic practitioners may seek to engage in intentional professional development activities with both campus-wide student affairs professionals and potential employers to best serve athletes as they prepare for life after sport. For example, rather than athlete-specific career fair events, athletic student affairs professionals may seek to work with campus-based academic units to engage athletes in campus-wide career events. Second, Baldwin and Blackburn (1981), Hall and Nougaim (1968), Osborn et al. (2007), and Savickas (2002) discuss the importance of viewing career development as an evolutionary process. Therefore, it is suggested that athletic practitioners work to provide career programming throughout the four-year experience as athletes will begin to cognitively understand the importance of preparing for the transition to life after sport at different times. While career development programs can often be of greatest focus for students in their senior year as the impending transition draws near, practitioners must emphasize the importance of gradual preparation for this life change. By modeling an evolutionary approach to career development, practitioners can assist students to cognitively process and prepare for transition to career fields. In turn, athlete populations may begin to understand the transition to life after sport is not just the end of their athletic participation but the beginning of a successful career as a contributor to society. Third, findings from Adler and Adler (1987), Blann (1985), Kennedy and Dimmick (1987), Murphy et al. (1996), Sowa and Gressard (1983), and the included case study on career development patterns of athletes posit athletes’ sense of urgency to prepare for this transition appears to be further complicated as athletic responsibilities often take precedence over personal and career development. In turn, practitioners may consider making select career development programming a mandatory educational experience for athletes to ensure some focus is given to this area amid other role expectations. For example, higher education professionals may consider exploring an undergraduate course for credit that facilitates personal assessments to understand personal strengths and weaknesses, as well as likes and dislikes. According to the findings from the case study, contemporary athletes continue to view academic major selection as a foundational component of career preparation. Yet Case, Greer, and Brown (1987) and Fountain and Finley (2011) argue that they fail to select majors that adequately align with career aspirations. In turn, a course for credit may also include a distinct focus on exploring possible academic majors across campus to ensure proper consideration of alternatives.
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Running head: PLIGHT OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETES

Plight of Intercollegiate Athletes
Institution Affiliation
Date

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PLIGHT OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETES

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Athletes' Interests
My position: Intercollegiate athletics governing bodies such as NCAA, conferences, and
academic institutions do not have their athletes' best interests at hand.
From the reading, it is clear that NCAA and othe...


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